Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Avrasya Yer Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ayazağa 34469, İstanbul,
Turkey; email: sengor@itu.edu.tr, tuysuz@itu.edu.tr, sakinc@itu.edu.tr, gorur@itu.edu.tr
2
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Maden Fakültesi, Jeofizik Bölümü, Ayazağa 34469,
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Dedicated to the memory of three pioneers, İhsan Ketin, Sırrı Erinç and Melih
Tokay, and a recent student, Aykut Barka, who burnt himself out in pursuit of the
mysteries of the North Anatolian Fault.
38 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
geological mapping base with detailed paleontology and magnetic stratigraphy in the
shear-related basins and more paleomagnetic observations to establish shear-related
rotations.
INTRODUCTION
The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) [Figures 1 (see color insert) and 2] is one of the
largest currently active strike-slip faults in the world, forming the most prominent
part of a medium-size strike-slip-dominated belt of deformation, i.e., a keirogen
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
(Ketin 1948, Şengör 1979a; for keirogen, see Şengör & Natal’in 1996, p. 639, note
8), in northern Turkey. It extends from the Gulf of Saros in the northern Aegean
Sea to the town of Karlıova (39◦ 18 N, 41◦ 01 E) in Eastern Turkey for 1200 km,
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
paralleling roughly the southern Black Sea shores and keeping a fairly regular
distance of some 100 km to the coast, connecting the Aegean taphrogen (Taymaz
et al. 1991, Özeren 2002, Yilmaz et al. 2002) with the East Anatolian high plateau
(Şaroğlu 1985, Koçyiğit et al. 2001, Şengör et al. 2003). The dextral shear asso-
ciated with the NAF continues across the northern Aegean, crosses northern and
central mainland Greece as a broad shear zone (termed the Grecian Shear Zone
by Şengör 1979a), and eventually links up with the Hellenic subduction zone
(Dewey & Şengör 1979, McKenzie and Jackson 1983, Le Pichon et al. 1993).
Although the NAF has been subject to numerous geological, geomorphological,
and geophysical (especially seismological) investigations since its recognition as
a major strike-slip fault in 1948 by İhsan Ketin (Ketin 1948; see previous re-
views and syntheses by Ketin 1957, 1969, 1976; Pavoni 1961; Allen 1969, 1982;
Ambraseys 1969; Şengör 1979a; Barka 1981, 1992; Şengör & Canıtez 1982;
Şengör et al. 1982; Kiratzi 1993; also see the following symposium: Anonymous
1973), national and international interest concerning the fault has literally exploded
since the catastrophic earthquakes of August 17, 1999 [Barka 1999; Barka et al.
2000a, 2002; see especially the richly documented bilingual book by Emre et al.
(2003)], and November 12, 1999 (Akyüz et al. 2000, 2002). Since then, a vast
amount of geological, geophysical, and geotechnical data have been gathered in
the Sea of Marmara [where the probability of rupture by a large earthquake within
the next 50 years is high (Parsons et al. 2000, King et al. 2001, Atakan et al. 2002;
also see Figure 13 (see color insert) last frame] and around it (Karaca & Ural 1999,
Barka et al. 2000b, Doğan & Kurter 2000, Yaud et al. 2000, Ansal 2001, Taymaz
2001, Aksu & Yaltırak 2002, Görür et al. 2002, Toksöz 2002, Altunel & Akyüz
2003, Anonymous 2003a; also see the Rangin et al. 2001 atlas and Görür 2002,
2003), filling a previously existing gap in our knowledge of the course and character
of the NAF in its western part because of its submarine location. The amount, diver-
sity, quality, and the density of data collected in a few years are unparalleled in the
history of geological investigations in Turkey and do not have many counterparts in
the world. This great acceleration of activity in and around the Sea of Marmara also
has triggered other studies along the fault. Many old problems have been looked at
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 2 The North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK). All the faults shown in this map have formed in relation to the NAK. Not all of them
are now active, but all have been active sometime in the past 11 Ma. Most are potential earthquake generators. Fault traces delineated by
heavier lines represent the most active parts of the keirogen constituting the structure known as the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). Note
that the keirogen is entirely confined to the area underlain by Tethyside accretionary complexes (see also Figure 4). The faults have been
compiled chiefly from Tüysüz (1985), Şaroğlu et al. (1987, 1992), Bingöl (1989), Eyidoğan (1991), Barka (1993), Dirik (1993), Yilmaz
et al. (1997a), Akyüz et al. (2000), Barka et al. (2000a, b), Herece & Akay (2003), Şenel (2002), and our own observations. For the sources
concerning the Tethyside accretionary complexes, see Figure 4.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
39
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
40 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
from different viewpoints using different methods and new technologies (the results
of these new studies have been reported, in addition to scattered papers in interna-
tional literature, some of which are cited below, in the following workshop reports:
Tatar et al. 2000, Altunel et al. 2001, Anonymous 2001, 2003b, Gökten et al. 2001,
Emre et al. 2002; also see the following compendium: Altunel & Akyüz 2003).
Unlike previous catastrophic earthquakes in Turkey, the location of the August
17 and November 12, 1999, events in a densely populated region of the country,
where much of the Turkish industry is located, has led to unprecedented public
interest in the NAF (e.g., Çorlu 1999; also see Atakan et al. 2002). The fact that
the city of İstanbul (population ≈15 million), an international center of trade and
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
culture from time immemorial, is now under serious large earthquake threat in
the foreseeable future (e.g., Durukal et al. 2002, Erdik et al. 2003) has added an
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
earnest international dimension to the public interest (e.g., Deli & Pérouse 1999,
Pérouse 2001). New ideas on the trigger function of big earthquakes for other large
shocks in large regions widened the international scientific and public interest (e.g.,
Papadopoulos 2002). All of this international scientific activity and public con-
cern inevitably generated a vast and multifarious literature in a very short time.
The purpose of this review is to present an introduction to that literature, as well
as to the recent NAF literature that immediately preceded the 1999 earthquakes
(see the following compendia in addition to the literature cited below: Meriç 1995,
Bozkurt 2001) in the form of a new tectonic synthesis of the entire NAF and asso-
ciated structures. Not all aspects of the work undertaken in various earth science
disciplines by numerous groups can be reviewed with equal weight in the space we
have at our disposal here. Our emphasis is on the geological and seismic aspects
of the fault and on its western part around the Sea of Marmara, where most of
the new information has been gathered. We have also tried to cite many of the
less well-circulated Turkish sources, as they contain valuable data that commonly
escape international attention, leading to much waste of time and duplication of
effort.
Uluçay (now Soğanlı Çayı) west of Çerkeş (40◦ 49 N, 32◦ 54 E). In 1932, Nowack
pointed out that this mylonite zone extended from the tip of the Gulf of İzmit to
Koçhisar (present-day Ilgaz: 40◦ 55 N, 33◦ 38 E) for 250 km (Nowack 1932). He
interpreted this shear zone as the boundary between Suess’ (1901) Pontic arcs and
the Dinarides. In 1936, Wilhelm Salomon-Calvi interpreted Nowack’s shear zone
in terms of the continental drift theory of Alfred Wegener as the eastern contin-
uation of the Tonale Line of the Alps, which he believed formed a suture zone
(his Synaphie) between the Laurasian and Gondwanian elements in the structure
of Anatolia. Salomon-Calvi (1936) believed that this zone could be followed east-
ward into Iran. In the night of December 26/27, 1939, at 0200 hours local time,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ple in and around the city of Erzincan (39◦ 45 N, 39◦ 30 E) (Akyol 1940; Leuchs
1940; Pamir & Ketin 1940, 1941; Salomon-Calvi 1940a; Sieberg 1940; Tillot-
son 1940). This great earthquake resulted in detailed geological investigations of
the fault around Erzincan (Stchepinsky 1940, Stchepinsky et al. 1940, Paréjas
et al. 1942; for later studies, see Barka 1996). The 1939 Erzincan quake was fol-
lowed, in rapid succession, by a series of disastrous earthquakes in Niksar-Erbaa
in 1942 (Ms = 7.1); in Lâdik in 1943 (Ms = 7.3); and in Bolu, Gerede, and
Çerkeş in 1944 (Ms = 7.3; see Figure 3), which led to further studies (for ref-
erences, see Ketin 1948, Eyidoğan et al. 1991, and Barka 1996). In 1944, Necdet
Egeran and Erwin Lahn emphasized that earthquake activity between 1939 and
1944 had migrated westward in northern Turkey along the structure that Salomon-
Calvi had earlier called the eastward continuation of the Tonale Line. In the 1940s,
interpretations of the seismic structure were made in terms of the then prevailing
tectonic theories. A common denominator of all these interpretations was that the
structure was seen as an integral part of the “orogenic structure” of Anatolia, and
the associated earthquakes were viewed as the last death throes of an expiring
orogenic belt in which “cratogenic” faults had begun to form as part of the “cra-
tonization” process (Salomon-Calvi 1940a; Paréjas et al. 1942; Blumenthal 1945;
Pamir 1944a,b; Egeran 1947).
A completely different interpretation was offered by İhsan Ketin in 1948 that
revolutionized the understanding of the structure. He noted that during all ma-
jor earthquakes in northern Turkey since 1939, the surface break always had the
character of a generally east-west-striking, right-lateral fault. The vertical com-
ponent of the motion always upthrew the southern block. Ketin combined these
observations with the previously known courses of various young, steep, geomor-
phologically distinct and seismically active shear zones along the north Anatolian
earthquake belt and declared that the seismic zone in northern Turkey was the
product of a major, active, right-lateral, strike-slip fault. This was the first docu-
mentation of the existence of a large and active strike-slip fault in the world [the
San Andreas was not confirmed to be a strike-slip fault until 1953, by Hill &
Diblee (1953), despite many earlier suggestions, including Wegener’s (1915)].
Ketin further pointed out that because interior Anatolia south of the fault was
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
42
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 3 Earthquakes and related fault displacements along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) since the December 26/27, 1939, Erzincan
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
earthquake. Note the remarkable east-to-west migration of the major shocks, first emphasized by Egeran & Lahn (1944). The figure has
been compiled from Şaroğlu et al. (1987, 1992), Eyidoğan et al. (1991), Barka (1996), Barka et al. (2000a), and Akyüz et al. (2000).
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
of the Sea of Marmara through a series of young basins, forming the depressions
of Bursa, Ulubat (Apolyont; in some sources and on some road signs “Uluabat,”
which is actually the correct orthography; Anonymous 1977 gives the name of the
lake as Ulubat, but the name of the village as Uluabat, which creates confusion),
and Manyas.
In 1943, Nuriye Pinar already had suggested that the three deeps of the Sea of
Marmara that are located in an east-west trending larger trough (the North Marmara
Trough) in the northern part of the sea, known since the surveys of H.M.S.S. Selânik
(Spindler et al. 1896), had been formed by a single fault that connected the Gulf
of İzmit with the trace of the 1912 earthquake fault on the Gelibolu (Gallipoli)
Peninsula (Mihailoviç 1923, 1927). Pinar’s (1943) suggestion was not followed
because her evidence was equivocal and she had not indicated what kind of a fault
the structure she suggested was. A year later, Pfannenstiel (1944) suggested that the
northern trough of the Sea of Marmara formed by a group of adjacent rhomboidal
extensional basins. Egeran (1947) pointed out that the cratogenic faults of the
north Anatolian seismic zone continued into the Marmara Trough (“fossé de la
Marmara,” p. 58), which had, however, “on a reduced scale,” the characteristics
of the “Aegean tectonic zone” (Egeran 1947, p. 65). In 1968, Ketin proposed
that an east-west-striking rift probably underlay the northern trough of the Sea of
Marmara, echoing Pfannenstiel (1944) and Egeran (1947). This suggestion was
followed by McKenzie (1972), who depicted the Sea of Marmara as one of the east-
west-striking extensional structures characterizing western Turkey and indicated
that extension across it was oblique (northeast-southwest). This was disputed by
Dewey & Şengör (1979) and Şengör (1979a) because Ganos Dağ (formerly Tekfur
Dağı, now Işıklar Dağı: 40◦ 44 N, 27◦ 10 E; elevation 924 m above sea level) just to
the north of the trace of the 1912 strike-slip earthquake fault (Ambraseys & Finkel
1987, Altınok et al. 2003) appeared to them as a shortening structure above a thrust
fault that they interpreted to be thrusting a 1200 m deep to its immediate east in the
Sea of Marmara, indicating dextral strike-slip within the Sea of Marmara. Şengör
et al. (1985) drew a dotted line between the Gulf of İzmit and the 1912 earthquake
fault, emphasizing the lack of evidence of the nature of the structure of the floor
of the Sea of Marmara. The large number of subsequent attempts to delineate
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
44 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
the nature of the NAF under the Sea of Marmara generally followed McKenzie’s
notion that motion across it was strongly oblique and that the pattern of active faults
had to reflect the outlines of the lozenge-shaped bathymetric basins underlying the
deeper northern trough of the Sea of Marmara (e.g., Barka & Kadinsky-Cade 1988,
Wong et al. 1995, Barka 1997, Parke et al. 1999, Aksu et al. 2000, Ambraseys
2002a).
The age of the NAF has long been thought to be Neogene, since Egeran &
Lahn (1944) and Ketin (1948) showed that it disrupted the orogenic structure of
Turkey, the youngest members of which clearly reached into the early Miocene in
the northern part of the country (Şengör & Yilmaz 1981). In 1957, Ketin wrote,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
“Thus, the movement of the fault has occurred after the orogeny. . . . It represents
a continuous sliding process with a waxing and waning intensity, which began
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
during the Neogene (15–20 Ma ago) and which is still active” (Ketin 1957, p. 52).
In his 1969 synthesis, Ketin emphasized that the main through-going fault was a
very young structure, in many parts only of Quaternary age. In his last synthesis
of the NAF, Ketin (1976) pointed out that within the “rift” trough of the fault, the
oldest sedimentary rocks were medial Miocene in age and that the fault therefore
had to be of that age at the oldest.
Although offsets had been mapped during individual earthquakes, the cumula-
tive offset along the NAF had long remained unknown largely because for much
of its course the fault parallels the dominant strike of the older tectonic units
it cuts. In 1961, Pavoni estimated its offset to be between 300 and 400 km,
but this was based on an erroneous correlation between the Cretaceous-Eocene
eastern Pontide volcanic cover with the dominantly Mio-Pliocene volcanics of
the Galatean Massif northwest of Ankara on the basis of the then already se-
riously outdated 1:800,000 geological map of Turkey (Egeran & Lahn 1942–
1946). It was İhsan Seymen, a doctoral student of Ketin, who established in 1975
that the northern Neo-Tethyan suture west of Erzincan had been offset for some
85 ± 5 km by the NAF (Seymen 1975). This has remained until the recent pub-
lication of the Atlas of the Geology of the North Anatolian Fault by Herece &
Akay (2003), the best estimate of the cumulative offset of the fault (see Şengör
1979a; Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002; and the discussion in Westaway & Arger 2001,
appendix).
The rise of plate tectonics shed new light on Turkish geology. In one of the
earliest papers considering the NAF in some detail from the viewpoint of plate
tectonics, Ataman et al. (1975) argued that the Tethyan sutures in northern Turkey
had been a major factor in localizing the fault, but this was disputed by Şengör
& Canıtez (1982) because the neo-Tethyan suture implied by Ataman et al. does
not everywhere follow the fault. Şengör and his coworkers have summarized and
synthesized the work on the NAF undertaken in the light of plate tectonics in the
1970s and the early 1980s in a series of publications (Şengör 1979a; Şengör &
Canıtez 1982; Şengör et al. 1982, 1983, 1985) in which they showed that the fault
was indeed medial to late Miocene in age and that its offset appeared to be some-
where between 50 to 100 km. Şengör & Canıtez (1982) favored an 80 to 100 km
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
offset in the east that possibly decreased to some 30 km in the west. Şengör and his
coworkers also underlined the importance of the basins along the NAF and within
the Anatolian Scholle (see Dewey & Şengör 1979) for an understanding of the age
and nature of the fault (e.g., Şengör et al. 1985).
The time between Şengör’s first synthesis in 1979 and the 1999 earthquakes was
marked by an increased activity of geological and, to a lesser extent, geophysical
work along the NAF. Much of that work has built the foundation on which the post-
1999 work was undertaken and is discussed in the present review in conjunction
with it.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
46
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
Figure 4 The Tethyside accretionary complexes of northern and eastern Turkey. Compiled from Şengör et al. (1980, 1984), Şengör &
Natal’in (1996), Yılmaz et al. (1997b), Okay & Tüysüz (1999, and references therein), Şengör et al. (2003), and our own unpublished
observations. AL is the Ankara Lobe, IL is the Ilgaz Lobe, and the EAAC is the East Anatolian Accretionary Complex. All parts of
the Tethyside accretionary complexes in northern Turkey have sectors of Cimmeride (i.e., Paleo-Tethyan) and Alpide (i.e., Neo-Tethyan)
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
subduction-accretion complexes in places separated by remnants of the Cimmerian Continent and in others brought into contact by
Alpide deformations that elided the Cimmerian Continent from between the Cimmeride and Alpide accretionary prisms. Munzur and
Malatya digitations belong to the Menderes-Taurus Block as first defined by Şengör et al. (1982). Istanbul is a Hercynian fragment, with
a Cadomian basement and a Triassic and Cretaceous-Tertiary cover redeformed by Alpide events; Menderes has a Pan-African basement,
some Cimmeride magmatism to its north, and a strong Cretaceous to Eocene south-vergent imbrication, followed by Oligocene to present
extension; Eastern Pontides have a Pan-African basement with a strong Cimmeride imprint on which a Cretaceous and Eocene to early
Oligocene arc was built and redeformed during the Eocene to Miocene convergence. Some deformation to its north persisted into the
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Quaternary. Kirşehir has a Pan-African basement with some older fragments. It has a mid-Cretaceous arc built across it and was deformed
in the late Cretaceous to Miocene times.
P1: IKH
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 5 Distribution of epicenters of earthquakes with M ≥ 4 that occurred between 1900 and 2001 in northern Turkey. Compiled from
the comprehensive ISC catalogue (2003).
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
47
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
48 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
In general, it seems that the NASZ becomes wider from east to west in har-
mony with the widening of the zone of accretionary complexes, notwithstanding
the local widening seen in the Tokat Lobe (Figures 2, 5, and 6). Another way to
judge the width of the NASZ is to look at large-scale morphology, and especially
at the courses of the major Anatolian rivers. Figure 6 displays these and shows
their relationships to the NASZ. In the east, the Elmalı (E in Figure 6) and the
Karasu (Ka), both tributaries of the Fırat (Euphrates), are deflected right-laterally
along a very narrow corridor. Farther west, the Yeşilırmak (Y, the classical Iris)
displays a broader zone of dextral deflection, and the Kızilırmak (K, the clas-
sical Halys) displays a broader one still. West of Ankara, the development of
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
the fluvial morphology has a more complex history, but rivers lose their smooth
courses once they enter the NASZ (Figure 6). Erinç et al. (1961a) showed that
to the northeast of Ankara, around Gerede (40◦ 48 N, 32◦ 12 E), a Mio-Pliocene
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
fluvial system (upper course of the Filyos, the classical Billaios; F in Figure 6)
had been disrupted by the faults associated with the NASZ. Similarly, the Sakarya
(S, the classical Sangarios) and its tributaries are also deflected by the NASZ, as
is Susurluk (Su, the classical Macestus). The Susurluk deflection cannot be inter-
preted to show more than some 20+ km of dextral motion, but this is probably
because (a) it is a young river (late Pliocene; Emre et al. 1997) and (b) its fur-
ther deflection is now covered by the waters of the Marmara (see Rangin et al.
2001).
From the distribution of Neogene faulting and large-scale river deflection as
seen in the broad curves of the Yeşilırmak, Kızilırmak, and the Filyos and Sakarya
combination, it seems possible to define a westerly widening shear zone in northern
Turkey as depicted in Figure 6. If the southern Tokat Lobe faults eventually prove
definitely to be parts of the NASZ, the NASZ would acquire a “pinch-and-swell
structure,” but one that would still generally widen westward.
That dextral shear is not confined to the NAF but is distributed in a broader shear
zone is confirmed by paleomagnetic observations indicating clockwise rotations
of up to 270◦ within the past 5 Ma in the central parts of NASZ (Tatar et al.
1995, Piper et al. 1997). Where observations are made in the central part of the
NASZ, the shear-related clockwise rotations are found in areas as far south as
25 km from the main strand of the NAF [in contrast to earlier reports of no rotation
(Platzman et al. 1994)]. However, the rotations within the NASZ are not found
to be systematic, possibly because of the early activity of R shears (Piper et al.
1996; cf. Tchalenko 1970). Farther west, around the western half of the Sea of
Marmara, rotations of Miocene and younger units are spread over a width of more
than 100 km (Tapırdamaz & Yaltırak 1996). In this region, the rotations are also
very complex, indicating a complicated strain history in keeping with the expected
evolution of a broad shear zone. By contrast, in the eastern part of the NASZ, the
rotations are confined to a much narrower shear zone of some 15 km width (e.g.,
Tatar et al. 1995).
Yet another element that defines the shape of the NASZ is the basins that formed
in conjunction with it, which we discuss below.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
Figure 6 Map showing the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) (delimited by discontinuous lines) and the courses of the major rivers
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
traversing it. From east to west (black letters): E, Elmali/Peri (tributary of the Murat before the construction of the Keban Dam); Ka,
Karasu [Elmali/Peri + Karasu = Fırat (Euphrates) without Murat (outside this map)]; Y, Yeşilırmak; K, Kızılırmak; D, Delice; F, Filyos
[Yenice/Araç/Soğanlı (formerly Uluçay)/Gerede Suyu]; S, Sakarya; Su, Susurluk. Gray letters in outline show locations of certain cities
and tectonic features: A, Ankara; B, Bursa; b, Bolu; E, Erzincan; İ, İstanbul; İ, İznik (lake); K, Karliova; OF, Ovacik Fault; SF, Sungurlu
Fault. Note that significant abrupt deflections of river courses are confined to the area of the NASZ. The faults shown to be parts of the
NASZ in the southern part of the Tokat Lobe are here left out of the NASZ owing to their as yet uncertain relationship to the NAK and
to the geometry of the major river courses. If they eventually prove to be a part of the NAK, the analysis we present in this paper of the
evolution of the NASZ would have to be revised in the Tokat Lobe, but without touching the principles.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
49
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
50 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
1984, 1989, 1990a; Şengör & Natal’in 1996). The geology of Turkey has been
reviewed recently in the following publications, which enlarge and update the
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
synthesis presented in Şengör & Yılmaz (1981): Farinacci et al. (1991), Şengör &
Tatar (1996), Şengör et al. (1996), Okay & Tüysüz (1999), Bozkurt et al. (2000),
and Mittwede & Bozkurt (2001).
The Tethyside accretionary complexes housing the NASZ belong both to the
Cimmerides and to the Alpides. We have drawn no boundary to distinguish the two
groups because the Cimmerian Continent that separated Paleo-Tethys from Neo-
Tethys (Şengör 1979b) has been extremely dismembered and reduced in width in
Turkey by both the Cimmeride and Alpide collisional deformations. In places it is
now completely absent, where, consequently, Cimmeride and Alpide accretionary
complexes directly abut each other (Tüysüz 1990, 1993; Koçyiğit, 1991; Yılmaz
et al. 1997b; Okay & Tüysüz 1999). When the NAK formed in the Neogene
in response to the westerly escape of an Anatolian block (Şengör 1979a, Şengör
et al. 1985), it clearly followed a zone of preexisting weakness within the Tethyside
accretionary complexes.
The Tethyside accretionary complexes are now framed by the more resistant
masses of the İstanbul Zone (Yılmaz et al. 1997b) and the eastern Pontides (Okay
& Şahintürk 1997, Yılmaz et al. 1997b) to the north and the Menderes (Şengör
et al. 1984, Bozkurt & Oberhänsli 2001) and Kırşehir Massifs (Görür et al. 1984,
Seymen 1985, Fayon et al. 2001, Gautier et al. 2002) to the south (Figure 4). All of
these zones have Precambrian basements. The İstanbul and Eastern Pontide zones
have latest Proterozoic basements (Cadomian and Pan-African, respectively), re-
deformed during the medial to late Paleozoic. The Menderes and the Kırşehir
Massifs also have latest Proterozoic basements, although they have older events
recognized by zircon dating [2.0 to 1.6 Ga, with one locality associated paleogeo-
graphically with the Menderes Massif even yielding Archaean zircons (Kröner &
Şengör 1990)]. There is evidence that parts of both Menderes and Kırşehir and
their extensions (e.g., the Bitlis Massif, the easternmost part of the Menderes-
Taurus block; see Görür et al. 1984, Şengör & Natal’in 1996; also see Şengör
1990b) intruded by granites and granodiorites were also orogenically deformed
at the same time during the late Paleozoic (Helvacı & Griffin 1984, Şengör et al.
1984). However, the tectonic context of such events south of the Tethyside sutures
has not yet been worked out because of intense post-Paleozoic disruption by rifting
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
and drifting and subsequent repeated orogenic deformation that has largely erased
and dispersed the older record.
Although the zone of Tethyside accretionary complexes in northern Turkey is
highly irregular, with alternating wide lobes and narrower necks, the entire zone
becomes wider from east to west. If we ignore the lobes, it is narrowest near
Erzincan (Figures 2 and 4) and widest around the Sea of Marmara. The North and
East Anatolian Faults come together at the Karlıova junction (K in Figure 2; Şengör
1979a, Şaroğlu 1985, Şengör et al. 1985), which is located entirely within the East
Anatolian Accretionary Complex, a Cretaceous to Oligocene Alpide subduction-
accretion prism (Şengör & Yılmaz 1981, Şengör et al. 2003). It thus seems that
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
the eastern wedge-shaped ending of the Anatolian block was also preconditioned
by the contrast between the resistant masses and the weaker accretionary complex
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
material.
52
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 7 Basins defining the North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK). Numbers refer to those in the text and
in Figures 8A and 8B(a). For the stratigraphy of the basins, see Figures 8A and 8B(a). For geological
histories, see the text.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: IKH
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Figure 8 (A) Simplified and schematized stratigraphies of the basins of the North Anatolian Keirogen
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
(NAK). Column numbers refer to the basin numbers in Figure 7. (B) (a) Simplified and schematized
stratigraphies of the basins of the NAK. (b,c) Permissible ranges of basin formation times in Ma.
P1: IKH
53
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
54
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Figure 8 (Continued)
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
are 15 to 20 m thick near the Asian shores of the Dardanelles and pinch out im-
mediately to the southeast; Görür et al. 1997). They are, from base to top, mainly
alluvial fan to near shore and again fluvial deposits (Yaltırak 1996, see especially
his figure 1 for a cartographic depiction of the environments of sedimentation).
Near Gaziköy, where the NAF Northern Strand strikes out to the Sea of Mar-
mara, structures within the Fener Pebblestone and the unconformably overlying
Pleistocene Altınova terrace clastics are cut by the fault (Yaltırak 1995; Figure 2).
Yaltırak et al. (2000) have shown that these terraces are a part of what Sakınç
& Yaltırak (1997) have called the Marmara Formation. Yaltırak and colleagues’
(2000) detailed, combined isotopic-stratigraphic and tectonic study has shown that
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
the western Sea of Marmara shores have been tectonically rising since 225 ka ago
at a rate of 0.4 mm/year. It is clear that this uplift is related to the activity of the
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
northern branch of the NAF and that here the fault is younger than 225 ka. This
age is in remarkable agreement with that inferred by Le Pichon et al. (2001) on
the basis of the 4 km offset of the western margin of the Central Basin of the Sea
of Marmara (Le Pichon et al. 2001, 2003) and a similar offset in the Central High
(Armijo et al. 2002, Le Pichon et al. 2003).
THE YALOVA BASIN The Yalova Basin is an east-west elongated basin bounded
in the south by an east-west-striking, mainly strike-slip fault and in the west by
a northwest-southeast-striking set of dominantly normal faults (Eisenlohr 1997,
Alpar & Yaltırak 2002). Toward the east, the basin peters out along an irregular,
unconformable contact mainly on low-grade metamorphic rocks. The same un-
conformable contact delimits the basin to the north against the Eocene (Bargu &
Sakınç 1989/1990). The main infill of the basin (Figure 8A, column 2) consists
of an 800-m-thick clastic sequence beginning with conglomerates and continuing
upward into sandstones and shales. Cross-bedding indicates a littoral environment.
Conglomerates recur in the section, probably indicating recurrent faulting. The age
of the clastic section ranges from possible Sarmatian to Lower Pliocene (Akartuna
1968, Bargu & Sakınç 1989/1990). These sedimentary rocks are unconformably
overlain by the ca. 100-m-thick terrace fill of sandstones belonging to the Mar-
mara Formation (Erinç 1956, Şengör et al. 1982, Sakınç & Yaltırak 1997) with an
age range of 260 to 40 ka, but with Tyrrhenian fossils (Erinç 1956; ca. 100 ka).
These Pleistocene deposits continue underwater and are controlled by northwest-
southeast-striking normal faults (Alpar & Yaltırak 2002; figure 6, section AR-1).
These faults seem to belong to the still-active east-northeast-striking normal fault
family north of the Armutlu Peninsula (Le Pichon et al. 2001, Rangin et al. 2001).
56 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
dominantly with lacustrine coarse clastic rocks, including sandstones and conglom-
erates, except that in the lower parts and in the upper sections marls are present.
Akartuna (1968) indicates a total thickness exceeding 500 m. To the south of the
Gulf of İzmit, Ardel (1959) and Akartuna (1968) reported Late Miocene (Pontian)
fossils from the basin fill that passes upward into Pleistocene sedimentary
rocks.
North of the Gulf of İzmit, near Derince (40◦ 45 N, 29◦ 50 E) Altınlı (1968)
mapped 20- to 50-m-thick Pleistocene brakish-limnic marls and sandstones that
are equivalents of the sections seen to the south of the Gulf in the Gölcük area.
These rocks are overlain by 40- to 100-m-thick alluvium. Akartuna (1968) indicates
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
THE ADAPAZARI BASIN The Adapazarı Basin (İnandık 1952/1953, Ardel 1965) is
located between the Düzce (Emre et al. 1998, 1999; Ünay et al. 2001) or Haraklı
(Greber 1996, 1997) Fault to the south and an irregular unconformable contact
on the unmetamorphosed Paleozoic rocks to the north. Greber (1997) has shown
that the basin formed mainly by normal faulting on northwest-southeast-striking
trends and oblique right-lateral faults with east-northeast–west-southwest strikes.
The basin is filled near its margins with some visibly 150 to 200 m, and, in drill
holes farther out into the basin interior, more than 550-m-thick (Bilgin 1984),
coarse clastic rocks in fluviatile facies intercalated with various tuff layers, indi-
cating concurrent volcanicity. Greber (1997) found silicified wood, indicating a
humid swampy environment within the basin and a dry environment in surround-
ing fault-controlled uplands. Emre et al. (1998), Ünay & de Bruijn (1998), and
Ünay et al. (2001) found macro- and micromammals in the finer parts of the clas-
tic section, indicating a late Villanian–early Biharian age (Upper Pliocene–Lower
Pleistocene). Greber (1996, 1997) has shown that the incessant coarse detritic sup-
ply from the south indicates repeated rejuvenation of the topography throughout
the deposition of the basin fill.
THE DÜZCE BASIN The roughly rhomboidal Düzce Basin (Ardel 1965) is located
between the Çilimli Fault to the north and the Düzce Fault to the south (Eser
Teknik Sondaj ve Ticaret 2000). The eastern and the western margins are irregu-
lar, but appear to be controlled by two fault families: a northeast-southwest-striking
set with mainly right-lateral offsets and a northwest-southeast-striking set that is
mainly populated by normal faults. The main east-west and northeast-southwest-
striking faults have been chiefly nucleated on older thrust faults within the Pon-
tide basement. By contrast, the normal faults are revolutionary structures (in the
sense of Şengör et al. 1985) in that they cut the older orogenic fabric at high
angles. That is why they are shorter and less continuous than the east-west and
northeast-southwest sets. These latter appear to have functioned as transfer faults
between the normal faults. The Düzce Basin contains an approximately 260-m-
thick coarse clastic fluviatile/lacustrine sedimentary section that spans an age
range from the top Pliocene to Holocene sitting mainly on Eocene volcanogenic
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
THE BOLU BASIN The Bolu Basin (Ardel 1965, Aktimur et al. 1986) is delimited
to the south by a sharp topographic escarpment that represents a strand of the
main branch of the NAF (Ardel 1965). Its northern boundary is subparallel with
the southern boundary and is also faulted, but to a much lesser extent and less
continuously. The northern boundary faults die out to the east-northeast of the
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
basin and relay their motion to the Düzce Fault to the west. The Bolu Basin is filled
with coarse- to medium-grained clastic sedimentary rocks. In the lower parts, the
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
conglomerates are badly sorted and the clasts are angular. Streams that were most
likely draining fault-generated highlands nearby deposited this part, with a visible
thickness of 20 m. The total thickness of the unit is probably considerably more
(Ardel 1964, figure 2 shows a thickness of approximately 100 m). Upward, the
fluviatile facies gives way to a lacustrine deposit represented by white claystones.
These units are unconformably capped by the deposits of the present-day drainage
system. The thickness of these alluvia in some places reaches 100 m.
The Bolu Basin is interpreted as a pull-apart basin between the southern es-
carpment fault and the Düzce Fault. Both the shape of the basin and the isobaths of
the water table indicate the presence of northwest-southeast-striking buried faults
delimiting the basin to the east and west (Aktimur et al. 1986).
58
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 9 (A) Simplified, true-scale geological cross-sections across the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) and its immediately neighboring
structures within the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). The circles represent arrowheads showing the component of the present-day
motions parallel with the NAF deduced from GPS observations. The arrows parallel with the section show the component of motion
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
perpendicular to the NAF (for sources, see Figure 15). Note the compatibility of the nature of the fault at any given section with the
present-day motions. The sections have been partly reinterpreted from 1. Akkan (1964; section 8); 2. Koçyiğit (1990; figure 5); 3. Öztürk
(1980; figure 11, section K-2), 4. Tokay (1973; section 16), Barka (1985; figure 4); 5. Tokay (1973; section 1); 6. Ardel (1965; figure 2);
P1: IKH
and 7. Bilgin (1969; figure 20), Yılmaz & Karacık (2001; figure 1).
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Figure 9 (B) The sections have been partly reinterpreted from 8. Imren et al. (2001; line M97-030); 9. Imren
et al. (2001; line DMS-002); 10. Imren et al. (2001; line M97-006); and 11. Yalçınlar (1946; plate of sections,
P1: IKH
59
section V).
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
60 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
In its structure, then, the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin resembles the Gelibolu Basin and
probably has a similar origin (Hubert-Ferrari 2002).
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
THE TOSYA BASIN The Tosya Basin is similar in character to the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu
Basin and is similarly oriented. It has a very similar stratigraphy (Barka 1985, 1992;
Över 1996; Över et al. 1997). It is also bounded by two oblique thrusts that verge
basinward, although here the southern thrust is less pronounced than it is in the
Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin. The dips near the northern margin of the basin are steeper
than elsewhere, but there is no overturning. Gentle folds with flank dips of up to
35◦ have subparallel axes with the basin margins (Figure 10).
THE KARGI BASIN This is a small basin located to the north of the main strand
of the NAF. Its orientation is similar to the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu and the Tosya basins
and it also houses a syncline, but in this case a northwest-facing one. The basin
fill consists entirely of probably Pleistocene to Quaternary conglomerates making
up deformed terrace deposits (Barka 1985, 1992; Dirik 1993; Över et al. 1997).
THE VEZİRKÖPRÜ BASIN The Vezirköprü Basin is also located to the north of the
main strand of the NAF. It is bounded to the east by northwest-southeast-striking
normal faults, and it seems to be a fault wedge basin similar to those described
by Crowell (1974). It has a Late Miocene to Pliocene, dominantly clastic fill that
was deposited in limnic environments (Irrlitz 1971, Dirik 1993). The basin fill
begins with coarse conglomerates near the southern master fault family and fines
northward into sandstones, claystones, and even marls. There are also silica-rich
sediments probably derived from the surrounding Middle Tertiary andesitic vol-
canics (Dirik 1993). Upward, the section becomes finer-grained with alternating
claystone, sandstone, and conglomerates. The entire Upper Miocene–Pliocene se-
quence is some 150-m-thick and is capped by? Lower Pleistocene terrace deposits
(Dirik 1993).
Figure 10 Map showing the axial traces of folds along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) related to the activity of the NAF and/or to that
of NASZ. Most traces depicted here are too small to be used by the reader to see their orientation; they merely show where the folds are
and their sizes compared with the NAF. For that reason, we have employed double arrows to summarize dominant fold axial trends in a
given region. The bundle of arrows in α show these and compare them with one another. See text for discussion. The fold axial trends have
been compiled from the following: Bilgin (1969), Tatar (1975, 1978), Öztürk (1980), Tutkun & İnan (1982), Barka (1985), Gökmen et al.
(1993), Yaltırak (1995, 1996), Yaltırak & Alpar (2002a), Herece & Akay (2003).
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
61
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
62 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
inally]. The third package is mainly fluviatile, with an upward-thinning grain size.
It is 150 m thick and has, in its upper, lignite-bearing part latest Villanian–early
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
THE TAŞOVA-ERBAA BASIN A classic pull-apart basin, the structure of the Taşova-
Erbaa Basin has been studied in some detail by Barka et al. (2000c). It has a visibly
700-m-thick sedimentary fill (the total thickness is probably more) consisting of
three main packages (Irrlitz 1972, Tutkun & İnan 1982, Barka et al. 2000c): A
lower, dominantly lacustrine section is some 350 m thick and sits unconformably
on Eocene tuffs and sandstones. It starts with conglomerates and sandstones with
some claystone and lignite intercalations containing a pollen assemblage giving
a late Miocene age. This passes upward into a dominantly clayey-marly section
with local conglomerate lenses. The fluviatile section begins with a sandstone-
claystone intercalation with abundant fossil soil horizons. Farther up, the section
becomes dominantly conglomeratic with a thickness of some 400 to 500 m. Three
Quaternary terraces of the Kelkit River cap the section.
Barka et al. (2000c) have mapped east-northeast-trending fold axes and perva-
sive normal and thrust faults. The normal faults and extensional fractures mostly
strike 150◦ , whereas the thrusts have common strikes around 65◦ to 70◦ . Fold axial
trends are scattered as a result of adaptation to basin margins and internal rotation
of blocks (Figure 10). Many of the normal faults appear to have had dips of 60◦
originally, but most have since been rotated out of their original position around
both vertical and horizontal axes as a result of the activity of younger fault sets.
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
THE NİKSAR BASIN The Niksar Basin is a small pull-apart basin with a pro-
nounced sigmoidal shape (Hempton & Dunne 1983; Tatar 1996a,b; Barka et al.
2000c) probably betraying an origin as a large tension gash along the NASZ.
The sedimentary infill of the Niksar Basin is similar to that of the Taşova-Erbaa
Basin, with the important difference of having two separate volcanic events. One
is a basaltic andesite between the dominantly lacustrine lower and the dominantly
fluviatile upper section. The other is a basalt that caps the fluviatile section but
underlies the Quaternary terrace deposits (Tatar 1996a).
Tatar’s (1996a,b) detailed structural studies have revealed that the Pliocene
extension direction in the Niksar Basin was approximately N30◦ E. The axes of
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
fairly open folds (maximum flank dip 28◦ ) generally trend east-northeast, but some
fold axes in the extreme north of the basin seem to have been rotated into a north-
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
THE SUŞEHRİ BASIN The Suşehri Basin is a narrow pull-apart structure later cut
by the main strand of the NAF. It actually consists of two subbasins: Suşehri sensu
stricto and Gölova (Hempton & Dunne 1983; Toprak 1988; Koçyiğit 1989, 1990;
Kazancı 1993; see also Figure 9A, section 2). It has a sedimentary fill of some
750 m that can be divided into three packages: a lower lacustrine section that is
approximately 200 to 250 m thick and is of late Miocene age (Irrlitz 1972, Kazancı
1993). An approximately 150- to 180-m-thick clastic section above this interfingers
with limnic marls to the southeast. A 150- to 250-m-thick, upward-coarsening
fluviatile section caps the entire sedimentary succession, which probably reaches
into the Middle Pleistocene. It seems that much of the Quaternary section has been
removed by erosion.
THE REFAHİYE BASIN COMPLEX Irrlitz (1972) distinguished four basins within
what he called the “Intermontane basins of the Refahiye area” (see also Tatar
1978). Three of these contain biostratigraphically reliably datable successions.
These are the Karnos, Bicer, and the Refahiye sensu stricto basins.
The Karnos (no. 15) includes a bipartite succession beginning with coarse
conglomerates and sandstones rapidly passing into lacustrine marls and claystones.
This part has a thickness of 70 to 100 m and its pollen assemblage indicates a late
Miocene age. A Hipparion find at the transition of the lacustrine to fluviatile section
indicates that it occurred still in the late Miocene. The 300-m-thick Plio-Pleistocene
section consists mainly of coarse fluvial conglomerates.
The smaller Bicer Basin (no. 16) has a similar bipartite division, but its limnic
beds give a younger late Miocene age. The upper 100-m-thick fluviatile section is
barren.
The Refahiye basin (no. 17) (Koçyiğit 1996) resembles the Karnos more than the
Bicer basin in terms of its sedimentary fill. The time of the onset of sedimentation
is also similar to the Karnos Basin.
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
64 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
THE ERZİNCAN BASIN The Erzincan Basin is a typical pull-apart structure (Şengör
1979a, Aydın & Nur 1982, Hempton & Dunne 1983, Şengör et al. 1985) compli-
cated only by the influence of the Ovacik Fault to its southeast (Barka & Gülen
1989). It is the largest fault-related basin east of the Sea of Marmara. Its full
sedimentary fill is not exposed. The exposed part begins with lacustrine blue clay-
stones followed by a 250-m-thick alternation of conglomerates, sandstones, and
claystones. The section ends with a 200-m-thick conglomerate of fluviatile origin.
Plio-Pleistocene mafic volcanics are intercalated in the section. Seismic studies
using the aftershocks of the March 13, 1992, Erzincan earthquakes (Erdik et al.
1992, Yücemen 1992, Fuenzalida et al. 1997) have been undertaken by Gaucher
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
(1993), who estimated a variation from 600 m to 2.1 km thickness for the basin fill.
More recently, Kaypak (2002) estimated a total maximum thickness around 2 to
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
3 km using the seismic velocities in the basin (Figure 9A, section 1). Hubert-Ferrari
et al. (2002) also inferred that the Erzincan is a “deep-rooted” basin because it
seems to impede seismic rupture. Although there are so far no biostratigraphic
data, Irrlitz (1972) concluded, by comparison with surrounding basins, that the
basin subsidence and sedimentation must have started in late Miocene times. Most
subsequent authors agree with his estimate.
Erzincan also has considerable Recent to Subrecent volcanism. Both rhyolitic
and mafic lavas have been reported (Baş 1975, Linneman 2002). Scott Linnemann
(personal communication 2002) suggested that the rhyolites probably formed by
crustal melting resulting from basaltic intrusions into the crust, a conclusion that
agrees with the earlier findings of Baş (1975). K-Ar dating on sanidines in rhyolites
has yielded two ages: 0.273 ± 0.04 ka and 0.246 ± 0.26 ka (Linneman 2002).
The claim that Erzincan was a basin similar to Karlıova (for Karlıova, see Şengör
1979a, Şaroğlu 1985, Şengör et al. 1985), i.e., that it formed at the junction of the
Ovacık and the NAF (Barka & Gülen 1989, Fuenzalida et al. 1997, Westaway
& Arger 2001), is not supported by the Pliocene age of the Ovacık Fault. As
Hempton & Dunne (1983) observed, the shape of the Erzincan Basin also belies
that interpretation; although, after the Ovacık Fault became active, it contributed to
the extension in the Erzincan Basin, which probably is the reason for its great depth
to basement. During the activity of the Ovacık Fault (for the controversy about
whether the Ovacık is a still active fault, see the discussion in Westaway & Arger
2001), the Erzincan basin clearly operated in a mode similar to the Karlıova Basin.
fill that has basalt intercalations near its upper portions. The basalts have been dated
to be around 9 to 8. 4 Ma (Ercan et al. 1995, Aldanmaz et al. 2000).
THE MANYAS AND ULUBAT BASINS The Manyas and Ulubat basins actually form
one basin complex separated from the southern coastal regions of the Marmara
Sea by a string of mountain ranges tilted to the south along a major, coast-parallel
normal-separation oblique fault. Sedimentation in this basin complex began in the
Pontian (late Miocene) with fluvial sediments and rapidly developed into a lacus-
trine environment. In the late Pliocene, fluvial conditions dominated. Lacustrine
conditions returned in the later Pliocene and became dominant in the Pleistocene
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
(Yaltırak & Alpar 2002b). The Manyas and the Ulubat (Apolyont) lakes are the
remnants of the much larger Pleistocene lakes in the area (Görür et al. 1997). In
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
the Gönen region, the western end of the Manyas subbasin, the total thickness of
the Tertiary, which is mostly the basin fill, is approximately 400 m (Yalçın 1997).
It is clear that the late Miocene sedimentation here was fault-controlled (see Figure
9B, section 11).
THE PAMUKOVA BASIN The Pamukova Basin is a 30-km-long and 0.2- to 6-km-
wide pull-apart basin filled with the Plio-Quaternary sedimentary rocks consisting
of the fluvial terrace deposits with a visible thickness of 100 m and overlying 10 to
20 m of alluvium made up of meander plain and marsh deposits (Akartuna & Atan
1981, Koçyiğit 1988). The Sakarya river enters the basin at its southwest corner
just to the east of Mekece (40◦ 27 N, 30◦ 03 E) and exits at its northeast corner north
of Geyve (40◦ 31 N, 30◦ 18 E). This indicates a deflection of the river for some 22
to 26 km.
66 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
THE KAZOVA BASIN The Kazova, or the Almus, Basin is a fault-wedge basin lo-
cated on the Sungurlu Fault. It has an undated basin fill presumed to be of Pliocene
age on the basis of its poorly consolidated aspect and horizontality of its atti-
tude (Bozkurt & Koçyiğit 1996). The total basin fill is approximately 200 m,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
although Bozkurt & Koçyiğit (1995) have estimated a vertical displacement along
the northern bounding fault (the Mercimekdaği-Çamdere fault set) of 750 m.
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
They also give a 1.3 km dextral offset, but this must be regarded as a minimum,
as they have been measured on subsidiary Riedel (R) and P-shears (Tchalenko
1970).
Figure 11 Active faults of the Sea of Marmara and surrounding regions. The topography is
from GTOPO 30 data of the U.S. Geological Survey. The multibeam bathymetry was taken
from Le Pichon et al. (2001) and Rangin et al. (2001). All known active faults have been
plotted from Şaroğlu et al. (1992), Şengör et al. (1999), Le Pichon et al. (2001), and our own
observations.
Holocene ages (e.g., Okay et. al. 1999, Yaltırak 2002). The basins are therefore
very young, probably no older than the latest Pliocene. They probably formed as
the NASZ was developing here along a variety of R, R , and P shears and folds
(Figure 10) and were cut by the Northern Strand of the NAF at some 200 ka ago
(Le Pichon et al. 2001). There may be a slight component of current extension
across at least the Çınarcık basin (6.4 mm/year: Figure 9B, section 8), which is
creating the ongoing, very slow extension within this basin. But active structure
generation is clearly dominated by strike-slip along the Northern Strand of the
NAF in places, leading even to oblique shortening in parts of the basin margins
(e.g., İmren et al. 2001).
68 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
cf. Bartlett et al. 1981) associated with the NASZ are still active and generate
up to Mw = 6.0 left-lateral earthquakes (e.g., Koçyiğit et al. 2001, Taymaz &
Tan 2001). Seismic activity in general is more concentrated along and very
near the NAF than it is elsewhere within the NASZ. This is consistent with
the sharper morphology of the NAF than that of the structures elsewhere within
the NASZ.
NAF (including its very young Northern Strand) is defined by a narrow fault val-
ley interrupted at irregular intervals by a variety of basin types, as discussed in
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
the previous section (Erinç et al. 1961a; Allen 1969, 1982; Ketin 1969, 1976;
Arpat & Şaroğlu 1975; Seymen 1975; Şengör 1979a; Sipahioğlu 1984; Barka
1992; Emre et al. 1998; Le Pichon et al. 2001; Rangin et al. 2001; Hubert-Ferrari
et al. 2002; Koçyiğit 2003). This narrow valley is paralleled by a morphologi-
cal fabric within the valley and outside it (Figure 1). The intra-vale parallel fab-
ric is formed mainly by a variety of (a) parallel fault scarps, commonly tilted;
(b) displaced and otherwise deformed erosional and constructional stream ter-
races; (c) pieces of deformed erosion surfaces of the valley shoulders incorpo-
rated into the fault zone; (d) shutter ridges; (e) and a multitude of whaleback
ridges resulting from the anastomosing nature of the individual fault splays that
form the main strand of the fault. In places, for example, between Bolu and the
Çerkeş basins, the whaleback ridges surround sag-ponds of different sizes. A
similar situation is encountered, for example, near Küçükgüzel, 12 km east of
Suşehri (40◦ 10 N, 38◦ 06 E), in the eastern part of the NAF (Allen 1982). Much
smaller ponds characterize the fault traces in many places (e.g., at the İsmetpaşa
Station; Aytun 1982). Where the main strand forks, east of Bolu, the Yeniçağa
fault wedge basin that houses a small lake originated (Erinç et al. 1961b, Şengör
1979a).
Throughout the fault zone, stream courses have been deformed (see Herece &
Akay 2003), in places entirely disrupting an older stream network and replacing it
with a new one (e.g., Erinç et al. 1961a, Erinç 1973, Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002, Okay
& Okay 2002). All along the main strand of the fault, consequent streams flowing
into the fault valley are bent clockwise, as are the courses of older streams now
disrupted by the fault that cut them (e.g., Allen 1969, 1982; Ketin 1969; Seymen
1975; Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002). In many places, “wrong” displacements, i.e.,
those in an anticlockwise sense, accompany those in the “right” sense, indicating
capture processes. Most of these phenomena are of late Pliocene age at the oldest.
Presumed older river diversions are seen in the courses of the major rivers that
traverse the course of the NAF and NASZ.
The most spectacular river diversions have been plotted in Figure 6. Of these,
the easternmost river, the Euphrates and its tributaries, are of Pliocene age (Erinç
1953). They could hardly be any older, as the future sites of the Euphrates and
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
its main tributaries were under marine waters until the Serravallian (Şengör et al.
1985). The offset of the Elmalı/Peri Suyu system is some 70 km. The river is not
only offset by the main strand of the NAF, but also by a number of parallel faults
making up the NASZ here. To its west-northwest, the Karasu is also offset for
approximately 70 km across the Erzincan basin.
Farther to the west, the offsets of the Yeşilırmak are more spectacular and
are distributed in a wider zone. First of all, the entire river turns around a bend
of more than 180◦ . One major offset of the valley is between Turhal (40◦ 24 N,
36◦ 05 E; t in Figure 6) and the Amasya Plain (a in Figure 6), giving an offset of
approximately 30 km. The other major offset is accomplished across a number
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
of east-west-striking strike-slip faults between the Sungurlu Fault and the main
strand of the NAF, which also offsets the river. All this adds an extra 50 km
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
to the offset across the entire NASZ, bringing the total up to 80 km. The age
of the Yeşilırmak is not well established. At least its Kelkit tributary is of late
Miocene age (Şengör et al. 1985), but the entire system is probably no older than
Pliocene.
The Kızılırmak is the oldest of the rivers that empty into the Black Sea, and its
inner Anatolian parts are clearly of late Miocene age (İzbırak 1948, Akkan 1970,
Şengör et al. 1985). Its capture by external drainage into the Black Sea is most
likely younger as there are no river terraces older than the Pliocene in its lower
course (Ardel 1967; O. Tüysüz, unpublished data). The entire river, plus its Delice
tributary (D in Figure 6), defines a mighty, east-concave bend in Central Anatolia
(Ardel 1967). There is little doubt that much of the northern part of this bend is
a result of the right-handed shear across the NASZ. However, there are as yet no
detailed studies to substantiate this. The Sungurlu Fault at least contributed a 30 km
offset to this bending. There is another sharp bend right on the main strand of the
NAF, which adds another 40 km and brings the total up to 70 km. But there
are a number of other, smaller jerks in the river course corresponding to smaller
east-west-striking faults that obviously augment the total offset. We would not be
surprised if the total dextral displacement across the NAK recorded by the great
bend of the Kızılırmak is more than 100 km.
The next big river diversion is represented by the Filyos. Erinç (1973) was of
the opinion that this river system was established during the late Miocene–early
Pliocene interval, but was badly disrupted by the activity of the NAF main strand
and by faults paralleling it to its south. A long upper course (the Soğanlı Çayı or
Uluçay; Ulusu of some authors; now Gerede Çayı) was established by a variety of
capture and diversion processes (see also Erinç et al. 1961a).
The Sakarya is the second largest river that flows into the Black Sea. It is, at
most, of late Pliocene age (Bilgin 1984, Emre et al. 1998). Since the late Pliocene,
it has accumulated an at least 26 km offset as seen by its diversion in Pamukova
(Koçyiğit 1988). Farther north, the river lazily flows within the Adapazarı Plain
and is hardly offset at all.
The final river we consider is the Susurluk. It is also of late Pliocene age (Emre
et al. 1997). It shows no sharp offsets but bends clockwise across the shear zone
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
70 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
of the Southern Strand of the NAF, giving a lateral visible displacement of slightly
more than 20 km.
Ferrari et al. 2002). From the bend to Erzincan in the east, elements of the parallel
fabric turn into and gently merge with the main valley of the NAF. This is par-
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
earthquakes with reliable epicentral locations and fault-plane solutions that fall on
the trace of the fault show dextral strike-slip (Figure 12 and Table 1). Some have ex-
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
72
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 12 Fault plane solutions of 48 earthquakes that occurred along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) between 1939 and 2003 with
Ms ≥ 5. Fault plane solutions are shown as lower hemisphere stereographic projections with compressional quadrants shaded. Solutions
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
with black compressional quadrants are the most reliable ones determined by wave-form modeling techniques. Solutions with darker gray
compressional quadrants are those determined by visual examination of seismograms. Solutions with lighter gray compressional quadrants
are those obtained by plotting readings from Bulletins, but are compatible with the surface characteristics of the fault. For the sources of
P1: IKH
TABLE 1 Parameters and sources for fault plane solutions depicted in Figure 12
Date Origin time Latitude Longitude Depth
18 Mar 2005 19:32
No. (day.month.year) (h:min) GMT (degree) (degree) M (km) Strike (◦ ) Dip (◦ ) Rake (◦ ) Reference
1 26.12.1939 23:57 39.80 39.38 7.8 0 200 61 4 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
AR
8 07.09.1953 03:58 40.94 33.13 6.1 0 281 72 −158 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
9 26.05.1957 06:33 40.58 31.00 7.0 0 87 78 179 McKenzie (1972)
10 26.05.1957 09:36 40.80 30.80 6.0 0 114 24 −166 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
11 27.05.1957 11:01 40.70 31.00 5.5 0 293 74 157 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
12 07.07.1957 05:58 39.21 40.23 5.1 0 237 51 54 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
13 18.09.1963 16:58 40.71 29.09 6.4 15 304 56 −82 Taymaz et al. (1991)
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
14 06.10.1964 14:31 40.20 28.20 6.9 14 100 40 −90 Taymaz et al. (1991)
15 23.08.1965 14:08 40.39 26.12 5.9 33 261 70 −132 Kocaefe & Ataman (1976)
16 22.07.1967 16:56 40.67 30.69 7.1 12 275 88 −178 Taymaz et al. (1991)
17 26.07.1967 18:53 39.54 40.38 6.0 30 194 72 06 McKenzie (1972)
18 30.07.1967 01:32 40.72 30.52 5.6 16 301 50 70 McKenzie (1972)
19 03.03.1969 00:59 40.08 27.50 5.7 4 219 65 45 McKenzie (1972)
20 23.02.1971 19:41 39.62 27.32 5.6 10 86 66 160 Papadopoulos et al. (1986)
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
21 27.03.1975 05:15 40.45 26.12 6.6 15 279 46 −43 Jackson & McKenzie (1984)
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
(Continued)
73
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
TABLE 1 (Continued) 74
Date Origin time Latitude Longitude Depth
No. (day.month.year) (h:min) GMT (degree) (degree) M (km) Strike (◦ ) Dip (◦ ) Rake (◦ ) Reference
18 Mar 2005 19:32
24 21.10.1983 20:34 40.14 39.35 5.4 15 217 90 180 Harvard Univ. (1998)
25 18.11.1983 01:15 39.79 39.43 5.4 10 156 21 Harvard Univ. (1998)
AR
−102
26 24.04.1988 20:49 40.88 28.24 5.3 15 356 71 −11 Harvard Univ. (1998)
27 20.04.1990 23:30 40.12 40.07 5.4 15 299 90 −180 Harvard Univ. (1998)
28 13.03.1992 17:18 39.72 39.63 6.7 15 213 85 4 Harvard Univ. (1998)
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
32 14.08.1996 01:55 40.75 35.30 5.7 15 116 70 176 Harvard Univ. (1998)
33 14.08.1996 02:59 40.78 35.31 5.7 15 197 69 −4 Harvard Univ. (1998)
34 13.04.1998 15:14 39.18 41.10 5.3 15 272 75 −175 Harvard Univ. (1998)
35 06.04.1999 00:08 39.40 38.31 5.4 15 326 49 175 Harvard Univ. (1998)
36 17.08.1999 00:01 40.70 29.99 7.4 9 91 87 164 Harvard Univ. (1998)
37 17.08.1999 03:14 40.59 30.62 5.3 8 192 32 −82 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
38 19.08.1999 15:17 40.65 29.09 5.0 4 92 60 −110 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
39 31.08.1999 08:10 40.74 29.99 5.0 8.6 80 70 −143 Özalaybey et al. (2002)
40 13.09.1999 11:55 40.76 30.07 5.8 12 293 73 164 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
41 29.09.1999 00:13 40.71 29.30 5.0 8 85 63 −161 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
42 11.11.1999 14:41 40.78 30.29 5.5 20 307 66 179 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
43 12.11.1999 16:59 40.768 32.148 7.2 18 268 54 −167 Harvard Univ. (1998)
44 14.02.2000 06:56 40.90 31.75 5.1 4 260 42 154 Aktar & Örgülü (2001)
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
reasons. The earthquake activity between 1719 and 1912 seems to have migrated
generally westward, with some exceptions; however, here there are disagreements
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
as to whether the second of the large 1766 shocks broke the Ganos Fault (see
Altınok et al. 2003).
Earlier than the seventeenth century, all hope of finding any regular behavior of
the NAF disappears. Every century between the eleventh and the sixteenth seems
to have had one major event between Refahiye (39◦ 54 N, 38◦ 46 E) and Karlıova.
A similar recurrence pattern (except for the twelfth century) is seen between the
great central bend of the NAF and its western termination. In between, we have
no record as far back as the seventh century. Is this because nothing happened,
nothing was recorded, or no record survived or has not yet been unearthed in the
area that we have termed, for the sake of provocation, the Paphlagonian Temporal
Seismic Gap? We know that the period indicated was a particularly turbulent
episode in the eventful social history of Anatolia. Beginning with the Muslim
incursions into the Byzantine realm in 662 and the Seljuk advance along northern
Anatolia since 1015, which was followed by the Battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert:
1071) and the Crusades, the first of which (1096–1101) reached as far north as
Kastamonu (41◦ 22 N, 33◦ 47 E; in the Byzantine sources Kastamon) and Samsun
(41◦ 17 N, 36◦ 20 E; the classical Amisos); the Mongol advance; and the catastrophe
of the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243, Anatolia was continuously ravaged by warfare
and resultant displacement and/or annihilation of populations. It was not until
the Ottomans were able to impose their final authority in 1473 (the Battle of
Otlukbeli) that the lands along the NASZ were able to enjoy continuous peace [for
a quick historical orientation, see the two excellent historical atlases (Dağtekin
1981 and Kinder and Hilgemann 1982)]. Interestingly, the 662–1473 interval pretty
much coincides with the Paphlagonian Temporal Seismic Gap. However, social
turbulence cannot be the whole answer because the eastern part of the NAK was not
necessarily a scene of peace and prosperity in the same time interval. If anything,
it was more troubled (see, in addition, Hewsen 2001). Yet from there we have
records. So, the Paphlagonian Temporal Seismic Gap remains a problem to be
explained. It is particularly teasing because it was followed by what were possibly
the two largest earthquakes along the NAF in recorded history (1509 and 1668).
Earlier in the fourth to fifth and in the first to second centuries, a biased eye
may see a pattern not dissimilar to those in the 1668 to 1912 and 1939 to 1999
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
76
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
cycles. But given the shakiness of the record even for the former of these cycles,
we hesitate to say anything about the nature of the groups of events in the first
five Christian centuries except that earthquakes undoubtedly took place along the
NASZ and that they were numerous in its western part, which happened to be its
most civilized sector.
and surrounding regions in a fixed Eurasian reference frame after Clarke et al.
(1998), McClusky et al. (2000), and Meade et al. (2002). The Anatolian Scholle
east of about 31◦ E longitude is now rotating, with respect to Eurasia, around
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
an Euler pole near the Nile Delta (Le Pichon et al. 1993, Reilinger et al. 1997,
McClusky et al. 2000; see also Le Pichon et al. 2003). A very remarkable thing
seen in Figure 15 is that along the eastern segment of the fault east of the central
bend, the motion of the Anatolian Scholle with respect to the Black Sea mountains
lying north of the NAF is pure strike-slip. This is in excellent agreement with most
of the best fault plate solutions of earthquakes that occurred on the NAF (nos.
27–31 in Figure 12) and the NASZ (e.g., nos. 32, 33, and 47) but not with some
←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Figure 14 Historical earthquake activity along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) for
the period 400 BC to AD 2000. Only those earthquakes have been plotted that are
known to have caused widespread damage. Those that have associated surface faulting
are indicated with continuous lines. Those with probable surface faulting are shown by
dashed lines, and those that are suspected to have possible surface faulting are indicated
with dotted lines. The earthquakes have been compiled from Ambraseys (1975), Soysal
et al. (1981), Ambraseys & Finkel (1991, 1997), Guidoboni et al. (1994), Ambraseys
& White (1997), Ambraseys & Jackson (1998), U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1193
(Kropschot 2000), and Ambraseys (2002). The earthquake distribution given here is
strongly dependent on the availability and interpretation of historical records. Given the
character and the state of scholarship on these records (see, for example, the discussion
in Ambraseys & Finkel 1995, pp. 13–34, and compare Ambraseys & Finkel 1995 with
Ambraseys 2002b on the September 10, 1509, Sea of Marmara earthquake), they
most likely do not constitute an accurate picture of the seismic activity of the NAF.
They clearly indicate, however, that the fault was seismically active in the period here
considered. Since the sixteenth century, they also show a general distribution in time
in cycles that always commenced in the east and developed westward. A biased eye
can also detect a similar pattern for the first and the second centuries and for the
fifth and the sixth centuries. However, these latter cannot be rigorously supported by
the data and the much emphasized characteristic behavior of the NAF may not be a
permanent property. Also, the gap preceding the 1668 earthquake that broke a 600-km-
long segment is remarkable, although it is difficult to be sure of its existence owing to
the paucity and the character of the records.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
78
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Figure 15 The present horizontal motions of Earth’s land surface in and around Turkey according to GPS obser-
vations. Note the parallelism of the current motion with the strike of NAF in its eastern half, the transpressional
relationship between 31◦ E and 36◦ E meridians, and the transtensional relationship west of 31◦ E meridian.
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
others (e.g., no. 25). Because some of the less reliable solutions also generally
agree with the GPS directions (e.g., nos 1 and 2), whereas others do not (e.g., no.
12), the suspicion is awakened that not all seismic deformation follows the large-
scale motions of the landmasses bordering the NASZ. Perhaps some are responses
to local incompatibilities.
According to the GPS observations, immediately west of the central bend of the
NAF, the present-day nature of the NAF is transpressional and remains so, although
in decreasing degrees, to near Bolu. Although the geology agrees (see Figure 9A,
sections 4 and 5), the fault plane solutions here show either pure strike-slip or a
slight normal faulting component (but compatible with northwest-southeast short-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Bolu (b in Figure 2) at Yeniçağa, the Northern Strand of the NAF turns into what
would have been a transtensional orientation. Fault-plane solutions (nos. 13, 18,
38, 39, 41) east of the Sea of Marmara could be seen as corroborating this, but
nos. 40 and 42 and all the well-located and well-resolved smaller earthquakes (not
shown in our Figure 12, but see, e.g., Gürbüz et al. 2000, Özalaybey 2002, 2003)
along the Northern Strand are essentially pure strike-slip and compatible with the
orientation of the fault at their epicentral areas. Within the Sea of Marmara, there
is clear strain partitioning, as emphasized by Le Pichon et al. (2001). Whereas
the Main Marmara Fault (i.e., the Northern Strand within the Sea of Marmara;
Le Pichon et al. 2001) gives pure dextral strike-slip solutions everywhere, fault
families to its south, especially in the Çınarcık Basin, indicate normal faulting (see
Figure 16).
In contrast to the Northern Strand, the Southern Strand shows evidence for
transtension as expressed by a string of basins (Yenişehir, Pamukova: nos. 21 and
22 respectively in Figure 7). Those basins are isolated from one another east of Lake
İznik and tied to one another by segments of the NAF, where the Southern strand
is close to a pure strike-slip orientation between the Marmara Block (see Meade
et al. 2002, Le Pichon et al. 2003) and the regions south of the Southern Strand
of the NAF. From there westwards, most of its major splays show transtension
expressed in the linked basins of Bursa-Ulubat-Manyas until the 28◦ E longitude
is reached. From there westward, all branches of the Southern Strand bend into a
transpressive orientation, which is mostly borne out by the fault-plane solutions
(see nos. 19 and 20).
Meade et al. (2002) and Le Pichon et al. (2001, and especially 2003) have shown
that the two strands west of Adapazarı delimit an independent “Marmara block,”
as shown by Dewey & Şengör (1979) and Şengör (1979a). As a result, the motion
along the Northern Strand of the NAF is not concentric with respect to the pole near
the Nile Delta, but instead about a pole located at 36◦ 10 N, 28◦ 38 E. This makes
the Northern Strand in the Sea of Marmara (the Main Marmara Fault of Le Pichon
et al. 2001) essentially a pure strike-slip fault. In fact, as Le Pichon et al. (2003)
pointed out, only the Çınarcık Basin has a significant extensional component across
it that expresses itself in a major way in present structure generation.
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
80 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Figure 16 Present-day motions of the Sea of Marmara and surrounding regions. The GPS
data are from Meade et al. (2002) and were plotted with respect to a Eurasian reference frame.
The slip vectors have been computed for selected earthquakes from Table 1, and Özalaybey
et al. (2002, 2003) represent the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall.
accretionary complexes and the older, stiffer basement fragments to the north (also
see Kaya 1988). Indeed, much of the NASZ is within the Tethyside accretionary
complexes as indicated above, but the NAF nucleated nearly everywhere along a
bimaterial surface (cf. Weertman 1980, Andrews & Ben-Zion 1997, Ben-Zion &
Andrews 1998, Ben Zion 2001).
Turkey (Egeran & Lahn 1942–1946), was erroneous. For many years Seymen’s
(1975) estimate of the dextral offset of the Ankara-Erzincan suture zone for some
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
85 ± 5 km (Figure 17, markers s-s) was taken as “the” offset, although Şengör
(1979a) pointed out as early as 1979 that the total displacement along the fault
was less in the west than it is in the east. Bergougnan’s (1976) mapping revealed
a similar offset in the same region as Seymen’s offset.
Seymen’s number was disputed by others working on different parts of the entire
NAF (e.g., Barka 1981, 1992; Şaroğlu 1988; Koçyiğit 1988, 1989), but none of
these authors addressed the problem of multiple parallel faults and other structures
that also take up displacement in the NASZ. Because of that, all their estimates
fall short of Seymen’s (and ours in this review; see below).
However, there is a genuine problem with Seymen’s (and Bergougnan’s) esti-
mate that only became known after it was discovered that considerable strike-slip
faulting before the origin of the NASZ may have displaced the continental margin
on which they had measured the offset. First, Yılmaz et al. (1993) showed that
there probably was significant strike-slip faulting, most likely dextral, along the
future site of the NAF between Havza (40◦ 58 N, 35◦ 40 E) and Niksar (40◦ 35 N,
36◦ 57 E). Secondly, Cretaceous mélanges have been found within the mainly pre-
Liassic body of Tokat Massif along narrow zones (Bozkurt et al. 1997) that are
probably of strike-slip nature. If so, these would have displaced the southern mar-
gin of the Tokat Massif, Seymen’s marker “s” of the NAF, before the NAF formed
(Figure 17). Surprisingly, Seymen’s figure of 85 ± 5 km still seems in good agree-
ment with the more recent estimates measured on more reliable markers as dis-
cussed below. Somehow, the earlier faults must have created a geometry that
remained suitable for estimating the total displacement.
Herece & Akay (2003, table 1) tabulated all the former estimates of total offset
along the NAF (except those in Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002), which range from
7.5 km to 300 to 400 km. Their own estimates on the basis of data displayed in
Herece & Akay (2003, table 2) range from 7 to 155 km. We do not think that all
of the markers they used are equally reliable.
The same applies to Hubert-Ferrari and colleagues’ (2002) estimates of maxi-
mum offset. For instance, their reported offset of the “two sheared folds” between
the Tosya and the Vezirköprü basins (Figure 7, nos. 8 and 9, respectively) cannot
be substantiated in the field because the “matchable” features give offsets of only
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
82
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 17 Reliably measured cumulative offsets along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). Offsets of markers a-a, c-c, d-d, e-e, f-f, and
j-j are our measurements on features, some of which had been pointed out earlier by others (see text). Offsets b-b, g-g, h-h, and i-i are
from Herece & Akay (2003). Offset k-k is from Armijo et al. (2002) and l-l is from Le Pichon et al. (2001). s-s is Seymen’s (1975) offset,
corroborated by Bergougnan (1976).
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
The following offsets are the ones we consider the most reliable. In the following
list, G indicates offset of geological markers and M indicates geomorphological
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
markers.
1. Offset of the Elmalı-Periçay System (M) (Figure 17, a-a): This tributary of
the Euphrates is deflected right-laterally for some 60 km between Kümbet
(38◦ 54 N, 39◦ 55 E) in the east and Akımlı (39◦ 26 N, 40◦ 19 ) in the west
(Anonymous 1977, sheet 340-A, Erzurum). Hubert-Ferrari et al. (2002) have
here found a similar offset (65 km) resembling the previous estimates (Barka
& Gülen 1989, Gaudemer et al. 1989). Because the river system is Pliocene
in age here (Erinç 1953), the deflection represents a minimum offset.
2. The Yedisu Offset (G) (Figure 16, b-b): Here, the Yedisu Fault, the eastern-
most segment of the NAF, offsets a thrust contact between an Aptian-Lower
Senonian ophiolitic mélange and an Upper Senonian-Palaeogene volcanic
and volcaniclastic unit consisting of agglomerates, andesites, basalts, dacites,
trachytes, and conglomerates for 50 km right-laterally (Herece & Akay 2003,
appendix 13). This is a minimum offset for the NASZ, for south of the NAF
there are a number of fault splays that take up further displacement. Unfortu-
nately, in this region such splays are entirely within Pliocene volcanics and it
is as yet not possible to assess the amount of displacement they accomplish
(see Herece & Akay, ibid.).
3. Offset of the Karasu River (Euphrates tributary) (M) (Figure 17, c-c): Barka
& Gülen (1989) pointed out that the Karasu was displaced right-laterally for
50 km across the Erzincan Basin. However, they ignored the bending of the
river into the fault zone (most probably along a number of parallel faults).
When that bending is taken into account, the morphological offset increases
to some 70 km (Anonymous 1977, sheet 340-A, Erzurum).
4. Turhal-Amasya Plain deflection of the Yeşilırmak (M) (Figure 17, d-d):
Between the town of Turhal and the Amasya Plain the Yeşilırmak is de-
flected right-laterally for some 30 km. This deflection is on strike with nar-
row Albian to Middle Campanian ophiolitic mélange units recognized amid
Paleo-Tethyan mélange units of pre-Liassic age (Bozkurt et al. 1997), which
seem to have been emplaced along young strike-slip faults, expressed in the
morphology as prominent parallel ridges (Anonymous 1977, sheet 324-D,
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
84 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
is displaced for some 40 km right-laterally along the main strand of the NAF.
The river here is probably early Pliocene in age, so the offset is probably
close to the true cumulative displacement along the fault. The suggestion by
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Nowhere else along the Northern Strand could a cumulative offset be measured
reliably. The 75 ± 5 km reported by Armijo et al. (1999, 2000) along the Gelibolu
Peninsula has been disputed (Yaltırak et al. 2000) and could not be corroborated
by us in the field (X. Le Pichon, M. Sakınç & A.M.C. Şengör, unpublished obser-
vations) or by others (A.İ. Okay, personal communication, 2003) either.
One of the main themes of this review is the recognition that the NAF, i.e., the
main, through-going right-lateral strike-slip fault depicted with heavier lines in
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
86 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
It looks as if the Southern Strand evolved slowly with the rest of the NASZ,
but that the Northern Strand formed very fast (since a certain late Pliocene date)
probably after the NAF was well defined east of Adapazarı (40◦ 47 N, 30◦ 25 E) and
in response to the inability of the south-concave Southern Strand to accommodate
the increased offset and the rate of motion along the NAF (Le Pichon et al. 2003).
It therefore appears that the NASZ as a whole is medial to late Miocene in age,
but not the NAF.
Why is that so? We believe the answer lies in the way through-going strike-
slip faults develop from much wider shear zones as shear progresses (Figure 18).
Figure 19 shows how a certain magnitude of displacement across a shear zone is
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Figure 18 Shear evolution in a strike-slip zone and the structures generated. For
discussion and references, see Şengör (1995).
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 19 Three squares of different size (A, B, and C) deformed by the same amount of dextral
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
displacement applied to them. Note that the resultant shear strain and the structures resulting from it are
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
87
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
88 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
in Figure 19, shear zone A is still at the prepeak structure stage (sensu Tchalenko
1970; see Figure 18). Individual structures looked at without combining them into
a general picture show hardly an indication of the shear zone. In the same Figure,
shear zone C has already reached the preresidual structure stage (Tchalenko 1970;
Figure 18) with a clear through-going strike-slip fault. Shear zone B has the same
displacement as the other shear zones and it has developed Riedel shears at the
postpeak structure stage I (Tchalenko 1970) that have not yet coalesced into a single
through-going system. At this stage it is not possible to say which of the Riedel
shears in the sheared square B will join up to form a major strike-slip system
(Figure 19). Some will no doubt be left outside the final through-going fault.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
and thrusts) are not taken into account while measuring the total displacement, one
would always underestimate the cumulative offset of the entire shear zone.
We have selected five stations to study representative slices of the NASZ during
its evolution (Figure 20). Because the shear zone widens westward, these sections
cannot be squares as depicted in Figure 19, but must be more complex quadrilat-
erals (Figure 21). Strain in these quadrilaterals is not homogeneous simple shear,
but must be inhomogeneous. Figures 21A,B show the geometric properties of such
quadrilaterals and the strain fields in them. Where the NASZ has pure strike-slip,
the geometry and kinematics shown in Figure 21A apply. We assume that this
represents the situation in stations C, D, and E (Figures 20 and 22). By contrast,
regions west of Bolu already have some transtensional component and we have
imposed the same transtension on stations A and B. We are aware, as discussed
above, that the situation along the NASZ is more complicated than these assump-
tions, but we feel that they are adequate to give us a first-order feeling of how the
NASZ and NAF might have evolved. Figure 22 shows the evolution of the five
quadrilateral slices we have selected along the NASZ during six time intervals.
The parameters of this evolution are tabulated in Table 2.
The following discussion shows how the six intervals were selected. We empha-
size that they can be selected in any arbitrary way, so long as they are distributed
in time in a representative way.
Figure 23 is a “speedogram” of the NASZ. It plots cumulative offset against
time since the origin of the NASZ deduced from its associated basins (Figures
8A,B). Also plotted is the present rate of motion of the fault, which is approximately
2.5 cm/year (Figures 15 and 16). If we project the present rate linearly backward in
time, we see that the present cumulative offset could have accumulated in 3.5 Ma.
The NASZ (and the NAF) would have formed in the early Pliocene between
Zanclean and Piacenzian times. This is geologically unlikely: We know from the
Karnos Basin (Figure 8B, no. 15) that the NASZ originated some 13 to 11 Ma ago
in the east (where the NASZ and NAF are almost coincident), not 3.5 Ma ago. We
therefore connect the present rate of motion with the rate of motion at the time of
origin, which had to be 0 cm/year. We make the connection by means of a smooth
curve and explore its implications.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
Figure 20 Five stations selected to study the possible shear history of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF)
according to the shear model depicted in Figure 18. The five quadrilaterals are used to track the shear
evolution.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
89
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
90 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Figure 21 The geometrical and strain properties of the five representative quadrilat-
erals shown in Figure 19. (A) Case for simple shear: I. The strain quadrilateral: β is the
angle between the two sides of the shear zone, γ is the displacement, is the shear
angle of the right (eastern) side, and is the shear angle for the left (western) side of
the representative quadrilateral. Lines ad and bc do not change their length during the
deformation. All other lines of the quadrilateral do change their lengths. II. The distri-
bution of strain zones within the quadrilateral: Zone 1, all lines lengthen at all times
during the deformation; zone 2, lines first shorten then lengthen; and zone 3, all lines
shorten at all times during the deformation. Black area is the family of lines that do
not change their length at all during the deformation. (B) Case for transtension: I. The
strain quadrilateral [symbols are the same as in (A)I, except here is displacement].
II. The distribution of strain zones within the quadrilateral [symbols same as in (A)II].
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Figure 22 Shear evolution of the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) as illustrated by
the shear strain undergone by the five selected quadrilaterals, here shown to have undergone
purely ductile deformation to illustrate the variation in shear strain along the NASZ.
We first assume, for the sake of argument, that the NASZ had a uniform width of
some 100 km and a length of 1200 km. This is about the same width to length ratio
as that of the shear zone that Tchalenko (1970) used in his clay cake experiments,
illustrating the evolution of through-going strike-slip faults (see his figure 5). In
these experiments, 13% of the total displacement across the shear zone is ac-
complished at what Tchalenko termed the prepeak strength deformation stage
(Figure 18). If the experiment corresponds to the development in nature (although
it necessarily ignores dynamic rupture in earthquakes), that stage would have been
accomplished along a uniform width NASZ approximately 6 Ma ago, with a total
offset of some 11 km. The rate of motion would have been 0.44 cm/year. At that
stage, no through-going fault would have formed, and shear would have been taken
up by a series of Riedel (R) and anti-Riedel (R ) shears plus some tension gashes
at approximately 135◦ (measured anticlockwise from the ordinate taken parallel
with the shear zone) to the shear zone and folds (and/or thrust faults) at 45◦ . At
the stage called “peak structure” by Tchalenko (1970), 26% of the total offset is
accomplished. At this stage, the R shears usually rotate and lock, and other fea-
tures continue to evolve. There is as yet no through-going fault. Some tension gash
segments may begin to link some R shears. Our hypothetical NASZ would have
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
92
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
ŞENGÖR ET AL.
TABLE 2 Evolution of the North Anatolian Shear Zone for six times at stations A to E in Figure 20
Phase of shear
AR233-EA33-02.tex
Time Rate of Shear angle (degree) Shear strain % Shear zone development
BP Offset motion
(Ma) (km) (cm/year) A B C D E A B C D E A B C D E A B C D E
1 6 11.05 0.44 6.3 8.5 12.4 18.3 41.6 0.11 0.15 0.22 0.33 0.89 11 14.8 22.2 33.3 88.75 pP pP pP pP Pp1
2 4.3 22.10 0.9 12.4 16.7 23.7 33 60.7 0.22 0.3 0.44 0.65 1.87 22.2 29.6 44.4 66.6 177.5 pP pP pP P pR
3 3.3 29.75 1.2 16.7 22 31 42 67.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.9 2.4 29.7 39.8 59.7 89.6 239 pP pP P Pp1 pR
4 2 44.2 1.4 23.7 31 41.7 53 74.3 0.44 0.6 0.89 1.33 3.55 44.4 59.2 88.8 133 355 pP P Pp1 Pp2 pR
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
5 0.8 62.9 2 32.2 40 51.6 62.2 78.7 0.63 0.84 1.26 1.9 5 63.2 84.2 126 189.5 505 P Pp1 Pp2 pR pR
6 0 85 2.5 40.4 48.5 59.5 68.7 81.7 0.85 1.13 1.7 2.56 6.87 85.3 113.8 170.7 256 682.7 Pp1 Pp2 Pp2 pR R
pP: pre-Peak; P: Peak; Pp1: post-Peak I; Pp2: post-Peak II; pR: pre-Residual; R: Residual.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
P1: IKH
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Figure 23 The “speedogram” of the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). See text for
discussion.
reached this stage approximately 4.2 Ma ago and would have accumulated by
that time an offset of approximately 22 km. Rate of displacement would have
been 0.9 cm/year. At the first part of the “post peak structure stage,” R shears con-
siderably lengthen and the linking tension gash segments may develop into true
pull-apart basins. Approximately 35% of the total offset is already accomplished at
this stage. This might have corresponded with a 31 km total offset along the NASZ
approximately 3.4 Ma ago, when the rate of motion might have been 1.2 cm/year.
This would have been a time of increased basin subsidence along pull-aparts when
the activity of very much lengthened R shears that may have begun to crowd into the
fairly narrow zone of a future through-going rupture. As yet there was probably still
no through-going main strand. The second part of the postpeak structure stage is the
time when finally a through-going single strand originates by the appearance of
P-shears that link the already much lengthened and overlapping R shears. Just
more than half the total offset is already accomplished by the time these structures
establish themselves. The NASZ, given the hypothetical conditions we imposed
on our discussion, might have reached this stage some 2 Ma ago, i.e., in the
beginning of the Pleistocene, with a total offset of some 45 km and a rate of
motion of 1.4 cm/year. Finally, the through-going fault strand becomes stabilized
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
94 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
when what Tchlenko called “the preresidual stage” is reached with 74% of the total
offset accomplished. In our hypothetical case, this would have happened at some
800 ka ago and the rate of motion would have reached 2 cm/year. In the residual
stage, 100% of the current offset is already accomplished and the fault zone is well
established.
This scenario, however, clearly does not fit the NASZ except at its westernmost
station (A in Figures 20, 22, and 24), where the width of the shear zone is indeed
100 km. Eastward, the shear zone becomes narrower, in harmony with the narrow-
ing width of the Tethyside accretionary complexes, and, correspondingly, shear
strain increases! Figure 22 shows five arbitrarily chosen stations along the NASZ,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
for each of which, and for five times in the past and for the present, we have
computed the shear angle and the shear strain and shown in which of Tchalenko’s
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
stages they would be found at any given time (Table 2). Figure 24 shows theoretical
structural evolution for each of the quadrilaterals shown in Figures 20 and 22 for
the times selected.
One feature of the evolution thus displayed that is immediately obvious is
the westward propagation of the main through-going fault strand. For instance, a
through-going strike-slip system was already well-established at station E approx-
imately 4 Ma ago (Figures 22 and 24, stage 2), whereas hardly a single strike-slip
fault had formed at station A. Some 850 ka ago (Figures 22 and 24, stage 5), a
major strike-slip fault at station E had already accumulated 63 km of cumulative
offset, whereas at station A there was as yet no through-going main strand, al-
though a number of subordinate R shears must have been active and shared a part
of the total offset.
Another feature that presents itself to our observation is that measuring cumu-
lative offset at the eastern stations (D and E) would be much easier than at the
central and western stations because of the clean nature of the principal zone of
displacement, even if the fault zone had not extended parallel with the predominant
paleotectonic strike-lines in the central and western parts. The fact that the fault
zone is parallel with the main trend-lines in its central and western parts naturally
greatly compounds the difficulty of measuring the cumulative offset along the
NASZ and along the NAF.
In any case, the theoretical scenario discussed above and depicted in Figures 22
and 24 now looks very familiar to students of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. It
explains why the fault becomes younger westward and, if we take the data displayed
in Figures 8B(b) and (c) at face value, suggests a propagation velocity of some
11 cm/year. It also explains why the fault zone is so much narrower in the east than it
is in the west and why the shear-related structures occupy such a wider zone west of
station C than to its east. Almost everyone who has worked on the NAF has obtained
the impression that the cumulative offset along it becomes smaller from east to
west, which is corroborated by the most recent observations, as we discussed above.
The evolutionary model presented here provides a rationale for that inference: The
offset increases eastward because the main through-going fault had formed earlier
there than it did in locations to the west. If our model is correct, the offset along
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
18 Mar 2005 19:32
AR
AR233-EA33-02.tex
AR233-EA33-02.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
Figure 24 Theoretical shear evolution according to the model illustrated in Figure 22 at five selected stations (A, B, C, D, E; see Figure
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
20) along the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) at six time intervals (1–6). Here, theoretical structural evolution is shown at every
station, corresponding with the amount of shear strain undergone according to the scheme shown in Figure 18. For the various shear and
P1: IKH
96 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
the fault will have to be found to decrease systematically and continuously from
east to west. And so it seems according to the most recent observations.
We are aware, however, that nature is more complex than our presentation im-
plies. The shear zone pinches and swells, and in the pinched regions the NAF
may have formed earlier than in the swelled regions to their east and west. This
would generate a complex evolution and would mar the simple picture we present.
The greatest advantage of the model presented here lies, however, in the very pre-
cise predictions it makes, as shown in Table 2. All the parameters there shown
can be tested by careful field-mapping. Our model also emphasizes that the NAF
cannot be understood properly unless the entire NASZ is considered. The disparate
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
estimates of the age and total offset of the fault have generally resulted from indi-
vidual studies that considered a segment of the fault without taking the evolution
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
of the entire NASZ into account. The very disparate evolutionary histories in and
around the Sea of Marmara at the western end of the NAF from those in its eastern
parts have been perhaps one of the most valuable lessons learned from the past
four years’ studies.
The one thing that our model cannot predict is the forking of the NAF west of
Bolu. That bifurcation is probably the result of the existence of structures already
established in the west as a result of the Aegean extension. It seems that here,
the NAF in its westerly propagation exploited individual rifts that were already
in place. This is supported by the observation that the Northern Strand is located
in the Northern Marmara Trough and the Southern Strand has several imperfectly
formed branches extending along the transtensional structures south of the Sea of
Marmara. Along both the Northern Strand and the Southern Strand, the Aegean
extensional structures in turn mostly followed the older paleotectonic fabric (cf.
Şengör & Yılmaz 1981, Şengör et al. 1985). In the north, the location of the Intra-
Pontide suture (Şengör & Yılmaz 1981), exactly coinciding with the course of
the Main Marmara Fault, further facilitated the latter’s nucleation and has led to
asymmetric strain across a bimaterial fault.
CONCLUSIONS
The NAF is a diachronous structure that formed by progressive strain localization
in a westerly widening right-lateral shear zone in northern Turkey along mostly a
bimaterial interface juxtaposing subduction-accretion material of the Tethysides
and older and stronger continental basement to its north. It has formed since
approximately 11 Ma ago in the east, near Erzincan, and may have propagated
westward at a rate of 11 cm/year if the assumption of the continuously widening
width of NASZ westward is correct. If not, irregularities will be seen locally in
the rate and direction of propagation. NAF reached the Sea of Marmara no ear-
lier than 200 ka ago, although the NASZ-related deformation there commenced
in the late Miocene. The fault has a very distinct morphological expression and
is seismically active. Since the seventeenth century, it has seemed to display a
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
cyclical seismic behavior, with century-long cycles commencing in the east and
migrating westward, but the record does not lend itself to a unique interpretation
before the twentieth century. For earlier times, reaching back to the third century
BC, the record is less satisfactory, although clearly indicating a lively seismic-
ity. The twentieth century record has been successfully interpreted in terms of a
Coulomb failure model, whereby every earthquake concentrates the shear stress
at the western tip of the broken segments leading to westward migration of the
large earthquakes. It is believed that the August 17 and November 12, 1999, events
have loaded the Marmara segment of the fault and that a major, M ≤ 7.6 event
is to be expected in the next half century with an approximately 50% probability
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
on this segment. Now, the strain in the Sea of Marmara region is highly asym-
metric with greater strain to the south of the Northern Strand. This is conditioned
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
by the geology and it is believed that this is generally the case for the entire
NAF.
What is now needed is a careful revision, and enlargement to cover the entire
NASZ, of the Geological Atlas of the NAF (Herece & Akay 2003) in the light of
the discussions developed here. More intensive paleontological and magnetostrati-
graphic studies in the NASZ basins to date them more precisely and the collection
of more paleomagnetic data along the entire NASZ will be needed. Once such a
data set becomes available, we will be in a better position to assess the history of
the entire NAK.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Ş. Can Genç, Cenk Yaltırak, Ömer Emre, and Gülsen Uçarkuş for help
in pulling the data together. John F. Dewey discussed with us the tectonics of
transtensional zones. We are particularly grateful to Erdal Herece and Ergün Akay,
both of the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) in
Ankara, Turkey, for having placed their great Atlas of the NAF (scale 1:100,000)
at our disposal before publication. Ross Stein and Serkan Bozkurt kindly supplied
Figure 13 and gave permission to include it in this paper. Korhan Erturaç prepared
Figure 1. We thank Kevin Burke for a superb review and Jennifer Jongsma for
excellent editorial work. Şengör and Görür are grateful for the support of the
Turkish Academy of Sciences.
LITERATURE CITED
Akartuna M. 1968. Armutlu Yarımadasının Je- Akartuna M, Atan OR. 1981. Geyve-İkramiye-
olojisi. İstanbul Üniv. Fen Fak. Monogr. Fındıksu (Sakarya) dolayının jeolojisi.
(Tabiı̂ İlimler Kısmı), No. 20. 105 pp.+3 fold- Selçuk Üniv. Fen Fak. Derg., No. 1, Ser. A
outs (Yerbilim.), pp. 25–46
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
98 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
Akkan E. 1964. Erzincan Ovası ve Çevresinin ern Anatolia, Turkey. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Jeomorfolojisi. Ankara Üniv. Dil Tarih- Res. 102:67–95
Coğraf. Fak. Yayın., No. 153. 104 pp.+1 er- Allen CR. 1969. Active faulting in northern
rata page+11 foldouts Turkey. Contrib. No. 1577, Div. Geol. Sci.,
Akkan E. 1970. Bafra Burnu-Delice Kavşağı Calif. Inst. Technol. 32 pp.
Arasında Kızılırmak Vadisinin Jeomorfolo- Allen CR. 1982. Comparisons between the
jisi. Ankara Üniv. Dil Tarih-Coğraf. Fak. North Anatolian Fault of Turkey and the San
Yayın., No. 191. VI+158 pp.+17 foldout Andreas Fault of California. See Işıkara &
plates Vogel 1982, pp. 67–85
Aksu AE, Calon TJ, Hiscott RN, Yaşar D. 2000. Alpar B, Yaltırak C. 2002. Characteristic fea-
Anatomy of the North Anatolian Fault Zone tures of the North Anatolian Fault in the east-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
in the Marmara Sea, western Turkey: exten- ern Marmara region and its tectonic evolu-
sional basins above a continental transform. tion. Mar. Geol. 190:329–50
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
GSA Today, June, pp. 3–7 Altınlı İE. 1968. Geologic investigation of the
Aksu AE, Yaltırak C, Hiscott RN. 2002. Quater- İzmit-Hereke-Kurucadağ area. Bull. Miner.
nary paleoclimatic-paleoceanographic and Res. Explor. Inst. Turk., No. 71, pp. 1–28 +
tectonic evolution of the Marmara Sea V plates
and environs. Mar. Geol. 190[ii]+552 Altınlı İE. 1975. Geology of the middle Sakarya
pp. River (Turkey). In Congress of Earth Sci-
Aktar M, Örgülü G. 2001. Study of strong ences on the Occasion of the 50th Anniversary
aftershocks of İzmit and Düzce earth- of the Turkish Republic, Papers, pp. 161–96
quake sequence using regional moment ten- + 4 foldout plates. Ankara: Miner. Res. Ex-
sor inversion. In Scientific Activities 2001 plor. Inst.
ITU Faculty of Mines: Symp. Seismotec- Altınok Y, Alpar B, Yaltırak C. 2003. Şarköy-
tonics North-Western Anatolia-Aegean Re- Mürefte 1912 earthquake’s tsunami, exten-
cent Turk. Earthq., Symp. Book, pp. 72–77. sion of the associated faulting in the Marmara
İstanbul: İstanbul Tech. Univ. Sea, Turkey. J. Seismol. 7:329–46
Aktimur HT, Ateş Ş, Oral A. 1986. Altunel E, Akyüz S, Guest S, eds. 2003. A
Bolu çevresindeki deprem zararlarının special issue commemorating Aykut Barka.
azaltılmasına yönelik sismik zonlama. Türk. Turk. J. Earth Sci. 12(No. 1). 156 pp.
Jeol. Kurumu Bül. 29:43–49 Altunel E, Barka A, Akyüz S, Orhan A,
Akyol İH. 1940. Erzincan zelzelesi ve son eds. 2001. Aktif Tektonik Araştırma Grubu
feyezanlar dolayısıyla. Ülkü 14(No. 84):499; Dördüncü Toplantısı, Osmangazi Üniv.
(No. 85):17; (No. 86):113 16–17 Kasım 2000, Eskişehir, ATAG-4,
Akyüz HS, Hartleb R, Barka A, Altunel E, Makaleler, Eskişehir, [II]+ 171 pp.
Sunal G, et al. 2002. Surface rupture and slip Ambraseys NN. 1969. Some characteristic fea-
distribution of the 12 November 1999 Düzce tures of the North Anatolian Fault Zone.
earthquake (M 7.1), North Anatolian Fault, Tectonophysics 9:143–65
Bolu, Turkey. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 92:61– Ambraseys NN. 1975. Studies in historical
66 seismicity and tectonics. In Geodynamics
Akyüz S, Barka A, Altunel E, Hartleb R, Sunal Today—A Review of Earth’s Dynamic Pro-
G. 2000. Field observations and slip distribu- cesses, pp. 7–16. London: R. Soc.
tion of the November 12, 1999 Düzce earth- Ambraseys NN. 2002a. The seismic activity of
quake (M = 7.1), Bolu—Turkey. See Barka the Marmara Sea region over the last 2000
et al. 2000b, pp. 63–70 years. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 92:1–18
Aldanmaz E, Pearce JA, Thirlwall MF, Mitchell Ambraseys NN. 2002b. The earthquake of 1509
JG. 2000. Petrogenetic evolution of late in the Sea of Marmara, Turkey, revisited.
Cenozoic, post-collision volcanism in west- Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 91:1397–416
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Ambraseys NN, Finkel CF. 1987. The gölüne morfolojik müşahadeler. İstanbul
Saros-Marmara earthquake of 9 August Üniv. Coğraf. Enst. Derg. No. 10, p. 146
1912. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn. 15:189– Ardel A. 1964. Batı Karadeniz Bölgesinde mor-
211 folojik müşahadeler. İstanbul Üniv. Coğraf.
Ambraseys NN, Finkel CF. 1991. Long-term Enst. Derg. 8(No. 14):62–75
seismicity of İstanbul and of the Marmara Ardel A. 1965. Anadolu havzalarinin teşekkül
Sea region. Terra Nova 3:527–39 ve tekâmülü hakkında düşünceler. İstanbul
Ambraseys NN, Finkel CF. 1995. The seismic- Üniv. Coğraf. Enst. Derg. 8(No. 15):60–73
ity of Turkey and adjacent areas—a histor- Ardel A. 1967. İç Anadoluda, Kızılırmak yayı
ical review, 1500–1800. Eren İstanbul. 240 içinde kalan sahada coğrafı̂ müşahadeler.
pp. İstanbul Üniv. Coğraf. Enst. Derg. 8:9–17
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Ambraseys NN, Jackson JA. 1998. Faulting Armijo R, Meyer B, Hubert-Ferrari A, Barka A.
associated with historical and recent earth- 1999. Westward propagation of North Ana-
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
quakes in the Eastern Mediterranean region. tolian Fault into the Northern Aegean: timing
Geophys. J. Int. 133:390–406 and kinematics. Geology 27:267–70
Ambraseys NN, White D. 1997. The seismicity Armijo R, Meyer B, Hubert-Ferrari A, Barka A.
of the Eastern Mediterranean region 550–1 2000. Westward propagation of North Ana-
BC: a re-appraisal. J. Earthq. Eng. 1:603–32 tolian Fault into the Northern Aegean: tim-
Andrews DJ, Ben-Zion Y. 1997. Wrinkle-like ing and kinematics: Reply. Geology 28:188–
pulse on a fault between different materials. 89
J. Geophys. Res. 102:5530–71 Armijo R, Meyer B, Navarro S, King G. 2002.
Anonymous. 1973. Kuzey Anadolu Fayı ve De- Slip partitioning in the Sea of Marmara pull-
prem Kuşağı Simpozyumu (29, 30, 31 Mart apart: a clue to propagation processes of the
1972—Ankara), Tebliğler: M. T. A. Enst., North Anatolian Fault. Terra Nova 14:80–86
Ankara, 170 pp. Arpat E, Şaroğlu F. 1972. The east Anatolian
Anonymous. 1977. Yeni Türkiye Atlası. M. S. fault system: thoughts on its development.
B. Harita Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Unpag- Bull. Miner. Res. Explor. Ins. Turk., No. 78,
inated pp. 33–39
Anonymous. 2001. Türkiye Kuvaterneri Çalı- Arpat E, Şaroğlu F. 1975. Türkiye’de bazı
ştayı, Makaleler ve Özetler: İstanbul Tek. önemli genç tektonik olaylar: Türk. Jeol. Ku-
Üniv. Avrasya Yerbilim. Enst., 21–22 Mayıs, rumu Bül. 18:91–101
İstanbul. 158 pp. Atakan K, Ojeda A, Meghraoui M, Barka AA,
Anonymous. 2003a. Int. Workshop North Ana- Erdik M, Bodare A. 2002. Seismic hazard in
tolian, East Anatolian and Dead Sea Fault İstanbul following the 17 August 1999 İzmit
Systems, Abstr., Recent Progress Tecton- and 12 November 1999 Düzce earthquakes.
ics and Paleoseismology and Field Train. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 92:466–82
Course Paleoseismology. Middle East Tech. Ataman G, Buket E, Çapan UZ. 1975. Could
Univ. (METU), Ankara, Turk. XV+184 pp. North Anatolian Fault Zone be a paleo-
Anonymous 2003b. Türkiye Kuvaterneri Benioff Zone? Bull. Miner. Res. Explor. Inst.
Çalıştayı IV, İstanbul Tek. Üniv. Avrasya Turk., No. 84, pp. 97–102
Yerbilim. Enst., 20–30 Mayıs, İstanbul. 207 Aytun A. 1982. Creep measurements in the
pp. İsmetpaşa Region of the North Anatolian
Ansal A, ed. 2001. Lessons learned from recent Fault Zone. See Işıkara & Vogel 1982, pp.
strong earthquakes. Proc. 15th Int. Conf. Soil 279–92
Mech. Geotech. Eng., Earthq. Geotech. Eng. Aydın A, Nur A. 1982. Evolution of pull-apart
Satell. Conf., İstanbul, Turk. Maya Basın basins and their scale independence. Tecton-
Yayın Ltd. Şti, İstanbul. VIII+382 pp. ics 1:91–105
Ardel A. 1959. İzmit körfezinden İznik Bargu S, Sakınç M. 1989/1990. İzmit Körfezi
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
ile İznik Gölü arasında kalan bölgenin je- Barka A, Kozacı Ö, Akyüz S, Altunel E,
olojisi ve yapısal özellikleri. İstanbul Üniv. eds. 2000b. The 1999 İzmit and Düzce
Mühendis. Fak. Yerbilim. Derg. 6:45–76 Earthquakes: Preliminary Results. İstanbul:
Barka A. 1985. Kuzey Anadolu Fay Zonundaki İstanbul Tech. Üniv. X+349 pp.
bazı Neojen-Kuaterner havzalarının jeolojisi Barka AA. 1981. Seismo-tectonic aspects of
ve tektonik evrimi. Ketin Simp. Kitabi, Türk. the North Anatolian Fault. PhD thesis. Univ.
Jeol. Kurumu, Ankara, pp. 209–27 Bristol. [XX]+335 pp.
Barka A. 1992. The North Anatolian Fault zone. Bartlett WL, Friedman M, Logan JM. 1981.
Ann. Tecton. 6:164–95 Experimental folding and faulting of rocks
Barka A. 1993. Erzincan Baseni, çevresinin under confining pressure: part IX. Wrench
tektoniği ve 13 Mart 1992 depremi. In faults in limestone layers. Tectonophysics
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Bingöl E. 1989. Türkiye Jeoloji Haritası/ ments in the interval 1989–1997. Geophys.
Geological Map of Turkey, scale 1: J. Int. 135:195–214
2,000,000. Ankara: Maden tetkik ve Arama Çorlu V, ed. 1999. Cogito Deprem Özel Sayısı.
Genel Müdürlüğü. One sheet Cogito, No. 20. 375 pp.
Blumenthal M. 1945. La ligne sismique de Crowell JC. 1974. Origin of late Cenozoic
Lâdik. Maden Tetk. Arama Mecmuası, No. basins in Southern California. Soc. Econ. Pa-
1/33, pp. 162–74 leontol. Miner., Spec. Publ. 22:190–204
Blumenthal MM. 1948. Bolu Civarı ile Crowell JC. 1982. The tectonics of Ridge Basin,
Aşağı Kızılırmak Mecrası Arasındaki Kuzey southern California. In Geologic History of
Anadolu Silsilelerinin Jeolojisi. Maden Tetk. Ridge Basin Southern California, ed. JC
Arama Enst. Yayın, Ser. B, No. 13, Ankara, Crowell, MH Link, Book 22:25–41. Los
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
265 pp.+54 photographic plates+ numerous Angeles: Pac. Sect. Soc. Econ. Paleontol.
unnumbered foldout plates Mineral.
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Bozkurt E, Guest ed. 2001. Special issue Neo- Dağtekin H. 1981. Genel Tarih Atlası. İnkılâp
tectonics of Turkey. Geodin. Acta 14(No. 1– Aka, İstanbul, III+64+27 pp.
3) 212 pp. Deli F, Pérouse J-F. 1999. Le tremblement
Bozkurt E, Holdsworth BK, Koçyiğit A. 1997. de terre de Yalova-İzmit-İstanbul—Premièrs
Implications of Jurassic chert identified in the Éléments d’Appréciation: Les dossiers de
Tokat Complex, northern Turkey. Geol. Mag. l’IFEA, sér: la Turquie aujourd’hui, no.
134:91–97 1, Inst. Français d’Études Anatoliennes
Bozkurt E, Koçyiğit A. 1995. Almus Fault Georges Dumézil, İstanbul, 40 pp.
Zone: Its age, total offset and relation to the Demirbağ E, Rangin C, Le Pichon X, Şengör
North Anatolian Fault Zone. Turk. J. Earth AMC. 2003. Investigation of the tectonics of
Sci. 4:93–104 the Main Marmara Fault by means of deep-
Bozkurt E, Koçyiğit A. 1996. The Kazova towed seismic data. Tectonophysics 361:1–
basin: an active negative flower structure on 19
the Almus Fault Zone, a splay fault system Dewey JF, Helman ML, Turco E, Hutton DHW,
of the North Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey. Knott SD. 1989. Kinematics of the west-
Tectonophysics 265:239–54 ern Mediterranean. Geol. Soc. London, Spec.
Bozkurt E, Oberhänsli R. 2001. Menderes Mas- Publ. 45:265–83
sif (western Turkey): structural, metamor- Dewey JF, Şengör AMC. 1979. Aegean and
phic and magmatic evolution—a synthesis. surrounding regions: complex multiplate and
Int. J. Earth Sci. 89:679–708 continuum tectonics in a convergent zone.
Bozkurt E, Winchester JA, Piper JDA, eds. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 90:84–92
2000. Tectonics and magmatism in Turkey Dirik K. 1993. Geological history of the north-
and the surrounding area. Geol. Soc. London ward arched segment of the North Anatolian
Spec. Publ. 173, xvii+521 pp. Transform Fault Zone. Geol. J. 28:251–66
Çağatay N. 2003. Chronostratigraphy and sed- Doğan E, Kurter A, eds. 2000. Marmara
imentology of the Marmara Sea over the last Denizi’nin Jeolojik Oşinografisi. İstanbul
40 kyrs. Geophys. Res. Abstr. Vol. 5, EAE03- Üniv. Deniz Bilim. İşletmeciliği Enst.,
A-01883 İstanbul, VII+504 pp.
Canıtez N, Üçer SB. 1967. A Catalogue of Fo- Durukal E, Uçkan E, Şeşetyan K, Demircioğlu
cal Mechanism Diagrams for Turkey and Ad- MB. 2002. MARSH Earthquake Risk As-
joining Areas. İTÜ Maden Fak., Arz Fiziği sessment for Industrial Facilities in Istanbul,
Enst. Yayın No. 25. 111 pp. coordinated by M. Erdik: Boğaziçi Univer-
Clarke PJ, Davies RR, England PC, Parsons sity Kandilli Obs. Earthq. Res. Inst., Dep.
B, Billiris H, et al. 1998. Crustal strain in Earthq. Eng., İstanbul. 303 pp.
central Greece from repeated GPS measure- Egeran EN. 1947. Tectonique de la Turquie
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
relationship to geology and tectonic. See taraçaları ve depoları. Türk Coğraf. Derg.,
Schindler & Pfister 1997, pp. 197–228 No. 15–16, pp. 188–90
Emre Ö, Awata Y, Duman TY, eds. 2003. Erinç S. 1973. Türkiye’nin şekillenmesinde
17 Ağustos 1999 İzmit Depremi Yüzey neotektoniğin rolü ve jeomorfoloji-jeodina-
Kırığı/Surface Rupture Associated with the mik ilişkileri. Jeomorfol. Derg., No. 5, pp.
17 August 1999 İzmit Earthquake. Gen. Dir. 15–25
Miner. Res. Explor., Spec. Publ. 1, Ankara, Erinç S, Bilgin T, Bener M. 1961a. Gerede
[VII]+280 pp.+ 1 foldout map in pocket cıvarında akarsu şebekesi. İstanbul Üniv.
Emre Ö, Duman TY, Doğan A, Ateş Ş, Keçer Coğraf. Enst. Derg. 6:90–99
M, et al. 1999. 12 Kasim Düzce Depremi Erinç S, Bilgin T, Bener M. 1961b. Çağa De-
Saha Gözlemleri ve Ön Değerlendirme Ra- presyonu ve Boğazı. İstanbul Üniv. Coğraf.
poru. M.T.A. Genel Müdürlüğü, Jeol. Etütleri Enst. Derg. 7:170–73
Dairesi, 16 Kasim, Ankara, [I]+27 pp. Eser Teknik Sondaj ve Ticaret AŞ. 2000. Düzce
Emre Ö, Erkal T, Kazancı N, Görmüş S, Görür Kenti—I. Nolu Bölge (3444 Hektar–MIA
N, et al. 1997. Güney Marmara’nın Neojen Yakın Çevresi) 12 Kasım Depremi Sonrası
ve Kuaterner’deki Morfotektoniği. In Güney Yeniden Yapılanma Kapsamında Jeolojik-
Marmara Bölgesinin Neojen ve Kuaterner Jeoteknik İnceleme Raporu, Ankara. 61 pp.
Evrimi, TÜBİTAK YDABÇAG-426/G Proje Eyidoğan H, Utku Z, Güçlü U, Değirmenci
Raporu, pp. 36–68 (Open File Rep.) E. 1991. Türkiye Büyük Depremleri Makro-
Emre Ö, Erkal T, Tchepalyga A, Kazancı N, Sismik Rehberi (1900–1988). İstanbul Tek.
Keçer M, Ünay E. 1998. Doğu Marmara Üniv. Maden Fak., Jeofizik Mühendisliği
bölgesinin Neojen-Kuaternerdeki evrimi. Böl., [II]+198 pp.
Maden Tetk. Arama Derg., No. 120, pp. 289– Farinacci A, Ager DV, Nicosia U, eds. 1991.
314 Geology and Paleontology of Western Pon-
Emre Ö, Kuşçu İ, Doğan A, Duman TY, tides, Turkey—Jurassic-Early Cretaceous
Özalp S, et al., eds. 2002. Aktif Tektonik Stratigraphy, Tectonics and Paleogeographic
Araştırma Grubu Altinci Toplantisi, Bildiri Evolution. Geol. Romana, Vol. 27, VIII+447
Özetleri. M.T.A. Genel Müdürlüğü, 21–22 pp.
Kasım, Ankara, iii+125+[8] pp. Fayon AK, Whitney DL, Teyssier C, Garver JI,
Ercan T, Satir M, Steinitz G, Dora A, Dilek Y. 2001. Effects of plate convergence
Sarıfakıoğlu E, et al. 1995. Biga Yarımadasi obliquity on timing and mechanism of ex-
ile Gökçeada, Bozcaada ve Tavşan humation of a mid-crustal terrain, the central
Adalarındakı (KB Anadolu) Tersiyer Anatolian crystalline complex. Earth Planet.
volkanizmasının özellikleri. Maden Tetk. Sci. Lett. 192:191–205
Arama Enst. Bül., No. 117, pp. 55–86 Fuenzalida H, Dorbath L, Cisternas A,
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Eyidoğan H, Barka A, et al. 1997. Mecha- Mediterranean, ed. JE Dixon, AHF Robert-
nism of the 1992 Erzincan earthquake and its son, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ. 17:467–
aftershocks, tectonics of the Erzincan basin 82
and decoupling on the North Anatolian Fault. Görür N, Papadopoulos AG, Okay N, eds. 2002.
Geophys. J. Int. 129:1–28 Integration of Earth Science Research on the
Gaucher E. 1993. Modèle en profondeur et en Turkish and Greek 1999 Earthquakes. NATO
vitesse du basin d’Erzincan. DEA Rep. 2, Sci. Ser. IV. Earth Environ. Sci. Vol. 9. Dor-
Inst. Phys. Globe Paris, Jussieu, pp. 215–46 drecht: Kluwer. XVI+207 pp.
Gaudemer YP, Tapponnier P, Turcotte DL. Görür N, Şengör AMC, Akkök R, Yılmaz Y.
1989. River offsets across active strike-slip 1983. Pontidlerde Neo-Tetis’in açılmasına
faults. Ann. Tecton. 3:55–76 ilişkin sedimentolojik veriler (Sedimento-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Gautier P, Bozkurt E, Hallot E, Dirik K. 2002. logical evidence for the opening of the north-
Dating the exhumation of a metamorphic ern branch of Neo-Tethys in the Pontides).
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
dome: geological evidence for pre-Eocene Türk. Jeol. Kurumu Bül. 26:11–20
unroofing of the Nigde Massif (central Ana- Greber E. 1996. Stratigraphic evolution and
tolia, Turkey). Geol. Mag. 139:559–76 tectonics in an area of high seismic-
Genç SC. 1993. İznik-İnegöl (Bursa) ity:Akyazı/Adapazarı (Pontides, Northwest-
Arasındaki Tektonik Birliklerin Jeolojik ern Turkey). Turk. J. Earth Sci. 5:63–79
ve Petrolojik İncelenmesi. PhD thesis. Greber E. 1997. Stratigraphic evolution and
İstanbul Teknik Üniv., Fen Bilim. Enst. 522 tectonics in an area of high seismic-
pp. ity:Akyazı/Adapazarı (Pontides, Northwest-
Gökmen V, Memikoğlu O, Dağlı M, Öz D, ern Turkey). See Schindler & Pfister 1997,
Tuncalı E. 1993. Türkiye Linyit Envanteri. pp. 141–60
Maden Tetk. Arama Genel Müdürlüğü, Guidoboni E, Comastri A, Traina G. 1994.
Ankara, [V]+356 pp. Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes in the
Gökten E, Varol B, Seyitoğlu G, Emre Ö, Mediterranean Area up to the 10th Century.
Özaksoy V, İler Ö, eds. 2001. Aktif Tektonik Roma: Ist. Naz. Geofis. 504 pp.
Araştırma Grubu Beşinci Toplantısı Ankara Gürbüz C, Aktar M, Eyidoğan H, Cisternas A,
Üniv. Mühendis. Fak. Jeol. Mühendisliği Haessler H, et al. 2000. The seismotectonics
Bölümü 15–16 Kasım, Ankara, ATAG-5, of the Marmara region (Turkey): results from
Bildiri Özetleri, Ankara, [III]+42+3 pp. a macroseismic experiment. Tectonophysics
Görür N. 2002. TÜBİTAK’ın Marmara 316:1–17
Denizi’nde Koordine Ettiği Deprem Araştır- Helvacı C, Griffin WL. 1984. Rb-Sr geochro-
maları. TÜBİTAK Marmara Araştırma nology of the Bitlis Massif, Avnik (Bingöl)
Merkezi, Gebze, Kocaeli, 59 pp. area, S. E. Turkey. Geol. Soc. London Spec.
Görür N. 2003. Marmara Denizi’nin Deprem Publ. 17:403–13
Potansiyeli. Ankara: Türk. Bilim. Akad. Hempton M, Dunne LA. 1983. Sedimentation
Yayın. 60 pp. in pull-apart basins: active examples in east-
Görür N, Çağatay MN, Sakınç M, Sümengen ern Turkey. J. Geol. 92:513–30
M, Şentürk K, et al. 1997. Origin of the Sea Herece E, Akay E. 2003. Kuzey Anadolu
of Marmara as deduced from Neogene to Fayı (KAF) Atlası/Atlas of North Anato-
Quaternary paleogeographic evolution of its lian Fault (NAF). Maden Tetk. Arama Genel
frame. Int. Geol. Rev. 39:342–52 Müdürlüğü, Özel Yayın. Ser. 2, Ankara,
Görür N, Oktay FY, Seymen İ, Şengör [IV]+61 pp.+13 appendices as separate
AMC. 1984. Palaeotectonic evolution of the maps
Tuzgölü basin complex, central Turkey: sed- Hewsen RH. 2001. Armenia—A Historical
imentary record of a Neo-Tethyan closure. Atlas. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. xviii+
In Geological Evolution of the Eastern 341 pp.
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Hill ML, Diblee TW Jr. 1953. San Andreas, Turkey and Pakistan. Geophys. J. R. Astron.
Garlock, and Big Pine Faults, California. Soc. 77:185–264
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 64:443–58 Karaalioğlu B. 1973. Merzifon-Gümüşhacıköy
Hodgson JH, Wickens AJ. 1965. Computer- Ovası Hidrojeolojik Etüt Raporu: Türkiye
determined P-nodal solutions for the larger Cumhuriyeti Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar
earthquakes of 1959–1962. Publ. Dom. Obs., Bakanlığı, Devlet Su İşleri Genel
Ottawa 31:123–43 Müdürlüğü, Ankara, 50 pp.
Harvard Univ. 1998. Dep. Earth Planet. Sci., Karaca M, Ural D, eds. 1999. ITU-IAHS Int.
Cambridge, MA. http://www.seismology. Conf. Kocaeli Earthq. 17 August—A Scien-
harvard.edu tific Assessment and Recommendations for
Hubert-Ferrari A, Armijo R, King GCP, Meyer Re-Building. İstanbul Tech. Univ., İstanbul,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
tolian Fault, Turkey. J. Geophys. Res. 107: thrust origin for the ancestral North Anato-
2235 lian Fault. METU J. Pure Appl. Sci. 21:105–
İmren C, Le Pichon X, Rangin C, Demirbğ 26
E, Ecevitoğlu B, Görür N. 2001. The North Kaypak B. 2002. Erzincan Havzası 3-B Hız
Anatolian Fault within the Sea of Marmara: Yapısının Yerel Deprem Tomografisi ile
a new interpretation based on multi-channel Belirlenmesi. PhD thesis. İTÜ Fen Bilim.
seismic and multi-beam bathymetry data. Enst., İstanbul. 216 pp.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 186:143–58 Kazancı N. 1993. Kuzey Anadolu Fayı üzerinde
İnandık H. 1952/1953. Adapazarı Ovası ve tektonik kontrollü depolanma örneği: Suşe-
çevresinin jeomorfolojik etüdü. İstanbul hri Havzası (Alt Pliyosen-Holosen), Türkiye.
Üniv. Coğrafya Enst. Derg. 2(No. 3–4):109– Doğa-Türk Yerbilim. Derg. 2:89–102
38+ 3 photographic plates Ketin İ. 1948. Über die tektonisch-mechani-
Int. Seismol. Centre. 2003. ISC Catalogue schen Folgerungen aus den grossen ana-
1904–2000, Edinburgh. CD-ROM tolischen Erdbeben des letzten Dezenniums.
Irrlitz W. 1971. Neogene and older Pleistocene Geol. Rund. 36:77–83
intra-montane basins in the Pontic region of Ketin İ. 1957. Kuzey Anadolu Deprem Fayı.
Anatolia. Newsl. Stratigr. 1:33–36 İTÜ Derg. 15:49–52
Irrlitz W. 1972. Lithostratigraphie und tektonis- Ketin İ. 1968. Relations between general tec-
che Entwicklung des Neogens in Nordost- tonic features and the main earthquake re-
anatolien (Känozoikum und Braunkohlen in gions in Turkey. Bull. Miner. Res. Explor.
der Türkei. 6.). Beih. Geol. Jahrb., No. 120, Inst. Turk. 71:63–67
111 pp.+10 plates Ketin İ. 1969. Über die nordanatolische Hori-
Işıkara AM, Vogel A, eds. 1982. Multidisci- zontalverschiebung. Bull. Miner. Res. Explor.
plinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction. Inst. Turk. 72:1–28
Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Friedrich Vieweg Ketin İ. 1976. San Andreas ve Kuzey Anadolu
& Sohn Fayları arasında bir karşılastırma. Türk. Jeol.
İzbırak R. 1948. Akdağ ile Güney Çevresinde Kurumu Bül. 19:149–54
Jeomorfoloji Gözlemleri ve Bu Çevrenin Ketin İ, Rösli F. 1953. Makroseismische Un-
Bayındırlaşması Hakkında Bazı Düşünceler. tersuchungen über das nordwest-anatolische
Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğğrafya Beben vom 18 März 1953. Eclogae Geol.
Fak. Yayımları No. 59, Coğrafya Enst. Helv. 46:187–208
No. 3. 82 pp. +7 maps+17 sections+19 Kinder H, Hilgemann W. 1982. Atlas zur
photographs+1 graph Weltgeschichte—Von den Anfängen bis zur
Jackson J, McKenzie DP. 1984. Active tectonics Gegenwart. München: Piper. IX+287 pp.
of Alpine-Himalayan Belt between western King GCP, Hubert-Ferrari A, Nalbant SS,
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Meyer B, Armijo R, Bowman D. 2001. East Tech. Univ. (METU), Ankara, Turk.
Coulomb interactions and the 17 August 27 pp.
1999 İzmit, Turkey earthquake. C.R. Acad. Koçyiğit A, Beyhan A. 1998. A new intra-
Sci. II Ser. A 333:557–69 continental transcurrent structure: The Cen-
Kiratzi AA. 1993. A study of the active crustal tral Anatolian Fault Zone, Turkey. Tectono-
deformation of the North and East Anatolian physics 284:317–36
fault zones. Tectonophysics 225:191–203 Koçyiğit A, Rojay B, Cihan M, Özacar A. 2001.
Kober L. 1914. Die Bewegungsrichtung der The June 6, 2000 Orta (Çankırı, Turkey)
Alpinen Deckengebirge des Mittelmeeres. earthquake: sourced from a new antithetic
Petermanns Geogr. Mitt. Jg. 60(Part 2):pp. sinistral strike-slip structure of the North
250–56 Anatolian Fault system, the Dodurga Fault
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Kober L. 1921. Der Bau der Erde. Gebrüder Zone. Turk. J. Earth Sci. 10:69–82
Borntraeger. Berlin [II]+324 pp.+1 foldout Koçyiğit A, Yılmaz A, Adamia S, Kuloshvili S.
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
C, Ergintav S, et al. 2000. Global Positioning Basins: Tertiary Extension within the Alpine
System constraints on plate kinematics and Orogen, Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Publ. 156,
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
earthquake sequence in Turkey: seismologi- JH. 2000. Heightened odds of large earth-
cal and tectonic aspects. Bull. Seismol. Soc. quakes near İstanbul: An interaction-based
Am. 92:376–86 probability calculation. Science 288:661–65
Özalaybey S, Karabulut H, Ergin M, Aktar Pavoni N. 1961. Die Nordanatolische Horizon-
M, Tapırdamaz C, et al. 2003. Seismogenic talverschiebung. Geol. Rund. 51:122–39
zones of the Sea of Marmara: recent seis- Pérouse J-F. 2001. Turquie: l’après séismes:
micity and focal mechanism solutions. EGS- Les dossiers de l’IFEA, sér.: la Turquie au-
AGU-EUG Jt. Assembly, Nice, Fr., Vol. 5, jourd’hui, no. 7, Inst. Fr. d’Études Ana-
pp. 12,680 tolinnes Georges Dumézil, İstanbul, 52 pp.
Özeren MS. 2002. Crustal structure and forces Pfannenstiel M. 1944. Diluviale Geologie des
in continental deformation. PhD thesis. Univ. Mittelmeergebietes: Die diluvialen Entwick-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Coll., 255 pp. lungsstadien und die Urgeschichte von Dar-
Öztürk A. 1979. Lâdik-Destek yöresinin strati- danellen, Marmarameer und Bosporus. Ein
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
grafisi. Türk. Jeol. Kurumu Bül. 22:27–34 Beitrag zu den klimatisch bedingten eu-
Öztürk A. 1980. Lâdik-Destek yöresinin tek- statischen Spiegelschwankungen des Mit-
toniği. Türk. Jeol. Kurumu Bül. 23:31–38 telmeeres. Geol. Rund. 34:334–42
Pamir HN. 1944a. Une ligne sismogénique en Philippson A. 1918. Kleinasien. In Handbuch
Anatolie septentrionale. Rev. Fac. Sci. Ser. 3, der Regionalen Geologie, ed. G Steinmann,
9:144–58 O Wilckens, Vol. V, Part 2, 22nd issue.
Pamir HN. 1944b. Kuzey Anadolu’nun deprem- Heidelberg: Carl Winters Univ. 183 pp.+3
ler yapan bir beresi. Türk Fizikı̂ ve Tabiı̂ Il- foldout plates
imler Sosyetesi Yıllık Bildirileri ve Arşivi, Pınar N. 1943. Marmara denizi Havzasının
sayı 12, s. 4 Sismik Jeoloji ve Meteorolojisi/Géologie et
Pamir HN, Ketin İ. 1940. Das Erdbeben in der Météorologie Sismique du Bassin de Mer
Türkei vom 27./28. Dezember 1939. Geol. Marmara. PhD thesis. Inst. Géol., Inst.
Rund. 31:77–78 Phys. Gén. Univ. İstanbul, Kenan Matbaası.
Pamir HN, Ketin İ. 1941. Das anatolische Erd- 63 pp.+1 foldout map
beben Ende 1939. Geol. Rund. 32:279–87 Pınar N. 1953. Etude géologique et macrosis-
Papadopoulos GA. 2002. The Athens, Greece, mique du tremblement de terre de Kurşunlu
earthquake (Ms 5.9) of 7 September 1999: (Anatolie septentrionale) du 13 août 1951.
an event triggered by the İzmit, Turkey, 17 Rev. Fac. Sci. Univ. İstanbul, Sér. A 18:
August 1999 earthquake? Bull. Seismol. Soc. 142
Am. 92:312–21 Piper JDA, Moore JM, Tatar O, Gürsoy H, Park
Papadopoulos GA, Kondopoulou DP, Leven- RG. 1996. Palaeomagnetic study of crustal
takis GA, Pavlides SB. 1986. Seismotec- deformation across an intracontinental trans-
tonics of the Aegean region. Tectonophysics form: the North Anatolian Fault Zone in
124:67–84 northern Turkey. In Palaeomagnetism and
Paréjas E, Akyol İH, Altınlı E. 1942. Le trem- Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region, Geol.
blement de terre d’Erzincan du 27 Décembre Soc. London Spec. Publ. 105, ed. A Morris,
1939 (secteur occidentale). Rev. Fac. Sci. DH Tarling, pp. 299–310
Univ. İstanbul, Sér. B 6(Nos. 3–4):187– Piper JDA, Tatar O, Gürsoy H. 1997. De-
222 formational behaviour of continental litho-
Parke JR, Minshull TA, Anderson G, White RS, sphere deduced from block rotations across
McKenzie D, et al. 1999. Active faults in the North Anatolian Fault Zone in Turkey.
the Sea of Marmara, western Turkey, imaged Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 150:191–203
by seismic reflection profiles. Terra Nova Platzman ES, Platt JP, Tapırdamaz C, San-
11:223–27 ver M, Rundle CC. 1994. Why are there
Parsons T, Toda S, Stein R, Barka A, Dieterich no clockwise rotations along the North
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Anatolian Fault Zone? J. Geophys. Res. PhD thesis. İstanbul Üniv., Fen Bilim. Enst.,
99:21705– 15 İstanbul. 240 pp.+7 foldouts
Rangin C, Demirbağ E, İmren C, Crusson A, Şaroğlu F. 1988. Age and offset of the North
Normand A, et al. 2001. Marine Atlas of the Anatolian Fault. METU J. Appl. Sci. 21:65–
Sea of Marmara (Turkey). IFREMER, Paris, 79
11 plates Şaroğlu F, Emre Ö, Boray A. 1987. Türkiye’nin
Reilinger RE, McCLusky SC, Oral MB, King Diri Faylari ve Depremsellikleri: Maden
RW, Toksoz MN. 1997. Global Position- Tetk. Arama Genel Müdürlüğü Jeol. Etüd.
ing System measurements of present-day Dairesi Başkanlığı, Ankara, III+394 pp.+11
crustal movements in the Arabia-Africa- maps in pocket (Open File Rep.)
Eurasia plate collision zone. J. Geophys. Res. Şaroğlu F, Emre Ö, Kuşçu İ. 1992. Türkiye Diri
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Basins, ed. CJ Busby, RV Ingersoll, pp. 53– sif, Western Turkey: implications for tec-
117. Oxford: Blackwell tonic evolution and evidence for Pan-African
Şengör AMC. 1996. Kuzey Anadolu Fayı’nın basement in Turkey. Tectonics 3:693–
Keşfi . . .: Bilim Tek., No. 338, pp. 8–15 707
Şengör AMC, Burke K, Dewey JF. 1982. Tec- Şengör AMC, Tatar O, eds. 1996. Special is-
tonics of the North Anatolian Transform sue on Turkey. Int. Geol. Rev. 38(No. 8): 91–
Fault. See Işıkara & Vogel 1982, pp. 3– 786
22 Şengör AMC, Tatar O, Ernst GW, eds. 1996.
Şengör AMC, Büyükaşıkoğlu S, Canıtez N. Special issue on Turkey. Int. Geol. Rev.
1983. Neotectonics of the Pontides: implica- 38(No. 9):787–882
tions for ‘incompatible‘ structures along the Şengör AMC, Yılmaz Y. 1981. Tethyan evo-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
North Anatolian fault. J. Struct. Geol. 5:211– lution of Turkey: a plate tectonic approach.
16 Tectonophysics 75:181–241
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Şengör AMC, Canıtez N. 1982. The North Ana- Şengör AMC, Yılmaz Y, Ketin İ. 1980. Rem-
tolian Fault. In Alpine-Mediterranean Geo- nants of a pre-late Jurassic ocean in northern
dynamics, Geodynamics, ed. H Berekhemer, Turkey: fragments of Permo-Triassic Paleo-
K Hsü, Ser. 7, pp. 205–16. Boulder, CO: Tethys? Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 91(Part I):599–
Geol. Soc./Washington, DC: Am. Geophys. 609
Union Şengör AMC, Yılmaz Y, Ketin İ. 1982. Rem-
Şengör AMC, Demirbağ E, Tüysüz O, Kurt H, nants of a pre-late Jurassic ocean in northern
Görür N, Kuşçu I. 1999. A preliminary note Turkey: fragments of Permo-Triassic Paleo-
on the structure of the Gulf of İzmit: impli- Tethys? Reply. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 93:932–
cations for the westerly prolongation of the 36
North Anatolian Fault. See Karaca & Ural Seymen İ. 1975. Kelkit Vadisi Kesiminde
1999, pp. 25–37 Kuzey Anadolu Fay Zonunun Tektonik
Şengör AMC, Görür N, Şaroğlu F. 1985. Strike- Özelliği: Dr. Eng., İstanbul Tek. Üniv.,
slip faulting and related basin formation in Maden Fak., XIX+ 192 pp. +2 foldout maps
zones of tectonic escape: Turkey as a case Seymen İ. 1985. Kırşehir Masifi metamorfit-
study. In Strike-slip Deformation, Basin For- lerinin jeoloji evrimi. In Ketin Simp. Kitabı,
mation, and Sedimentation, Soc. Econ. Pale- Türk. Jeol. Kurumu, Ankara, ed. T Ercan,
ontol. Miner. Spec. Publ. 37 (in honor of J.C. MA Çağlayan, pp. 133–48
Crowell), ed. KT Biddle, N Christie-Blick, Seymen İ, Aydın A. 1972. The Bingöl earth-
pp. 227–64 quake fault and its relation to the North Ana-
Şengör AMC, McKenzie D. 1997. Memorial to tolian Fault Zone. Bull. Miner. Res. Explor.
İhsan Ketin. Geol. Soc. Am. Memorl. 28:31– Inst., No. 79, pp. 1–8
35 Sieberg A. 1940. Die türkische Erdbebenkatas-
Şengör AMC, Natal’in BA. 1996. Palaeotec- trophe unter geodynamischen Gesichtspunk-
tonics of Asia: Fragments of a synthesis. In ten. Umschau 44:49–52
The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, Rubey Collo- Sipahioğlu S. 1984. Kuzey Anadolu Fayının
quium, ed. A Yin, M Harrison, pp. 486–640. Yapısı Abant-Dokurcun arasındaki yerleşimi
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press ve fizyografik-jeomorfolojik özellikleri.
Şengör AMC, Özeren S, Genç T, Zor E. Kuzey Anadolu Fay Zonunun İzmit-
2003. East Anatolian high plateau as a Kastamonu Kesiminde Depremleri Önceden
mantle-supported, north-south shortened do- Belirleme Projesi Neotektonik Çalışma
mal structure. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30: Grubu, İstanbul Üniv., Mühendislik Fak.,
8045 Jeofizik Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul. 50
Şengör AMC, Satır M, Akkök R. 1984. Tim- pp.+1 foldout map (Open File Rep.)
ing of tectonic events in the Menderes Mas- Smith AD, Taymaz T, Oktay F, Yüce H,
18 Mar 2005 19:32 AR AR233-EA33-02.tex AR233-EA33-02.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Kuşağı Simp., 29–31 Mart 1972, Ankara, the Malatya-Ovacık fault zone. Geodin. Acta
pp. 12–29. Tebliğler: M. T. A. Enst., Ankara 14:103–31
Toksöz MN, Guest ed. 2002. Dedicated issue. Wong HK, Lüdmann T, Uluğ A, Görür N. 1995.
The İzmit, Turkey, earthquake of 17 August The Sea of Marmara: a plate boundary sea
1999. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 92:1. iv+526 in an escape tectonic regime. Tectonophysics
pp. 244:231–50
Toprak V. 1988. Neotectonic characteristics of Yalçın T. 1997. Hydrogeological investigation
the North Anatolian Fault Zone between of the Gönen and Ekşidere thermal waters
Koyulhisar and Suşehri (NE Turkey). METU (northwest Turkey). See Schindler & Pfister
J. Pure Appl. Sci. 21:155–66 1997, pp. 275–300
Türkecan A, Dinçel A, Hepşen N, Papak İ, Yalçınlar İ. 1946. Manyas Havzasının Mor-
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Akbaş B, et al. 1991. Bolu-Çankırı (Köroğlu folojik Etüdü. İstanbul Üniv. Edeb. Fak.
Dağları) arasındaki Neojen yaşlı volkanit- Coğraf. Enst. Yayın., No. 9, 110 pp.+1
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
Terranes, ed. JF Dewey, IG Gass, GB Curry, Grubu Başkanlığı, Ankara, IV+[I]+459 pp.
NBW Harris, AMC Şengör, pp. 155–68. Unpublished rep.
London: R. Soc. Yılmaz Y, Karacık Z. 2001. Geology of the
Yılmaz Y, Genç ŞC, Gürer F, Bozcu M, Yılmaz northern side of the Gulf of Edremit and its
K, et al. 2002. When did the western Ana- tectonic significance for the development of
tolian grabens begin to develop? In Tecton- the Aegean grabens. Geodin. Acta 14:31–43
ics and Magmatism in Turkey and Surround- Yılmaz Y, Tüysüz O, Yiğitbaş E, Genç ŞC,
ing Area, ed. E Bozkurt, JA Winchester, JDA Şengör AMC. 1997b. Geology and tectonic
Piper, pp. 353–84. Geol. Soc. London, Spec. evolution of the Pontides. In Regional and
Publ. No. 173 Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Sur-
Yılmaz Y, Genç ŞC, Gürer ÖF, Elmas A, rounding Region, Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Mem.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Karacık Z, et al. 1997a. Ayvalık-Dikili- 68, ed. AG Robinson, pp. 183–266. Tulsa,
Çandarlı-Bergama araşında (Edremit-Ber- OK: Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
gama grabenleri çevresinde) genç magma- Youd TL, Bardet J-P, Bray JD, Tech. eds. 2000.
tizmanin jeolojik ve petrolojik araştırıl- Kocaeli, Turkey, earthquake of August 17,
ması: TÜBİTAK Projesi, Proj. No. YDAB 1999. Earthq. Spectra, Suppl. A to Vol. 17,
GAÇ-228/G, 420/G, 74 pp. (Open File pp. xiv+461
Rep.) Yücemen S, Coordinator. 1992. Tübitak ekip-
Yılmaz Y, Gürpinar O, Yiğitbaş E, Yıldırım lerinin Erzincan deprem bölgesi çalışmalari
M, Genç ŞC, et al. 1993. Tokat Masifi ve (ön inceleme raporu): TÜBİTAK-Ankara. 76
Yakın çevresinin Jeolojisi, T.P.A.O. Arama pp.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
HI-RES-EA33-Sengor.qxd
3/29/05
10:38 AM
Page 1
Figure 1 Digital elevation model of northern Turkey, derived from the GTOPO30 data of the U.S. Geological Survey, showing the North
Anatolian Fault (NAF) and related neotectonic structures forming the North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK).
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
C-1
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
C-2
HI-RES-EA33-Sengor.qxd
SENGO‹R ET AL.
3/29/05
10:38 AM
Page 2
HI-RES-EA33-Sengor.qxd 3/29/05 10:38 AM Page 3
Figure 13 Progressive failure of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) during the twen-
tieth century earthquake cycle by stress concentration at the tips of failed segments.
Red regions are where the stresses are high, representing likely places where the next
break will take place. Courtesy of Ross Stein and Serkan Bozkurt.
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
P1: KUV
March 23, 2005 16:53 Annual Reviews AR233-FM
CONTENTS
THE EARLY HISTORY OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN: HOMAGE TO
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Okan Tüysüz, Caner Imren, Mehmet Sakınç, Haluk Eyidoǧan, Naci Görür,
Xavier Le Pichon, and Claude Rangin 37
ARE THE ALPS COLLAPSING?, Jane Selverstone 113
EARLY CRUSTAL EVOLUTION OF MARS, Francis Nimmo and Ken Tanaka 133
REPRESENTING MODEL UNCERTAINTY IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE
PREDICTION, T.N. Palmer, G.J. Shutts, R. Hagedorn, F.J. Doblas-Reyes,
T. Jung, and M. Leutbecher 163
REAL-TIME SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION,
Hiroo Kanamori 195
LAKES BENEATH THE ICE SHEET: THE OCCURRENCE, ANALYSIS, AND
FUTURE EXPLORATION OF LAKE VOSTOK AND OTHER ANTARCTIC
SUBGLACIAL LAKES, Martin J. Siegert 215
SUBGLACIAL PROCESSES, Garry K.C. Clarke 247
FEATHERED DINOSAURS, Mark A. Norell and Xing Xu 277
MOLECULAR APPROACHES TO MARINE MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND
THE MARINE NITROGEN CYCLE, Bess B. Ward 301
EARTHQUAKE TRIGGERING BY STATIC, DYNAMIC, AND POSTSEISMIC
STRESS TRANSFER, Andrew M. Freed 335
EVOLUTION OF THE CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE, Norman H. Sleep 369
EVOLUTION OF FISH-SHAPED REPTILES (REPTILIA: ICHTHYOPTERYGIA)
IN THEIR PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS,
Ryosuke Motani 395
THE EDIACARA BIOTA: NEOPROTEROZOIC ORIGIN OF ANIMALS AND
THEIR ECOSYSTEMS, Guy M. Narbonne 421
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF WHOLE-LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION,
Garry Willgoose 443
VOLCANIC SEISMOLOGY, Stephen R. McNutt 461
ix
P1: KUV
March 23, 2005 16:53 Annual Reviews AR233-FM
x CONTENTS
INDEXES
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ERRATA
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences chapters may be found at
http://earth.annualreviews.org