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10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120415

Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005. 33:37–112


doi: 10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120415
Copyright c 2005 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved
First published online as a Review in Advance on July 16, 2004

THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT: A New Look


A.M.C. Şengör,1,3 Okan Tüysüz,1,3 Caner İmren,2
Mehmet Sakınç,1 Haluk Eyidoğan,2 Naci Görür,1,3
Xavier Le Pichon,4 and Claude Rangin4
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1
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Avrasya Yer Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ayazağa 34469, İstanbul,
Turkey; email: sengor@itu.edu.tr, tuysuz@itu.edu.tr, sakinc@itu.edu.tr, gorur@itu.edu.tr
2
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Maden Fakültesi, Jeofizik Bölümü, Ayazağa 34469,
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İstanbul, Turkey; email: caner@itu.edu.tr, eyidogan@itu.edu.tr


3
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Maden Fakültesi, Jeoloji Bölümü, Ayazağa 34469,
İstanbul, Turkey
4
Collège de France—Chaire de Géodynamique, Europôle de l’Arbois, Batiment Laënnec,
hall D, étage 2 BP 80—13545 Aix-en-Provence, France; email: lepichon@cdf.u-3mrs.fr,
rangin@cdf.u-3mrs.fr

Key Words strike-slip faulting, shear zone development, earthquake faulting,


the Sea of Marmara, tectonics of Turkey

Dedicated to the memory of three pioneers, İhsan Ketin, Sırrı Erinç and Melih
Tokay, and a recent student, Aykut Barka, who burnt himself out in pursuit of the
mysteries of the North Anatolian Fault.

■ Abstract The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) is a 1200-km-long dextral strike-slip


fault zone that formed by progressive strain localization in a generally westerly widen-
ing right-lateral keirogen in northern Turkey mostly along an interface juxtaposing
subduction-accretion material to its south and older and stiffer continental basements
to its north. The NAF formed approximately 13 to 11 Ma ago in the east and propagated
westward. It reached the Sea of Marmara no earlier than 200 ka ago, although shear-
related deformation in a broad zone there had already commenced in the late Miocene.
The fault zone has a very distinct morphological expression and is seismically active.
Since the seventeenth century, it has shown cyclical seismic behavior, with century-
long cycles beginning in the east and progressing westward. For earlier times, the
record is less clear but does indicate a lively seismicity. The twentieth century record
has been successfully interpreted in terms of a Coulomb failure model, whereby every
earthquake concentrates the shear stress at the western tips of the broken segments
leading to westward migration of large earthquakes. The August 17 and November 12,
1999, events have loaded the Marmara segment of the fault, mapped since the 1999
earthquakes, and a major, M ≤ 7.6 event is expected in the next half century with
an approximately 50% probability on this segment. Currently, the strain in the Sea of
Marmara region is highly asymmetric, with greater strain to the south of the Northern
Strand. This is conditioned by the geology, and it is believed that this is generally the
case for the entire North Anatolian Fault Zone. What is now needed is a more detailed
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38 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

geological mapping base with detailed paleontology and magnetic stratigraphy in the
shear-related basins and more paleomagnetic observations to establish shear-related
rotations.

INTRODUCTION
The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) [Figures 1 (see color insert) and 2] is one of the
largest currently active strike-slip faults in the world, forming the most prominent
part of a medium-size strike-slip-dominated belt of deformation, i.e., a keirogen
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(Ketin 1948, Şengör 1979a; for keirogen, see Şengör & Natal’in 1996, p. 639, note
8), in northern Turkey. It extends from the Gulf of Saros in the northern Aegean
Sea to the town of Karlıova (39◦ 18 N, 41◦ 01 E) in Eastern Turkey for 1200 km,
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paralleling roughly the southern Black Sea shores and keeping a fairly regular
distance of some 100 km to the coast, connecting the Aegean taphrogen (Taymaz
et al. 1991, Özeren 2002, Yilmaz et al. 2002) with the East Anatolian high plateau
(Şaroğlu 1985, Koçyiğit et al. 2001, Şengör et al. 2003). The dextral shear asso-
ciated with the NAF continues across the northern Aegean, crosses northern and
central mainland Greece as a broad shear zone (termed the Grecian Shear Zone
by Şengör 1979a), and eventually links up with the Hellenic subduction zone
(Dewey & Şengör 1979, McKenzie and Jackson 1983, Le Pichon et al. 1993).
Although the NAF has been subject to numerous geological, geomorphological,
and geophysical (especially seismological) investigations since its recognition as
a major strike-slip fault in 1948 by İhsan Ketin (Ketin 1948; see previous re-
views and syntheses by Ketin 1957, 1969, 1976; Pavoni 1961; Allen 1969, 1982;
Ambraseys 1969; Şengör 1979a; Barka 1981, 1992; Şengör & Canıtez 1982;
Şengör et al. 1982; Kiratzi 1993; also see the following symposium: Anonymous
1973), national and international interest concerning the fault has literally exploded
since the catastrophic earthquakes of August 17, 1999 [Barka 1999; Barka et al.
2000a, 2002; see especially the richly documented bilingual book by Emre et al.
(2003)], and November 12, 1999 (Akyüz et al. 2000, 2002). Since then, a vast
amount of geological, geophysical, and geotechnical data have been gathered in
the Sea of Marmara [where the probability of rupture by a large earthquake within
the next 50 years is high (Parsons et al. 2000, King et al. 2001, Atakan et al. 2002;
also see Figure 13 (see color insert) last frame] and around it (Karaca & Ural 1999,
Barka et al. 2000b, Doğan & Kurter 2000, Yaud et al. 2000, Ansal 2001, Taymaz
2001, Aksu & Yaltırak 2002, Görür et al. 2002, Toksöz 2002, Altunel & Akyüz
2003, Anonymous 2003a; also see the Rangin et al. 2001 atlas and Görür 2002,
2003), filling a previously existing gap in our knowledge of the course and character
of the NAF in its western part because of its submarine location. The amount, diver-
sity, quality, and the density of data collected in a few years are unparalleled in the
history of geological investigations in Turkey and do not have many counterparts in
the world. This great acceleration of activity in and around the Sea of Marmara also
has triggered other studies along the fault. Many old problems have been looked at
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Figure 2 The North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK). All the faults shown in this map have formed in relation to the NAK. Not all of them
are now active, but all have been active sometime in the past 11 Ma. Most are potential earthquake generators. Fault traces delineated by
heavier lines represent the most active parts of the keirogen constituting the structure known as the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). Note
that the keirogen is entirely confined to the area underlain by Tethyside accretionary complexes (see also Figure 4). The faults have been
compiled chiefly from Tüysüz (1985), Şaroğlu et al. (1987, 1992), Bingöl (1989), Eyidoğan (1991), Barka (1993), Dirik (1993), Yilmaz
et al. (1997a), Akyüz et al. (2000), Barka et al. (2000a, b), Herece & Akay (2003), Şenel (2002), and our own observations. For the sources
concerning the Tethyside accretionary complexes, see Figure 4.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT


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40 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

from different viewpoints using different methods and new technologies (the results
of these new studies have been reported, in addition to scattered papers in interna-
tional literature, some of which are cited below, in the following workshop reports:
Tatar et al. 2000, Altunel et al. 2001, Anonymous 2001, 2003b, Gökten et al. 2001,
Emre et al. 2002; also see the following compendium: Altunel & Akyüz 2003).
Unlike previous catastrophic earthquakes in Turkey, the location of the August
17 and November 12, 1999, events in a densely populated region of the country,
where much of the Turkish industry is located, has led to unprecedented public
interest in the NAF (e.g., Çorlu 1999; also see Atakan et al. 2002). The fact that
the city of İstanbul (population ≈15 million), an international center of trade and
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culture from time immemorial, is now under serious large earthquake threat in
the foreseeable future (e.g., Durukal et al. 2002, Erdik et al. 2003) has added an
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earnest international dimension to the public interest (e.g., Deli & Pérouse 1999,
Pérouse 2001). New ideas on the trigger function of big earthquakes for other large
shocks in large regions widened the international scientific and public interest (e.g.,
Papadopoulos 2002). All of this international scientific activity and public con-
cern inevitably generated a vast and multifarious literature in a very short time.
The purpose of this review is to present an introduction to that literature, as well
as to the recent NAF literature that immediately preceded the 1999 earthquakes
(see the following compendia in addition to the literature cited below: Meriç 1995,
Bozkurt 2001) in the form of a new tectonic synthesis of the entire NAF and asso-
ciated structures. Not all aspects of the work undertaken in various earth science
disciplines by numerous groups can be reviewed with equal weight in the space we
have at our disposal here. Our emphasis is on the geological and seismic aspects
of the fault and on its western part around the Sea of Marmara, where most of
the new information has been gathered. We have also tried to cite many of the
less well-circulated Turkish sources, as they contain valuable data that commonly
escape international attention, leading to much waste of time and duplication of
effort.

DISCOVERY OF AND HISTORY OF INVESTIGATIONS


ALONG THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
In the middle of the nineteenth century, the presence of a roughly 100-km-wide
band of seismicity paralleling the course of the NAF already had been recog-
nized (Mallet 1862, map D). This zone of seismicity was later associated with
the boundary that Kober (1914, plate 14; 1921, figure 26) drew in the first quar-
ter of the twentieth century between his Anatolian Zwischengebirge (=median
massif or betwixt mountains) and the allegedly north-vergent flank of the Alpi-
des. The first piece of geological field data concerning the existence of an actual
fault zone within Mallet’s northern Anatolian seismic band and corresponding to
part of Kober’s boundary (which he had called a Narbe = scar) was collected by
Ernst Nowack (1928), who mapped a 20-km-long mylonite zone paralleling the
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 41

Uluçay (now Soğanlı Çayı) west of Çerkeş (40◦ 49 N, 32◦ 54 E). In 1932, Nowack
pointed out that this mylonite zone extended from the tip of the Gulf of İzmit to
Koçhisar (present-day Ilgaz: 40◦ 55 N, 33◦ 38 E) for 250 km (Nowack 1932). He
interpreted this shear zone as the boundary between Suess’ (1901) Pontic arcs and
the Dinarides. In 1936, Wilhelm Salomon-Calvi interpreted Nowack’s shear zone
in terms of the continental drift theory of Alfred Wegener as the eastern contin-
uation of the Tonale Line of the Alps, which he believed formed a suture zone
(his Synaphie) between the Laurasian and Gondwanian elements in the structure
of Anatolia. Salomon-Calvi (1936) believed that this zone could be followed east-
ward into Iran. In the night of December 26/27, 1939, at 0200 hours local time,
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a disastrous earthquake of Ms = 7.8–7.9 (see Eyidoğan et al. 1991, Barka 1996)


along this north Anatolian zone of faulting claimed the lives of some 40,000 peo-
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ple in and around the city of Erzincan (39◦ 45 N, 39◦ 30 E) (Akyol 1940; Leuchs
1940; Pamir & Ketin 1940, 1941; Salomon-Calvi 1940a; Sieberg 1940; Tillot-
son 1940). This great earthquake resulted in detailed geological investigations of
the fault around Erzincan (Stchepinsky 1940, Stchepinsky et al. 1940, Paréjas
et al. 1942; for later studies, see Barka 1996). The 1939 Erzincan quake was fol-
lowed, in rapid succession, by a series of disastrous earthquakes in Niksar-Erbaa
in 1942 (Ms = 7.1); in Lâdik in 1943 (Ms = 7.3); and in Bolu, Gerede, and
Çerkeş in 1944 (Ms = 7.3; see Figure 3), which led to further studies (for ref-
erences, see Ketin 1948, Eyidoğan et al. 1991, and Barka 1996). In 1944, Necdet
Egeran and Erwin Lahn emphasized that earthquake activity between 1939 and
1944 had migrated westward in northern Turkey along the structure that Salomon-
Calvi had earlier called the eastward continuation of the Tonale Line. In the 1940s,
interpretations of the seismic structure were made in terms of the then prevailing
tectonic theories. A common denominator of all these interpretations was that the
structure was seen as an integral part of the “orogenic structure” of Anatolia, and
the associated earthquakes were viewed as the last death throes of an expiring
orogenic belt in which “cratogenic” faults had begun to form as part of the “cra-
tonization” process (Salomon-Calvi 1940a; Paréjas et al. 1942; Blumenthal 1945;
Pamir 1944a,b; Egeran 1947).
A completely different interpretation was offered by İhsan Ketin in 1948 that
revolutionized the understanding of the structure. He noted that during all ma-
jor earthquakes in northern Turkey since 1939, the surface break always had the
character of a generally east-west-striking, right-lateral fault. The vertical com-
ponent of the motion always upthrew the southern block. Ketin combined these
observations with the previously known courses of various young, steep, geomor-
phologically distinct and seismically active shear zones along the north Anatolian
earthquake belt and declared that the seismic zone in northern Turkey was the
product of a major, active, right-lateral, strike-slip fault. This was the first docu-
mentation of the existence of a large and active strike-slip fault in the world [the
San Andreas was not confirmed to be a strike-slip fault until 1953, by Hill &
Diblee (1953), despite many earlier suggestions, including Wegener’s (1915)].
Ketin further pointed out that because interior Anatolia south of the fault was
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Figure 3 Earthquakes and related fault displacements along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) since the December 26/27, 1939, Erzincan
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earthquake. Note the remarkable east-to-west migration of the major shocks, first emphasized by Egeran & Lahn (1944). The figure has
been compiled from Şaroğlu et al. (1987, 1992), Eyidoğan et al. (1991), Barka (1996), Barka et al. (2000a), and Akyüz et al. (2000).
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 43

largely aseismic, a whole Anatolian block had to be moving westward with


respect to the Black Sea along the strike-slip fault that he defined. Ketin argued that
to accommodate such a movement, another, however, left-lateral, fault had to exist
to the south of the Anatolian block (unless the whole of Africa was also moving).
His prediction was vindicated a quarter of a century later when the East Anatolian
Fault was discovered (Arpat & Şaroğlu 1972, Seymen & Aydin 1972). Şengör &
McKenzie (1997) noted that Ketin’s 1948 paper was one of the most important
harbingers of the modern, post-plate tectonics studies of continental deformation
(see also Şengör 1996).
In 1948, Ketin stopped the structure short of the Sea of Marmara, but pointed out
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in 1953, as a result of fieldwork with Franz Rösli on the Yenice-Gönen earthquake


[epicenter 40◦ 01 N, 27◦ 29 E (Ketin & Rösli 1953)], that the fault continued south
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of the Sea of Marmara through a series of young basins, forming the depressions
of Bursa, Ulubat (Apolyont; in some sources and on some road signs “Uluabat,”
which is actually the correct orthography; Anonymous 1977 gives the name of the
lake as Ulubat, but the name of the village as Uluabat, which creates confusion),
and Manyas.
In 1943, Nuriye Pinar already had suggested that the three deeps of the Sea of
Marmara that are located in an east-west trending larger trough (the North Marmara
Trough) in the northern part of the sea, known since the surveys of H.M.S.S. Selânik
(Spindler et al. 1896), had been formed by a single fault that connected the Gulf
of İzmit with the trace of the 1912 earthquake fault on the Gelibolu (Gallipoli)
Peninsula (Mihailoviç 1923, 1927). Pinar’s (1943) suggestion was not followed
because her evidence was equivocal and she had not indicated what kind of a fault
the structure she suggested was. A year later, Pfannenstiel (1944) suggested that the
northern trough of the Sea of Marmara formed by a group of adjacent rhomboidal
extensional basins. Egeran (1947) pointed out that the cratogenic faults of the
north Anatolian seismic zone continued into the Marmara Trough (“fossé de la
Marmara,” p. 58), which had, however, “on a reduced scale,” the characteristics
of the “Aegean tectonic zone” (Egeran 1947, p. 65). In 1968, Ketin proposed
that an east-west-striking rift probably underlay the northern trough of the Sea of
Marmara, echoing Pfannenstiel (1944) and Egeran (1947). This suggestion was
followed by McKenzie (1972), who depicted the Sea of Marmara as one of the east-
west-striking extensional structures characterizing western Turkey and indicated
that extension across it was oblique (northeast-southwest). This was disputed by
Dewey & Şengör (1979) and Şengör (1979a) because Ganos Dağ (formerly Tekfur
Dağı, now Işıklar Dağı: 40◦ 44 N, 27◦ 10 E; elevation 924 m above sea level) just to
the north of the trace of the 1912 strike-slip earthquake fault (Ambraseys & Finkel
1987, Altınok et al. 2003) appeared to them as a shortening structure above a thrust
fault that they interpreted to be thrusting a 1200 m deep to its immediate east in the
Sea of Marmara, indicating dextral strike-slip within the Sea of Marmara. Şengör
et al. (1985) drew a dotted line between the Gulf of İzmit and the 1912 earthquake
fault, emphasizing the lack of evidence of the nature of the structure of the floor
of the Sea of Marmara. The large number of subsequent attempts to delineate
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44 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

the nature of the NAF under the Sea of Marmara generally followed McKenzie’s
notion that motion across it was strongly oblique and that the pattern of active faults
had to reflect the outlines of the lozenge-shaped bathymetric basins underlying the
deeper northern trough of the Sea of Marmara (e.g., Barka & Kadinsky-Cade 1988,
Wong et al. 1995, Barka 1997, Parke et al. 1999, Aksu et al. 2000, Ambraseys
2002a).
The age of the NAF has long been thought to be Neogene, since Egeran &
Lahn (1944) and Ketin (1948) showed that it disrupted the orogenic structure of
Turkey, the youngest members of which clearly reached into the early Miocene in
the northern part of the country (Şengör & Yilmaz 1981). In 1957, Ketin wrote,
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“Thus, the movement of the fault has occurred after the orogeny. . . . It represents
a continuous sliding process with a waxing and waning intensity, which began
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during the Neogene (15–20 Ma ago) and which is still active” (Ketin 1957, p. 52).
In his 1969 synthesis, Ketin emphasized that the main through-going fault was a
very young structure, in many parts only of Quaternary age. In his last synthesis
of the NAF, Ketin (1976) pointed out that within the “rift” trough of the fault, the
oldest sedimentary rocks were medial Miocene in age and that the fault therefore
had to be of that age at the oldest.
Although offsets had been mapped during individual earthquakes, the cumula-
tive offset along the NAF had long remained unknown largely because for much
of its course the fault parallels the dominant strike of the older tectonic units
it cuts. In 1961, Pavoni estimated its offset to be between 300 and 400 km,
but this was based on an erroneous correlation between the Cretaceous-Eocene
eastern Pontide volcanic cover with the dominantly Mio-Pliocene volcanics of
the Galatean Massif northwest of Ankara on the basis of the then already se-
riously outdated 1:800,000 geological map of Turkey (Egeran & Lahn 1942–
1946). It was İhsan Seymen, a doctoral student of Ketin, who established in 1975
that the northern Neo-Tethyan suture west of Erzincan had been offset for some
85 ± 5 km by the NAF (Seymen 1975). This has remained until the recent pub-
lication of the Atlas of the Geology of the North Anatolian Fault by Herece &
Akay (2003), the best estimate of the cumulative offset of the fault (see Şengör
1979a; Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002; and the discussion in Westaway & Arger 2001,
appendix).
The rise of plate tectonics shed new light on Turkish geology. In one of the
earliest papers considering the NAF in some detail from the viewpoint of plate
tectonics, Ataman et al. (1975) argued that the Tethyan sutures in northern Turkey
had been a major factor in localizing the fault, but this was disputed by Şengör
& Canıtez (1982) because the neo-Tethyan suture implied by Ataman et al. does
not everywhere follow the fault. Şengör and his coworkers have summarized and
synthesized the work on the NAF undertaken in the light of plate tectonics in the
1970s and the early 1980s in a series of publications (Şengör 1979a; Şengör &
Canıtez 1982; Şengör et al. 1982, 1983, 1985) in which they showed that the fault
was indeed medial to late Miocene in age and that its offset appeared to be some-
where between 50 to 100 km. Şengör & Canıtez (1982) favored an 80 to 100 km
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 45

offset in the east that possibly decreased to some 30 km in the west. Şengör and his
coworkers also underlined the importance of the basins along the NAF and within
the Anatolian Scholle (see Dewey & Şengör 1979) for an understanding of the age
and nature of the fault (e.g., Şengör et al. 1985).
The time between Şengör’s first synthesis in 1979 and the 1999 earthquakes was
marked by an increased activity of geological and, to a lesser extent, geophysical
work along the NAF. Much of that work has built the foundation on which the post-
1999 work was undertaken and is discussed in the present review in conjunction
with it.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT AND THE NORTH


ANATOLIAN SHEAR ZONE: ELEMENTS OF THE
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NORTH ANATOLIAN KEIROGEN


From Figure 2, it is seen clearly that the faults associated with the North Anatolian
Keirogen (NAK) constitute an entire shear zone confined to the North Anatolian
Tethyside accretionary complexes of latest Paleozoic to early Tertiary age. In this
review, we call this shear zone the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). The NAF
is only a member, albeit the most prominent member, of this shear zone. The NASZ
and the NAF are elements of the NAK.
There are long offshoots that take off from the main trunk of the NAF and
veer toward interior Anatolia. The easternmost of these offshoots is the Ovacik
Fault (Westaway & Arger 2001; OF in Figure 2), which exploits in part the suture
between the Munzur and the Malatya digitations of the Kirsehir Block (Figures 2
and 4). Another major offshoot is the Sungurlu Fault (SF in Figure 2), which leaves
the main branch east of Resadiye (40◦ 23 N, 37◦ 20 E) and ends within the inner
bend of the Delice tributary of the Kizilirmak (Figure 5, indicated by the letter D).
The Sungurlu Fault is also contained entirely within the Tethyside accretionary
complexes and does not enter the Kirsehir Massif. Two other splays have been
proposed by Koçyiğit & Beyhan (1998) between the Ovacik and the Sungurlu
Faults, although we are not certain that they are offshoots of the NAF or whether
they even form coherent structures. In any event, no major seismicity is associated
with them.
In general, the NASZ becomes wider from east to west. Around Erzincan and
some 150 to 200 km west of it, the zone is extremely narrow, hardly wider than
10 km, although near Karliova it seems to widen again (Herece & Akay 2003,
appendix 13). It becomes more than 100 km wide within the Tokat lobe of the
Tethyside accretionary complexes (Figure 4), but the southern members of the
shear zone here seem to have been abandoned very early in its history. Although
the whole lobe area is still seismically active (Figure 5), the main seismicity is
concentrated in its northern part.
From the Ilgaz Lobe (IL in Figure 4) westward, the shear zone broadens con-
tinuously and reaches its maximum width in the Marmara Lobe (Figure 4).
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Figure 4 The Tethyside accretionary complexes of northern and eastern Turkey. Compiled from Şengör et al. (1980, 1984), Şengör &
Natal’in (1996), Yılmaz et al. (1997b), Okay & Tüysüz (1999, and references therein), Şengör et al. (2003), and our own unpublished
observations. AL is the Ankara Lobe, IL is the Ilgaz Lobe, and the EAAC is the East Anatolian Accretionary Complex. All parts of
the Tethyside accretionary complexes in northern Turkey have sectors of Cimmeride (i.e., Paleo-Tethyan) and Alpide (i.e., Neo-Tethyan)
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subduction-accretion complexes in places separated by remnants of the Cimmerian Continent and in others brought into contact by
Alpide deformations that elided the Cimmerian Continent from between the Cimmeride and Alpide accretionary prisms. Munzur and
Malatya digitations belong to the Menderes-Taurus Block as first defined by Şengör et al. (1982). Istanbul is a Hercynian fragment, with
a Cadomian basement and a Triassic and Cretaceous-Tertiary cover redeformed by Alpide events; Menderes has a Pan-African basement,
some Cimmeride magmatism to its north, and a strong Cretaceous to Eocene south-vergent imbrication, followed by Oligocene to present
extension; Eastern Pontides have a Pan-African basement with a strong Cimmeride imprint on which a Cretaceous and Eocene to early
Oligocene arc was built and redeformed during the Eocene to Miocene convergence. Some deformation to its north persisted into the
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Quaternary. Kirşehir has a Pan-African basement with some older fragments. It has a mid-Cretaceous arc built across it and was deformed
in the late Cretaceous to Miocene times.
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Figure 5 Distribution of epicenters of earthquakes with M ≥ 4 that occurred between 1900 and 2001 in northern Turkey. Compiled from
the comprehensive ISC catalogue (2003).
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48 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

In general, it seems that the NASZ becomes wider from east to west in har-
mony with the widening of the zone of accretionary complexes, notwithstanding
the local widening seen in the Tokat Lobe (Figures 2, 5, and 6). Another way to
judge the width of the NASZ is to look at large-scale morphology, and especially
at the courses of the major Anatolian rivers. Figure 6 displays these and shows
their relationships to the NASZ. In the east, the Elmalı (E in Figure 6) and the
Karasu (Ka), both tributaries of the Fırat (Euphrates), are deflected right-laterally
along a very narrow corridor. Farther west, the Yeşilırmak (Y, the classical Iris)
displays a broader zone of dextral deflection, and the Kızilırmak (K, the clas-
sical Halys) displays a broader one still. West of Ankara, the development of
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the fluvial morphology has a more complex history, but rivers lose their smooth
courses once they enter the NASZ (Figure 6). Erinç et al. (1961a) showed that
to the northeast of Ankara, around Gerede (40◦ 48 N, 32◦ 12 E), a Mio-Pliocene
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fluvial system (upper course of the Filyos, the classical Billaios; F in Figure 6)
had been disrupted by the faults associated with the NASZ. Similarly, the Sakarya
(S, the classical Sangarios) and its tributaries are also deflected by the NASZ, as
is Susurluk (Su, the classical Macestus). The Susurluk deflection cannot be inter-
preted to show more than some 20+ km of dextral motion, but this is probably
because (a) it is a young river (late Pliocene; Emre et al. 1997) and (b) its fur-
ther deflection is now covered by the waters of the Marmara (see Rangin et al.
2001).
From the distribution of Neogene faulting and large-scale river deflection as
seen in the broad curves of the Yeşilırmak, Kızilırmak, and the Filyos and Sakarya
combination, it seems possible to define a westerly widening shear zone in northern
Turkey as depicted in Figure 6. If the southern Tokat Lobe faults eventually prove
definitely to be parts of the NASZ, the NASZ would acquire a “pinch-and-swell
structure,” but one that would still generally widen westward.
That dextral shear is not confined to the NAF but is distributed in a broader shear
zone is confirmed by paleomagnetic observations indicating clockwise rotations
of up to 270◦ within the past 5 Ma in the central parts of NASZ (Tatar et al.
1995, Piper et al. 1997). Where observations are made in the central part of the
NASZ, the shear-related clockwise rotations are found in areas as far south as
25 km from the main strand of the NAF [in contrast to earlier reports of no rotation
(Platzman et al. 1994)]. However, the rotations within the NASZ are not found
to be systematic, possibly because of the early activity of R shears (Piper et al.
1996; cf. Tchalenko 1970). Farther west, around the western half of the Sea of
Marmara, rotations of Miocene and younger units are spread over a width of more
than 100 km (Tapırdamaz & Yaltırak 1996). In this region, the rotations are also
very complex, indicating a complicated strain history in keeping with the expected
evolution of a broad shear zone. By contrast, in the eastern part of the NASZ, the
rotations are confined to a much narrower shear zone of some 15 km width (e.g.,
Tatar et al. 1995).
Yet another element that defines the shape of the NASZ is the basins that formed
in conjunction with it, which we discuss below.
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Figure 6 Map showing the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) (delimited by discontinuous lines) and the courses of the major rivers
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traversing it. From east to west (black letters): E, Elmali/Peri (tributary of the Murat before the construction of the Keban Dam); Ka,
Karasu [Elmali/Peri + Karasu = Fırat (Euphrates) without Murat (outside this map)]; Y, Yeşilırmak; K, Kızılırmak; D, Delice; F, Filyos
[Yenice/Araç/Soğanlı (formerly Uluçay)/Gerede Suyu]; S, Sakarya; Su, Susurluk. Gray letters in outline show locations of certain cities
and tectonic features: A, Ankara; B, Bursa; b, Bolu; E, Erzincan; İ, İstanbul; İ, İznik (lake); K, Karliova; OF, Ovacik Fault; SF, Sungurlu
Fault. Note that significant abrupt deflections of river courses are confined to the area of the NASZ. The faults shown to be parts of the
NASZ in the southern part of the Tokat Lobe are here left out of the NASZ owing to their as yet uncertain relationship to the NAK and
to the geometry of the major river courses. If they eventually prove to be a part of the NAK, the analysis we present in this paper of the
evolution of the NASZ would have to be revised in the Tokat Lobe, but without touching the principles.
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50 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

THE TECTONIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTH


ANATOLIAN KEIROGEN
As a comparison of Figures 2 and 4 shows, the NAK is located almost entirely
within the Anatolian Peninsula (Asia Minor). Only its westernmost extremity is
located in the Sea of Marmara and in the Gelibolu (Gallipoli) Peninsula (Figures 1
and 2). Anatolia and the Sea of Marmara, together with Gelibolu, constitute parts
of the late Paleozoic-Cainozoic Tethyside Orogenic System and include parts of
the Cimmerides and the Alpides, products, respectively, of Paleo- and Neo-Tethys
ocean basin evolution between the early Jurassic and the medial Miocene (Şengör
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1984, 1989, 1990a; Şengör & Natal’in 1996). The geology of Turkey has been
reviewed recently in the following publications, which enlarge and update the
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synthesis presented in Şengör & Yılmaz (1981): Farinacci et al. (1991), Şengör &
Tatar (1996), Şengör et al. (1996), Okay & Tüysüz (1999), Bozkurt et al. (2000),
and Mittwede & Bozkurt (2001).
The Tethyside accretionary complexes housing the NASZ belong both to the
Cimmerides and to the Alpides. We have drawn no boundary to distinguish the two
groups because the Cimmerian Continent that separated Paleo-Tethys from Neo-
Tethys (Şengör 1979b) has been extremely dismembered and reduced in width in
Turkey by both the Cimmeride and Alpide collisional deformations. In places it is
now completely absent, where, consequently, Cimmeride and Alpide accretionary
complexes directly abut each other (Tüysüz 1990, 1993; Koçyiğit, 1991; Yılmaz
et al. 1997b; Okay & Tüysüz 1999). When the NAK formed in the Neogene
in response to the westerly escape of an Anatolian block (Şengör 1979a, Şengör
et al. 1985), it clearly followed a zone of preexisting weakness within the Tethyside
accretionary complexes.
The Tethyside accretionary complexes are now framed by the more resistant
masses of the İstanbul Zone (Yılmaz et al. 1997b) and the eastern Pontides (Okay
& Şahintürk 1997, Yılmaz et al. 1997b) to the north and the Menderes (Şengör
et al. 1984, Bozkurt & Oberhänsli 2001) and Kırşehir Massifs (Görür et al. 1984,
Seymen 1985, Fayon et al. 2001, Gautier et al. 2002) to the south (Figure 4). All of
these zones have Precambrian basements. The İstanbul and Eastern Pontide zones
have latest Proterozoic basements (Cadomian and Pan-African, respectively), re-
deformed during the medial to late Paleozoic. The Menderes and the Kırşehir
Massifs also have latest Proterozoic basements, although they have older events
recognized by zircon dating [2.0 to 1.6 Ga, with one locality associated paleogeo-
graphically with the Menderes Massif even yielding Archaean zircons (Kröner &
Şengör 1990)]. There is evidence that parts of both Menderes and Kırşehir and
their extensions (e.g., the Bitlis Massif, the easternmost part of the Menderes-
Taurus block; see Görür et al. 1984, Şengör & Natal’in 1996; also see Şengör
1990b) intruded by granites and granodiorites were also orogenically deformed
at the same time during the late Paleozoic (Helvacı & Griffin 1984, Şengör et al.
1984). However, the tectonic context of such events south of the Tethyside sutures
has not yet been worked out because of intense post-Paleozoic disruption by rifting
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 51

and drifting and subsequent repeated orogenic deformation that has largely erased
and dispersed the older record.
Although the zone of Tethyside accretionary complexes in northern Turkey is
highly irregular, with alternating wide lobes and narrower necks, the entire zone
becomes wider from east to west. If we ignore the lobes, it is narrowest near
Erzincan (Figures 2 and 4) and widest around the Sea of Marmara. The North and
East Anatolian Faults come together at the Karlıova junction (K in Figure 2; Şengör
1979a, Şaroğlu 1985, Şengör et al. 1985), which is located entirely within the East
Anatolian Accretionary Complex, a Cretaceous to Oligocene Alpide subduction-
accretion prism (Şengör & Yılmaz 1981, Şengör et al. 2003). It thus seems that
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the eastern wedge-shaped ending of the Anatolian block was also preconditioned
by the contrast between the resistant masses and the weaker accretionary complex
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material.

OUTLINING THE NORTH ANATOLIAN KEIROGEN: BASINS


RELATED TO THE NORTH ANATOLIAN SHEAR ZONE
In this section we describe the main basins related to the activity of the NASZ from
west to east (see Figures 7 and 8A,B). We first describe the basins on the main
strand of the fault, which includes the newly mapped northern strand of the NAF
in the Sea of Marmara (Le Pichon et al. 2001, Rangin et al. 2001, Demirbağ et al.
2003). Then, the basins on its southern strand are described. In a third section, we
describe the basins on some of the splay faults of the NAF. Finally, we describe
the recently explored basins of the Sea of Marmara. The basin numbers below
correspond to their numbers in Figures 7 and 8A,B.

Basins Along the Main Strand


THE GELİBOLU (GALLIPOLI) BASIN The Gelibolu (Gallipoli) Basin is a small
foredeep extending parallel with the axis of the Gelibolu Peninsula south of the
Anafartalar Thrust (Yaltırak 1995) and includes those Plio-Quaternary clastic sed-
imentary rocks within the Conkbayiri (in the central and southern parts of the
Gelibolu Peninsula) and the Fener Pebblestone (on the isthmus joining the Penin-
sula with the Thracian mainland) formations (Sakınç et al. 1999, Yaltırak et al.
2000). The basin is commonly, but inappropriately, considered a part of a much
larger “Thrace Neogene Basin” (Sakınç et al. 1999, p. 38). The sedimentary fill of
the Gelibolu Basin constitutes a southerly fining, cyclic flexural basin sequence in
front of the southeast-vergent Anafartalar Thrust, which dies out approximately
10 km inland from the western end of the peninsula (Kopp 1964). Northeastward,
the single thrust becomes a complicated zone of anastomosing, steep thrust faults
(Kopp 1964, especially plate 22). The clastics, the total thickness of which changes
from approximately 80 m in the northeast to 300 m in the southwest, sit dis- to
unconformably on the richly fossiliferous Upper Miocene Alçıtepe limestones and
marls. Toward the southeast, these clastic sequences rapidly lose thickness (they
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Figure 7 Basins defining the North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK). Numbers refer to those in the text and
in Figures 8A and 8B(a). For the stratigraphy of the basins, see Figures 8A and 8B(a). For geological
histories, see the text.
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Figure 8 (A) Simplified and schematized stratigraphies of the basins of the North Anatolian Keirogen
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT

(NAK). Column numbers refer to the basin numbers in Figure 7. (B) (a) Simplified and schematized
stratigraphies of the basins of the NAK. (b,c) Permissible ranges of basin formation times in Ma.
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Figure 8 (Continued)
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 55

are 15 to 20 m thick near the Asian shores of the Dardanelles and pinch out im-
mediately to the southeast; Görür et al. 1997). They are, from base to top, mainly
alluvial fan to near shore and again fluvial deposits (Yaltırak 1996, see especially
his figure 1 for a cartographic depiction of the environments of sedimentation).
Near Gaziköy, where the NAF Northern Strand strikes out to the Sea of Mar-
mara, structures within the Fener Pebblestone and the unconformably overlying
Pleistocene Altınova terrace clastics are cut by the fault (Yaltırak 1995; Figure 2).
Yaltırak et al. (2000) have shown that these terraces are a part of what Sakınç
& Yaltırak (1997) have called the Marmara Formation. Yaltırak and colleagues’
(2000) detailed, combined isotopic-stratigraphic and tectonic study has shown that
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the western Sea of Marmara shores have been tectonically rising since 225 ka ago
at a rate of 0.4 mm/year. It is clear that this uplift is related to the activity of the
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northern branch of the NAF and that here the fault is younger than 225 ka. This
age is in remarkable agreement with that inferred by Le Pichon et al. (2001) on
the basis of the 4 km offset of the western margin of the Central Basin of the Sea
of Marmara (Le Pichon et al. 2001, 2003) and a similar offset in the Central High
(Armijo et al. 2002, Le Pichon et al. 2003).

THE YALOVA BASIN The Yalova Basin is an east-west elongated basin bounded
in the south by an east-west-striking, mainly strike-slip fault and in the west by
a northwest-southeast-striking set of dominantly normal faults (Eisenlohr 1997,
Alpar & Yaltırak 2002). Toward the east, the basin peters out along an irregular,
unconformable contact mainly on low-grade metamorphic rocks. The same un-
conformable contact delimits the basin to the north against the Eocene (Bargu &
Sakınç 1989/1990). The main infill of the basin (Figure 8A, column 2) consists
of an 800-m-thick clastic sequence beginning with conglomerates and continuing
upward into sandstones and shales. Cross-bedding indicates a littoral environment.
Conglomerates recur in the section, probably indicating recurrent faulting. The age
of the clastic section ranges from possible Sarmatian to Lower Pliocene (Akartuna
1968, Bargu & Sakınç 1989/1990). These sedimentary rocks are unconformably
overlain by the ca. 100-m-thick terrace fill of sandstones belonging to the Mar-
mara Formation (Erinç 1956, Şengör et al. 1982, Sakınç & Yaltırak 1997) with an
age range of 260 to 40 ka, but with Tyrrhenian fossils (Erinç 1956; ca. 100 ka).
These Pleistocene deposits continue underwater and are controlled by northwest-
southeast-striking normal faults (Alpar & Yaltırak 2002; figure 6, section AR-1).
These faults seem to belong to the still-active east-northeast-striking normal fault
family north of the Armutlu Peninsula (Le Pichon et al. 2001, Rangin et al. 2001).

THE GÖLCÜK-DERİNCE BASIN The Gölcük-Derince Basin is similar in geome-


try to the Yalova Basin, in that it is delimited to the south by a dominantly
right-lateral strike-slip fault that turns, just west of the town of Gölcük (40◦ 43 N,
29◦ 49 E), into a northwest-southeast-striking normal fault (Akartuna 1968, plate I).
It merges eastward with the Plio-Pleistocene basin housing Lake Sapanca (Figure 7;
Akartuna 1968, Emre et al. 1998). The basin is filled (Figure 8A, column 3)
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56 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

dominantly with lacustrine coarse clastic rocks, including sandstones and conglom-
erates, except that in the lower parts and in the upper sections marls are present.
Akartuna (1968) indicates a total thickness exceeding 500 m. To the south of the
Gulf of İzmit, Ardel (1959) and Akartuna (1968) reported Late Miocene (Pontian)
fossils from the basin fill that passes upward into Pleistocene sedimentary
rocks.
North of the Gulf of İzmit, near Derince (40◦ 45 N, 29◦ 50 E) Altınlı (1968)
mapped 20- to 50-m-thick Pleistocene brakish-limnic marls and sandstones that
are equivalents of the sections seen to the south of the Gulf in the Gölcük area.
These rocks are overlain by 40- to 100-m-thick alluvium. Akartuna (1968) indicates
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gentle folding of the Plio-Quaternary rocks along east-west axes.


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THE ADAPAZARI BASIN The Adapazarı Basin (İnandık 1952/1953, Ardel 1965) is
located between the Düzce (Emre et al. 1998, 1999; Ünay et al. 2001) or Haraklı
(Greber 1996, 1997) Fault to the south and an irregular unconformable contact
on the unmetamorphosed Paleozoic rocks to the north. Greber (1997) has shown
that the basin formed mainly by normal faulting on northwest-southeast-striking
trends and oblique right-lateral faults with east-northeast–west-southwest strikes.
The basin is filled near its margins with some visibly 150 to 200 m, and, in drill
holes farther out into the basin interior, more than 550-m-thick (Bilgin 1984),
coarse clastic rocks in fluviatile facies intercalated with various tuff layers, indi-
cating concurrent volcanicity. Greber (1997) found silicified wood, indicating a
humid swampy environment within the basin and a dry environment in surround-
ing fault-controlled uplands. Emre et al. (1998), Ünay & de Bruijn (1998), and
Ünay et al. (2001) found macro- and micromammals in the finer parts of the clas-
tic section, indicating a late Villanian–early Biharian age (Upper Pliocene–Lower
Pleistocene). Greber (1996, 1997) has shown that the incessant coarse detritic sup-
ply from the south indicates repeated rejuvenation of the topography throughout
the deposition of the basin fill.

THE DÜZCE BASIN The roughly rhomboidal Düzce Basin (Ardel 1965) is located
between the Çilimli Fault to the north and the Düzce Fault to the south (Eser
Teknik Sondaj ve Ticaret 2000). The eastern and the western margins are irregu-
lar, but appear to be controlled by two fault families: a northeast-southwest-striking
set with mainly right-lateral offsets and a northwest-southeast-striking set that is
mainly populated by normal faults. The main east-west and northeast-southwest-
striking faults have been chiefly nucleated on older thrust faults within the Pon-
tide basement. By contrast, the normal faults are revolutionary structures (in the
sense of Şengör et al. 1985) in that they cut the older orogenic fabric at high
angles. That is why they are shorter and less continuous than the east-west and
northeast-southwest sets. These latter appear to have functioned as transfer faults
between the normal faults. The Düzce Basin contains an approximately 260-m-
thick coarse clastic fluviatile/lacustrine sedimentary section that spans an age
range from the top Pliocene to Holocene sitting mainly on Eocene volcanogenic
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 57

flysch. The Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene section unconformably underlies the


higher Upper Pleistocene and Holocene sediments representing Gilbert deltas shed
from surrounding highlands (Emre et al. 1998, Eser Teknik Sondaj ve Ticaret
2000).

THE BOLU BASIN The Bolu Basin (Ardel 1965, Aktimur et al. 1986) is delimited
to the south by a sharp topographic escarpment that represents a strand of the
main branch of the NAF (Ardel 1965). Its northern boundary is subparallel with
the southern boundary and is also faulted, but to a much lesser extent and less
continuously. The northern boundary faults die out to the east-northeast of the
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basin and relay their motion to the Düzce Fault to the west. The Bolu Basin is filled
with coarse- to medium-grained clastic sedimentary rocks. In the lower parts, the
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conglomerates are badly sorted and the clasts are angular. Streams that were most
likely draining fault-generated highlands nearby deposited this part, with a visible
thickness of 20 m. The total thickness of the unit is probably considerably more
(Ardel 1964, figure 2 shows a thickness of approximately 100 m). Upward, the
fluviatile facies gives way to a lacustrine deposit represented by white claystones.
These units are unconformably capped by the deposits of the present-day drainage
system. The thickness of these alluvia in some places reaches 100 m.
The Bolu Basin is interpreted as a pull-apart basin between the southern es-
carpment fault and the Düzce Fault. Both the shape of the basin and the isobaths of
the water table indicate the presence of northwest-southeast-striking buried faults
delimiting the basin to the east and west (Aktimur et al. 1986).

THE ÇERKEŞ-KURŞUNLU BASIN The Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin (Blumenthal 1948,


pp. 44–46; Pınar 1953; Barka 1985; Över 1996; Bellier et al. 1997; Över et al.
1997) is an obliquely shortening basin within the NASZ, bounded to the north and
south by oblique-thrust faults (Figure 9A, section 4). The basin fill is considerably
thinner and younger than reported by Barka (1985, 1992), who mistook the pre-
Pliocene rocks that occur in an area much larger than the basin itself as part of
the basin fill. Türkecan et al. (1991) have shown that the basin fill in fact consists
of some 200-m-thick mainly coarse continental clastics belonging to what Barka
called the Ilgaz Formation. The unit is coarser in the west and includes large clasts
of the underlying late Miocene volcanic rocks. To the east, the grain size becomes
finer and passes into claystones, including sand lenses representing river channels
in a flood plain. It is in these finer-grained members of the Ilgaz Formation that
Türkecan et al. (1991) and Ünay & de Bruijn (1998) found a micromammalian
fauna indicating a late Pliocene age. On the basis of the high position within the
Ilgaz of such fossils and the rapid deposition of the lower members, it seems pretty
clear that the entire basin fill is no older than medial Pliocene.
This dating is corroborated by the work of Över (1996), who constrained the
age of the lacustrine Ilgaz equivalents (what he called, following Barka 1985, the
Lower Pontus Formation, which we think is an inappropriate appellation because it
carries a terminology created by Irrlitz 1972 for eastern basins to basins unrelated
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Figure 9 (A) Simplified, true-scale geological cross-sections across the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) and its immediately neighboring
structures within the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). The circles represent arrowheads showing the component of the present-day
motions parallel with the NAF deduced from GPS observations. The arrows parallel with the section show the component of motion
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perpendicular to the NAF (for sources, see Figure 15). Note the compatibility of the nature of the fault at any given section with the
present-day motions. The sections have been partly reinterpreted from 1. Akkan (1964; section 8); 2. Koçyiğit (1990; figure 5); 3. Öztürk
(1980; figure 11, section K-2), 4. Tokay (1973; section 16), Barka (1985; figure 4); 5. Tokay (1973; section 1); 6. Ardel (1965; figure 2);
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and 7. Bilgin (1969; figure 20), Yılmaz & Karacık (2001; figure 1).
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT

Figure 9 (B) The sections have been partly reinterpreted from 8. Imren et al. (2001; line M97-030); 9. Imren
et al. (2001; line DMS-002); 10. Imren et al. (2001; line M97-006); and 11. Yalçınlar (1946; plate of sections,
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section V).
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60 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

to them) to be Pliocene. However, Över’s dating is based on terrestrial Ostracod


analogies between northern Turkey and the island of Rhodes in southern Aegean
and is therefore not reliable. In the western part of the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin,
there are basaltic lava flows intercalated in the white lacustrine marly limestones
(Över 1996; Över et al. 1997).
The internal structure of the Ilgaz Basin represents a south-southeast-facing
overturned syncline complicated by numerous secondary folds (Figure 9A, section
4). The folds in it are appressed into trends with acuter angles to the main strand of
the NAF than those folds in the eastern parts of the fault where the shear strain is
higher (Figure 10; see discussion in the penultimate section of the present review).
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In its structure, then, the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin resembles the Gelibolu Basin and
probably has a similar origin (Hubert-Ferrari 2002).
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THE TOSYA BASIN The Tosya Basin is similar in character to the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu
Basin and is similarly oriented. It has a very similar stratigraphy (Barka 1985, 1992;
Över 1996; Över et al. 1997). It is also bounded by two oblique thrusts that verge
basinward, although here the southern thrust is less pronounced than it is in the
Çerkeş-Kurşunlu Basin. The dips near the northern margin of the basin are steeper
than elsewhere, but there is no overturning. Gentle folds with flank dips of up to
35◦ have subparallel axes with the basin margins (Figure 10).

THE KARGI BASIN This is a small basin located to the north of the main strand
of the NAF. Its orientation is similar to the Çerkeş-Kurşunlu and the Tosya basins
and it also houses a syncline, but in this case a northwest-facing one. The basin
fill consists entirely of probably Pleistocene to Quaternary conglomerates making
up deformed terrace deposits (Barka 1985, 1992; Dirik 1993; Över et al. 1997).

THE VEZİRKÖPRÜ BASIN The Vezirköprü Basin is also located to the north of the
main strand of the NAF. It is bounded to the east by northwest-southeast-striking
normal faults, and it seems to be a fault wedge basin similar to those described
by Crowell (1974). It has a Late Miocene to Pliocene, dominantly clastic fill that
was deposited in limnic environments (Irrlitz 1971, Dirik 1993). The basin fill
begins with coarse conglomerates near the southern master fault family and fines
northward into sandstones, claystones, and even marls. There are also silica-rich
sediments probably derived from the surrounding Middle Tertiary andesitic vol-
canics (Dirik 1993). Upward, the section becomes finer-grained with alternating
claystone, sandstone, and conglomerates. The entire Upper Miocene–Pliocene se-
quence is some 150-m-thick and is capped by? Lower Pleistocene terrace deposits
(Dirik 1993).

THE HAVZA-LÂDİK BASIN This is essentially a double basin separated by a family


of north-south-striking normal faults some 5 km west of Lâdik (40◦ 55 N, 35◦ 54 E).
The Havza part of the basin, which is the main part, is to the west of these normal
faults and is bounded to the north-northeast by the main strand of the NAF, which
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Figure 10 Map showing the axial traces of folds along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) related to the activity of the NAF and/or to that
of NASZ. Most traces depicted here are too small to be used by the reader to see their orientation; they merely show where the folds are
and their sizes compared with the NAF. For that reason, we have employed double arrows to summarize dominant fold axial trends in a
given region. The bundle of arrows in α show these and compare them with one another. See text for discussion. The fold axial trends have
been compiled from the following: Bilgin (1969), Tatar (1975, 1978), Öztürk (1980), Tutkun & İnan (1982), Barka (1985), Gökmen et al.
(1993), Yaltırak (1995, 1996), Yaltırak & Alpar (2002a), Herece & Akay (2003).
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62 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

appears here as an oblique-separation dextral strike-slip fault with a minor thrust


component. The Havza part of the basin seems to have formed by extension parallel
with, and by flexural bending in front of, the thrust component of the NAF. In this
respect it resembles the Ridge Basin in southern California (Crowell 1982).
Havza’s main sedimentary fill consists of three packages: A lower limnic (la-
custrine) section, which consists mainly of an upward-fining section of some 250
to 300 m thickness. It has a pollen assemblage giving a date of late Miocene (Irrlitz
1972, as revised by Benda & Meulenkamp 1979). This limnic package gives way to
a coarser, conglomerate- and sandstone-dominated package of some 150 m visible
thickness [Irrlitz (1972) estimates that it must have been at least 250 m thick orig-
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inally]. The third package is mainly fluviatile, with an upward-thinning grain size.
It is 150 m thick and has, in its upper, lignite-bearing part latest Villanian–early
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Biharian mammal fossils (Ünay & de Bruijn 1998).


The Ladik part of the basin, to the east-southeast, is narrower and appears to be a
combination of a fault wedge basin and a flexural basin. Some normal faulting has
been reported by Öztürk (1980) along the southern margin of the basin. The normal
faults are displaced by conjugate strike-slip faults of small separation, indicating
shortening across the basin (Figure 9A, section 3). Here, the basin fill consists
mainly of conglomerates with local silty interlayers. Both the fossil content (as
revised by Benda & Meulenkamp 1979) and similarity of rock succession (Öztürk
1979) indicate that the basin fill here corresponds to the middle, limnic-fluviatile
package of the Havza part of the basin. However, the presence of Lake Lâdik in
the eastern part of the basin may indicate that here similar conditions may have
lasted into later times, i.e., into the Pleistocene-Holocene.

THE TAŞOVA-ERBAA BASIN A classic pull-apart basin, the structure of the Taşova-
Erbaa Basin has been studied in some detail by Barka et al. (2000c). It has a visibly
700-m-thick sedimentary fill (the total thickness is probably more) consisting of
three main packages (Irrlitz 1972, Tutkun & İnan 1982, Barka et al. 2000c): A
lower, dominantly lacustrine section is some 350 m thick and sits unconformably
on Eocene tuffs and sandstones. It starts with conglomerates and sandstones with
some claystone and lignite intercalations containing a pollen assemblage giving
a late Miocene age. This passes upward into a dominantly clayey-marly section
with local conglomerate lenses. The fluviatile section begins with a sandstone-
claystone intercalation with abundant fossil soil horizons. Farther up, the section
becomes dominantly conglomeratic with a thickness of some 400 to 500 m. Three
Quaternary terraces of the Kelkit River cap the section.
Barka et al. (2000c) have mapped east-northeast-trending fold axes and perva-
sive normal and thrust faults. The normal faults and extensional fractures mostly
strike 150◦ , whereas the thrusts have common strikes around 65◦ to 70◦ . Fold axial
trends are scattered as a result of adaptation to basin margins and internal rotation
of blocks (Figure 10). Many of the normal faults appear to have had dips of 60◦
originally, but most have since been rotated out of their original position around
both vertical and horizontal axes as a result of the activity of younger fault sets.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 63

THE NİKSAR BASIN The Niksar Basin is a small pull-apart basin with a pro-
nounced sigmoidal shape (Hempton & Dunne 1983; Tatar 1996a,b; Barka et al.
2000c) probably betraying an origin as a large tension gash along the NASZ.
The sedimentary infill of the Niksar Basin is similar to that of the Taşova-Erbaa
Basin, with the important difference of having two separate volcanic events. One
is a basaltic andesite between the dominantly lacustrine lower and the dominantly
fluviatile upper section. The other is a basalt that caps the fluviatile section but
underlies the Quaternary terrace deposits (Tatar 1996a).
Tatar’s (1996a,b) detailed structural studies have revealed that the Pliocene
extension direction in the Niksar Basin was approximately N30◦ E. The axes of
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fairly open folds (maximum flank dip 28◦ ) generally trend east-northeast, but some
fold axes in the extreme north of the basin seem to have been rotated into a north-
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northeast orientation (Figure 10), as corroborated by paleomagnetic observations


(Tatar et al. 1995, Piper et al. 1996).

THE SUŞEHRİ BASIN The Suşehri Basin is a narrow pull-apart structure later cut
by the main strand of the NAF. It actually consists of two subbasins: Suşehri sensu
stricto and Gölova (Hempton & Dunne 1983; Toprak 1988; Koçyiğit 1989, 1990;
Kazancı 1993; see also Figure 9A, section 2). It has a sedimentary fill of some
750 m that can be divided into three packages: a lower lacustrine section that is
approximately 200 to 250 m thick and is of late Miocene age (Irrlitz 1972, Kazancı
1993). An approximately 150- to 180-m-thick clastic section above this interfingers
with limnic marls to the southeast. A 150- to 250-m-thick, upward-coarsening
fluviatile section caps the entire sedimentary succession, which probably reaches
into the Middle Pleistocene. It seems that much of the Quaternary section has been
removed by erosion.

THE REFAHİYE BASIN COMPLEX Irrlitz (1972) distinguished four basins within
what he called the “Intermontane basins of the Refahiye area” (see also Tatar
1978). Three of these contain biostratigraphically reliably datable successions.
These are the Karnos, Bicer, and the Refahiye sensu stricto basins.
The Karnos (no. 15) includes a bipartite succession beginning with coarse
conglomerates and sandstones rapidly passing into lacustrine marls and claystones.
This part has a thickness of 70 to 100 m and its pollen assemblage indicates a late
Miocene age. A Hipparion find at the transition of the lacustrine to fluviatile section
indicates that it occurred still in the late Miocene. The 300-m-thick Plio-Pleistocene
section consists mainly of coarse fluvial conglomerates.
The smaller Bicer Basin (no. 16) has a similar bipartite division, but its limnic
beds give a younger late Miocene age. The upper 100-m-thick fluviatile section is
barren.
The Refahiye basin (no. 17) (Koçyiğit 1996) resembles the Karnos more than the
Bicer basin in terms of its sedimentary fill. The time of the onset of sedimentation
is also similar to the Karnos Basin.
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64 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

THE ERZİNCAN BASIN The Erzincan Basin is a typical pull-apart structure (Şengör
1979a, Aydın & Nur 1982, Hempton & Dunne 1983, Şengör et al. 1985) compli-
cated only by the influence of the Ovacik Fault to its southeast (Barka & Gülen
1989). It is the largest fault-related basin east of the Sea of Marmara. Its full
sedimentary fill is not exposed. The exposed part begins with lacustrine blue clay-
stones followed by a 250-m-thick alternation of conglomerates, sandstones, and
claystones. The section ends with a 200-m-thick conglomerate of fluviatile origin.
Plio-Pleistocene mafic volcanics are intercalated in the section. Seismic studies
using the aftershocks of the March 13, 1992, Erzincan earthquakes (Erdik et al.
1992, Yücemen 1992, Fuenzalida et al. 1997) have been undertaken by Gaucher
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(1993), who estimated a variation from 600 m to 2.1 km thickness for the basin fill.
More recently, Kaypak (2002) estimated a total maximum thickness around 2 to
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3 km using the seismic velocities in the basin (Figure 9A, section 1). Hubert-Ferrari
et al. (2002) also inferred that the Erzincan is a “deep-rooted” basin because it
seems to impede seismic rupture. Although there are so far no biostratigraphic
data, Irrlitz (1972) concluded, by comparison with surrounding basins, that the
basin subsidence and sedimentation must have started in late Miocene times. Most
subsequent authors agree with his estimate.
Erzincan also has considerable Recent to Subrecent volcanism. Both rhyolitic
and mafic lavas have been reported (Baş 1975, Linneman 2002). Scott Linnemann
(personal communication 2002) suggested that the rhyolites probably formed by
crustal melting resulting from basaltic intrusions into the crust, a conclusion that
agrees with the earlier findings of Baş (1975). K-Ar dating on sanidines in rhyolites
has yielded two ages: 0.273 ± 0.04 ka and 0.246 ± 0.26 ka (Linneman 2002).
The claim that Erzincan was a basin similar to Karlıova (for Karlıova, see Şengör
1979a, Şaroğlu 1985, Şengör et al. 1985), i.e., that it formed at the junction of the
Ovacık and the NAF (Barka & Gülen 1989, Fuenzalida et al. 1997, Westaway
& Arger 2001), is not supported by the Pliocene age of the Ovacık Fault. As
Hempton & Dunne (1983) observed, the shape of the Erzincan Basin also belies
that interpretation; although, after the Ovacık Fault became active, it contributed to
the extension in the Erzincan Basin, which probably is the reason for its great depth
to basement. During the activity of the Ovacık Fault (for the controversy about
whether the Ovacık is a still active fault, see the discussion in Westaway & Arger
2001), the Erzincan basin clearly operated in a mode similar to the Karlıova Basin.

Basins of the Southern Strand


THE BAYRAMİÇ (=ETİLİ) BASIN This small graben is located along the Etili Fault
Zone in the middle of the Biga Peninsula. It has a geometry suggesting a pull-
apart origin, although its northern part seems not to be faulted (Yılmaz & Karacık
2001; also see Bilgin 1969, figure 20). From the geological map by Yılmaz &
Karacık (2001), it may also be interpreted as a small incompatibility basin between
differently oriented faults, essentially a fault-wedge basin sensu Crowell (1974). It
has an approximately 150-m-thick, dominantly clastic, upward-fining sedimentary
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 65

fill that has basalt intercalations near its upper portions. The basalts have been dated
to be around 9 to 8. 4 Ma (Ercan et al. 1995, Aldanmaz et al. 2000).

THE MANYAS AND ULUBAT BASINS The Manyas and Ulubat basins actually form
one basin complex separated from the southern coastal regions of the Marmara
Sea by a string of mountain ranges tilted to the south along a major, coast-parallel
normal-separation oblique fault. Sedimentation in this basin complex began in the
Pontian (late Miocene) with fluvial sediments and rapidly developed into a lacus-
trine environment. In the late Pliocene, fluvial conditions dominated. Lacustrine
conditions returned in the later Pliocene and became dominant in the Pleistocene
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(Yaltırak & Alpar 2002b). The Manyas and the Ulubat (Apolyont) lakes are the
remnants of the much larger Pleistocene lakes in the area (Görür et al. 1997). In
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the Gönen region, the western end of the Manyas subbasin, the total thickness of
the Tertiary, which is mostly the basin fill, is approximately 400 m (Yalçın 1997).
It is clear that the late Miocene sedimentation here was fault-controlled (see Figure
9B, section 11).

THE YENİŞEHİR BASIN Yenişehir is a spindle-shaped pull-apart basin that is 35 km


long and has a maximum width of approximately 15 km. The southern mar-
gin is discontinuously faulted. The northern margin is probably also faulted but
the alluvium covers the faults. The late Miocene is represented by the lacustrine
limestones of the Gemiciköy Formation (Altinlı 1975). They are unconformably
covered by the red clastics of the Alayli Formation of probable Pliocene age.
The Alayli is a fluvial unit that starts coarse-grained at the base and fines up-
ward. The Alayli is in turn covered disconformably by Quaternary alluvium. The
basin seems to have started its fault-related subsidence in the late Miocene (Genç
1993).

THE PAMUKOVA BASIN The Pamukova Basin is a 30-km-long and 0.2- to 6-km-
wide pull-apart basin filled with the Plio-Quaternary sedimentary rocks consisting
of the fluvial terrace deposits with a visible thickness of 100 m and overlying 10 to
20 m of alluvium made up of meander plain and marsh deposits (Akartuna & Atan
1981, Koçyiğit 1988). The Sakarya river enters the basin at its southwest corner
just to the east of Mekece (40◦ 27 N, 30◦ 03 E) and exits at its northeast corner north
of Geyve (40◦ 31 N, 30◦ 18 E). This indicates a deflection of the river for some 22
to 26 km.

Basins of the Splay Faults Associated with the


North Anatolian Fault
THE MERZİFON BASIN The Merzifon Basin is a pull-apart basin located on the
Hamamözü Fault Zone that splays off the main strand of the NAF. The basin
is approximately 30 km long and 10 to 15 km wide. It is filled with a Neogene-
Quaternary sedimentary pile that commences with the blue lacustrine clays
and marls of the Miocene passing upward into calcareous, poorly consolidated
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66 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

sandstones. These are followed unconformably by Pliocene sands, gravels, and


clays that are hardly consolidated. They contain volcanogenic clasts. The to-
tal thickness of the Neogene deposits is around 1000 to 1500 m. The Quater-
nary is represented by alluvial channel and flood-plain fills and fans (Karaalioğlu
1973).

THE KAZOVA BASIN The Kazova, or the Almus, Basin is a fault-wedge basin lo-
cated on the Sungurlu Fault. It has an undated basin fill presumed to be of Pliocene
age on the basis of its poorly consolidated aspect and horizontality of its atti-
tude (Bozkurt & Koçyiğit 1996). The total basin fill is approximately 200 m,
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although Bozkurt & Koçyiğit (1995) have estimated a vertical displacement along
the northern bounding fault (the Mercimekdaği-Çamdere fault set) of 750 m.
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They also give a 1.3 km dextral offset, but this must be regarded as a minimum,
as they have been measured on subsidiary Riedel (R) and P-shears (Tchalenko
1970).

Basins Within the Sea of Marmara


These basins properly belong to the basin sequence of the Northern Strand of the
NAF, but they are inaccessible to direct observation. Here, we consider only the
three major basins shown in Figures 9B and 11. The existence of these three bathy-
metric basins had become known as a result of the H.M.S.S. Selânik expedition
in 1894 (Spindler et al. 1896). Later, more data were collected, especially by the
Turkish Navy, but the bathymetry of the northern Marmara Trough and the three
main deeps only became known in detail after the campaign of the Le Surôit in the
Summer of 2001 (Le Pichon et al. 2001 and Rangin et al. 2001; for the southern
margin of the Marmara Trough, also see Smith et al. 1995). The multichannel seis-
mic reflection data collected by the Sismik-I, belonging to the Mineral Research
and Exploration Directorate General of Turkey (the M.T.A.) since 1997 under
the coordination of the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TÜBİTAK), have been in part evaluated and published by Okay et al. (1999, 2000)
and İmren et al. (2001). The detailed marine geophysical work following the 1999
earthquakes has largely antiquated the tectonic and stratigraphic interpretations by
Okay et al. (1999, 2000).
In Figure 9B, sections 8, 9, and 10 show the structure of the Çinarcik, Central,
and the Tekirdağ basins (for locations of these basins, see Figure 11). These are
approximately 2-km-deep basins (not counting the water depth!). Their fills have
not been dated because the sections have not been drilled to any great depth;
however, shallow drilling down to 40 m during a recent RV Marion Dufresne cruise
has at least shown their Holocene to latest Pleistocene (past 40 ka) sedimentation
rates. In them, the rates are more than a meter/thousand years. It is believed that
during the ice ages the Sea of Marmara turned into a lacustrine basin and then the
sedimentation rates were even higher (Çağatay 2003). This makes the entire section
in the basins Pleistocene in age, contrary to the previous estimates of Miocene to
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 67


Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
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Figure 11 Active faults of the Sea of Marmara and surrounding regions. The topography is
from GTOPO 30 data of the U.S. Geological Survey. The multibeam bathymetry was taken
from Le Pichon et al. (2001) and Rangin et al. (2001). All known active faults have been
plotted from Şaroğlu et al. (1992), Şengör et al. (1999), Le Pichon et al. (2001), and our own
observations.

Holocene ages (e.g., Okay et. al. 1999, Yaltırak 2002). The basins are therefore
very young, probably no older than the latest Pliocene. They probably formed as
the NASZ was developing here along a variety of R, R , and P shears and folds
(Figure 10) and were cut by the Northern Strand of the NAF at some 200 ka ago
(Le Pichon et al. 2001). There may be a slight component of current extension
across at least the Çınarcık basin (6.4 mm/year: Figure 9B, section 8), which is
creating the ongoing, very slow extension within this basin. But active structure
generation is clearly dominated by strike-slip along the Northern Strand of the
NAF in places, leading even to oblique shortening in parts of the basin margins
(e.g., İmren et al. 2001).

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE NORTH ANATOLIAN


KEIROGEN
As a comparison of Figures 1 and 2 show, both the NAF and the NASZ have sharp
morphological expressions throughout their extent, which betray the youthfulness
of their morphology. In fact, if we bring Figure 5 into this comparison, we
would see that most structures making up both are still seismically active. Even
some of the ?/rotated R shears (cf. Tchalenko 1970) (or perhaps X-shears;
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68 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

cf. Bartlett et al. 1981) associated with the NASZ are still active and generate
up to Mw = 6.0 left-lateral earthquakes (e.g., Koçyiğit et al. 2001, Taymaz &
Tan 2001). Seismic activity in general is more concentrated along and very
near the NAF than it is elsewhere within the NASZ. This is consistent with
the sharper morphology of the NAF than that of the structures elsewhere within
the NASZ.

Geomorphology of the North Anatolian Fault


From the Gulf of Saros to Karlıova, the morphology of the main strand of the
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NAF (including its very young Northern Strand) is defined by a narrow fault val-
ley interrupted at irregular intervals by a variety of basin types, as discussed in
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the previous section (Erinç et al. 1961a; Allen 1969, 1982; Ketin 1969, 1976;
Arpat & Şaroğlu 1975; Seymen 1975; Şengör 1979a; Sipahioğlu 1984; Barka
1992; Emre et al. 1998; Le Pichon et al. 2001; Rangin et al. 2001; Hubert-Ferrari
et al. 2002; Koçyiğit 2003). This narrow valley is paralleled by a morphologi-
cal fabric within the valley and outside it (Figure 1). The intra-vale parallel fab-
ric is formed mainly by a variety of (a) parallel fault scarps, commonly tilted;
(b) displaced and otherwise deformed erosional and constructional stream ter-
races; (c) pieces of deformed erosion surfaces of the valley shoulders incorpo-
rated into the fault zone; (d) shutter ridges; (e) and a multitude of whaleback
ridges resulting from the anastomosing nature of the individual fault splays that
form the main strand of the fault. In places, for example, between Bolu and the
Çerkeş basins, the whaleback ridges surround sag-ponds of different sizes. A
similar situation is encountered, for example, near Küçükgüzel, 12 km east of
Suşehri (40◦ 10 N, 38◦ 06 E), in the eastern part of the NAF (Allen 1982). Much
smaller ponds characterize the fault traces in many places (e.g., at the İsmetpaşa
Station; Aytun 1982). Where the main strand forks, east of Bolu, the Yeniçağa
fault wedge basin that houses a small lake originated (Erinç et al. 1961b, Şengör
1979a).
Throughout the fault zone, stream courses have been deformed (see Herece &
Akay 2003), in places entirely disrupting an older stream network and replacing it
with a new one (e.g., Erinç et al. 1961a, Erinç 1973, Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002, Okay
& Okay 2002). All along the main strand of the fault, consequent streams flowing
into the fault valley are bent clockwise, as are the courses of older streams now
disrupted by the fault that cut them (e.g., Allen 1969, 1982; Ketin 1969; Seymen
1975; Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002). In many places, “wrong” displacements, i.e.,
those in an anticlockwise sense, accompany those in the “right” sense, indicating
capture processes. Most of these phenomena are of late Pliocene age at the oldest.
Presumed older river diversions are seen in the courses of the major rivers that
traverse the course of the NAF and NASZ.
The most spectacular river diversions have been plotted in Figure 6. Of these,
the easternmost river, the Euphrates and its tributaries, are of Pliocene age (Erinç
1953). They could hardly be any older, as the future sites of the Euphrates and
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 69

its main tributaries were under marine waters until the Serravallian (Şengör et al.
1985). The offset of the Elmalı/Peri Suyu system is some 70 km. The river is not
only offset by the main strand of the NAF, but also by a number of parallel faults
making up the NASZ here. To its west-northwest, the Karasu is also offset for
approximately 70 km across the Erzincan basin.
Farther to the west, the offsets of the Yeşilırmak are more spectacular and
are distributed in a wider zone. First of all, the entire river turns around a bend
of more than 180◦ . One major offset of the valley is between Turhal (40◦ 24 N,
36◦ 05 E; t in Figure 6) and the Amasya Plain (a in Figure 6), giving an offset of
approximately 30 km. The other major offset is accomplished across a number
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of east-west-striking strike-slip faults between the Sungurlu Fault and the main
strand of the NAF, which also offsets the river. All this adds an extra 50 km
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to the offset across the entire NASZ, bringing the total up to 80 km. The age
of the Yeşilırmak is not well established. At least its Kelkit tributary is of late
Miocene age (Şengör et al. 1985), but the entire system is probably no older than
Pliocene.
The Kızılırmak is the oldest of the rivers that empty into the Black Sea, and its
inner Anatolian parts are clearly of late Miocene age (İzbırak 1948, Akkan 1970,
Şengör et al. 1985). Its capture by external drainage into the Black Sea is most
likely younger as there are no river terraces older than the Pliocene in its lower
course (Ardel 1967; O. Tüysüz, unpublished data). The entire river, plus its Delice
tributary (D in Figure 6), defines a mighty, east-concave bend in Central Anatolia
(Ardel 1967). There is little doubt that much of the northern part of this bend is
a result of the right-handed shear across the NASZ. However, there are as yet no
detailed studies to substantiate this. The Sungurlu Fault at least contributed a 30 km
offset to this bending. There is another sharp bend right on the main strand of the
NAF, which adds another 40 km and brings the total up to 70 km. But there
are a number of other, smaller jerks in the river course corresponding to smaller
east-west-striking faults that obviously augment the total offset. We would not be
surprised if the total dextral displacement across the NAK recorded by the great
bend of the Kızılırmak is more than 100 km.
The next big river diversion is represented by the Filyos. Erinç (1973) was of
the opinion that this river system was established during the late Miocene–early
Pliocene interval, but was badly disrupted by the activity of the NAF main strand
and by faults paralleling it to its south. A long upper course (the Soğanlı Çayı or
Uluçay; Ulusu of some authors; now Gerede Çayı) was established by a variety of
capture and diversion processes (see also Erinç et al. 1961a).
The Sakarya is the second largest river that flows into the Black Sea. It is, at
most, of late Pliocene age (Bilgin 1984, Emre et al. 1998). Since the late Pliocene,
it has accumulated an at least 26 km offset as seen by its diversion in Pamukova
(Koçyiğit 1988). Farther north, the river lazily flows within the Adapazarı Plain
and is hardly offset at all.
The final river we consider is the Susurluk. It is also of late Pliocene age (Emre
et al. 1997). It shows no sharp offsets but bends clockwise across the shear zone
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70 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

of the Southern Strand of the NAF, giving a lateral visible displacement of slightly
more than 20 km.

Geomorphology of the NASZ


A parallel fabric outside the NAF valley characterizes the NASZ and is of a larger
scale than that within the valley. Ridges 100 km or longer separated commonly
by 1 to 5 km wide valleys are typical (see Figure 1). The NASZ fabric extends
from the surroundings of the Sea of Marmara to where the NAF takes an east-
southeasterly bend in its central part (Suzanne et al. 1990, Dirik 1993, Hubert-
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Ferrari et al. 2002). From the bend to Erzincan in the east, elements of the parallel
fabric turn into and gently merge with the main valley of the NAF. This is par-
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ticularly characteristic of the Tokat Lobe region of the Tethyside accretionary


complexes, but not confined to it. The same behavior is clearly seen in the dis-
position of the valley of the upper course of the Kızılırmak and Karasu south of
Erzincan.
A comparison of a geological map (e.g., the new 1:500,000-scale geological
map of Turkey; Şenel 2002) and a topographic map (e.g., Figure 1) shows that
the parallel fabric outside the valley of the NAF is controlled by the strike-lines
related to paleotectonics. This was known already in the beginning of the twentieth
century (e.g., Philippson 1918, pp. 150–51). Such a disposition of the strike-lines
(and fold axial traces) may well be because of a paleotectonic dextral fault roughly
between Karlıova and the central bend of the NAF, which formed obliquely across
the accretionary complexes during or just after the collision in the medial Eocene.
Alternatively, such a fault may have formed during the Paleocene right-lateral
jerk of Africa with respect to Europe (cf. Dewey et al. 1989). Indeed, there is no
Paleocene yet found anywhere on the Tokat Lobe of the Tethyside accretionary
complexes (Figure 4).
Yılmaz et al. (1993) have in fact reported the presence of steep, roughly east-
west-striking faults with very considerable vertical throw bringing the northern
block of the future North Anatolian Fault Zone upward with respect to the south-
ern block. Serpentinites were introduced into these fault zones from surrounding
Mesozoic mélange units. Yılmaz et al. (1993) were unable to establish the sense
of strike-slip, although they felt certain that they were looking at a transpressional
system. However, the possibility of the existence of such a strike-slip system of pos-
sibly later late Eocene times (Yılmaz et al. 1993), or simply of Paleogene times,
has major implications for the cumulative offset estimated by Seymen (1975)
across the NAF. If a dextral fault subparallel with the trace of the NAF was ac-
tive at any time after the formation in the Hettangian-Sinemurian interval of the
south-facing Atlantic-type continental margin north of the Ankara-Erzincan suture
(Görür et al. 1983), then Seymen’s offset may have happened during the late Eocene
and does not necessarily show the cumulative offset of the Neogene to the present
NAF. Thus, independent check of Seymen’s figure is necessary, as we discuss
below.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 71

PRESENT-DAY MOTIONS ALONG THE NORTH


ANATOLIAN KEIROGEN
The Seismicity of the NAF and the NASZ
The seismicity along the NAK has been known since antiquity. We therefore present
it in two separate sections, summarizing first the instrumental observations.

INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS Not only is the NAF now a seismically active


structure, but the entire NAK is also seismically alive (Figure 5). Most of the
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earthquakes with reliable epicentral locations and fault-plane solutions that fall on
the trace of the fault show dextral strike-slip (Figure 12 and Table 1). Some have ex-
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tensional components, perhaps indicating Riedels acting in a transtensional mode


(e.g., no. 43, in Figure 12); others show the same for possible anti-Riedels (e.g.,
nos. 39, 41); and still others indicate the activity of normal faults in a “tension-gash
orientation” [e.g., nos. 25 (rotated tension gash?), 12]. But such solutions are much
fewer than those showing pure strike-slip. Earthquakes outside the NAF proper,
but within the NASZ, show strike-slip parallel or subparallel with the NAF and
oblique-slip extension. That movement is compatible with the overall kinematics
of the NASZ and even sinistral strike-slip on rotated R - or X-shears (e.g., the June
6, 2000, Orta earthquake; Koçyiğit et al. 2001, Taymaz & Tan 2001), showing that
the formation of the NAF has not yet entirely deactivated the NASZ.
A seismically relatively quiescent region is seen between latitudes 36◦ E and

38 E (Figure 5). This segment corresponds to the segment broken during the
December 27, 1939, earthquake of Ms = 7.8 or 7.9 (Figure 3), and the present
quiescence may be because of the great amount of strain energy released during
that catastrophic shock. A similar quiescent segment seen between 26◦ 30 E and
27◦ 30 E along the Northern Strand of the NAF may be an after-effect of the
Ms = 7.2 1912 earthquake (Mihailoviç 1923, 1927; Ambraseys & Finkel 1987,
Rockwell et al. 2001, Altınok et al. 2003).
Regular behavior in terms of migration from east to west of major earthquakes
since 1939 was recognized by Egeran & Lahn (1944) and Ketin & Rösli (1953).
This behavior has been modeled by Stein et al. (1997) using the Coulomb failure
of dislocations, and it successfully predicted the location of the August 17, 1999,
Kocaeli earthquake. Figure 13 (see color insert) shows how the progressive failure
of the NAF during the twentieth century was brought about by heightened stress
concentration at the tips of the broken segments during each great earthquake
(R.S. Stein & S. Bozkurt, written communication, 2003; also visit their website at
http: // quake.wr.usgs.gov / research/deformation/modeling/stress trig/index.html).
King et al. (2001) modeled the situation after the Kocaeli earthquake and concluded
that “Whatever interpretation [is placed] on the data. . .one or two events as great
or greater than the recent one is likely to occur within the next few decades near
to the northern coast of the Marmara Sea” (King et al. 2001, p. 557). Parsons et al.
(2000) and Le Pichon et al. (2003) concur.
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Figure 12 Fault plane solutions of 48 earthquakes that occurred along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) between 1939 and 2003 with
Ms ≥ 5. Fault plane solutions are shown as lower hemisphere stereographic projections with compressional quadrants shaded. Solutions
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with black compressional quadrants are the most reliable ones determined by wave-form modeling techniques. Solutions with darker gray
compressional quadrants are those determined by visual examination of seismograms. Solutions with lighter gray compressional quadrants
are those obtained by plotting readings from Bulletins, but are compatible with the surface characteristics of the fault. For the sources of
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the solutions, see Table 1.


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TABLE 1 Parameters and sources for fault plane solutions depicted in Figure 12
Date Origin time Latitude Longitude Depth
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No. (day.month.year) (h:min) GMT (degree) (degree) M (km) Strike (◦ ) Dip (◦ ) Rake (◦ ) Reference

1 26.12.1939 23:57 39.80 39.38 7.8 0 200 61 4 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
AR

2 20.12.1942 14:03 40.66 36.35 7.1 0 128 71 −176 Öcal (1966)


3 20.06.1943 15:33 40.83 30.48 6.4 0 176 76 0 McKenzie (1972)
4 26.11.1943 22:20 40.97 33.22 7.3 0 269 73 173 Hodgson & Wickens (1965)
5 01.02.1944 03:22 41.10 33.20 7.3 0 332 77 31 Öcal (1966)
6 13.08.1951 18:33 40.86 32.68 6.9 0 348 83 −20 McKenzie (1972)
7 18.03.1953 19:06 40.01 27.49 7.2 40 150 84 14 McKenzie (1972)
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8 07.09.1953 03:58 40.94 33.13 6.1 0 281 72 −158 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
9 26.05.1957 06:33 40.58 31.00 7.0 0 87 78 179 McKenzie (1972)
10 26.05.1957 09:36 40.80 30.80 6.0 0 114 24 −166 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
11 27.05.1957 11:01 40.70 31.00 5.5 0 293 74 157 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
12 07.07.1957 05:58 39.21 40.23 5.1 0 237 51 54 Canıtez & Üçer (1967)
13 18.09.1963 16:58 40.71 29.09 6.4 15 304 56 −82 Taymaz et al. (1991)
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14 06.10.1964 14:31 40.20 28.20 6.9 14 100 40 −90 Taymaz et al. (1991)
15 23.08.1965 14:08 40.39 26.12 5.9 33 261 70 −132 Kocaefe & Ataman (1976)
16 22.07.1967 16:56 40.67 30.69 7.1 12 275 88 −178 Taymaz et al. (1991)
17 26.07.1967 18:53 39.54 40.38 6.0 30 194 72 06 McKenzie (1972)
18 30.07.1967 01:32 40.72 30.52 5.6 16 301 50 70 McKenzie (1972)
19 03.03.1969 00:59 40.08 27.50 5.7 4 219 65 45 McKenzie (1972)
20 23.02.1971 19:41 39.62 27.32 5.6 10 86 66 160 Papadopoulos et al. (1986)
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21 27.03.1975 05:15 40.45 26.12 6.6 15 279 46 −43 Jackson & McKenzie (1984)
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT

22 05.10.1977 05:34 41.02 33.57 5.8 8 76 90 173 Harvard Univ. (1998)


23 05.07.1983 23:02 40.33 27.21 6.1 15 254 49 −173 Harvard Univ. (1998)
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(Continued)
73
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TABLE 1 (Continued) 74
Date Origin time Latitude Longitude Depth
No. (day.month.year) (h:min) GMT (degree) (degree) M (km) Strike (◦ ) Dip (◦ ) Rake (◦ ) Reference
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24 21.10.1983 20:34 40.14 39.35 5.4 15 217 90 180 Harvard Univ. (1998)
25 18.11.1983 01:15 39.79 39.43 5.4 10 156 21 Harvard Univ. (1998)
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−102
26 24.04.1988 20:49 40.88 28.24 5.3 15 356 71 −11 Harvard Univ. (1998)
27 20.04.1990 23:30 40.12 40.07 5.4 15 299 90 −180 Harvard Univ. (1998)
28 13.03.1992 17:18 39.72 39.63 6.7 15 213 85 4 Harvard Univ. (1998)
ŞENGÖR ET AL.

29 15.03.1992 16:16 39.53 39.93 5.9 15 61 70 14 Harvard Univ. (1998)


30 29.01.1995 04:16 39.82 40.64 5.2 33 211 70 1 Harvard Univ. (1998)
31 05.12.1995 18:49 39.43 40.11 5.8 15 136 70 160 Harvard Univ. (1998)
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32 14.08.1996 01:55 40.75 35.30 5.7 15 116 70 176 Harvard Univ. (1998)
33 14.08.1996 02:59 40.78 35.31 5.7 15 197 69 −4 Harvard Univ. (1998)
34 13.04.1998 15:14 39.18 41.10 5.3 15 272 75 −175 Harvard Univ. (1998)
35 06.04.1999 00:08 39.40 38.31 5.4 15 326 49 175 Harvard Univ. (1998)
36 17.08.1999 00:01 40.70 29.99 7.4 9 91 87 164 Harvard Univ. (1998)
37 17.08.1999 03:14 40.59 30.62 5.3 8 192 32 −82 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
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38 19.08.1999 15:17 40.65 29.09 5.0 4 92 60 −110 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
39 31.08.1999 08:10 40.74 29.99 5.0 8.6 80 70 −143 Özalaybey et al. (2002)
40 13.09.1999 11:55 40.76 30.07 5.8 12 293 73 164 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
41 29.09.1999 00:13 40.71 29.30 5.0 8 85 63 −161 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
42 11.11.1999 14:41 40.78 30.29 5.5 20 307 66 179 Örgülü & Aktar (2001)
43 12.11.1999 16:59 40.768 32.148 7.2 18 268 54 −167 Harvard Univ. (1998)
44 14.02.2000 06:56 40.90 31.75 5.1 4 260 42 154 Aktar & Örgülü (2001)
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45 06.06.2000 02:41 40.65 32.92 6.0 8 2 46 −29 Taymaz ve Tan (2001)


46 23.08.2000 13:41 40.68 30.71 5.2 18 253 61 177 Aktar & Örgülü (2001)
47 27.01.2003 07:26 39.52 39.78 6.0 9 151 77 −168 USGS
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48 06.07.2003 22:10 40.41 26.10 5.7 24 77 70 180 USGS


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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 75

HISTORICAL SEISMICITY Figure 14 shows the interpretation that we think is the


most plausible of the historical seismicity of the NAF (and, given the uncertainties
in the location determinations, of the entire NAK).
For no time interval earlier than the twentieth century can we confidently iden-
tify a migratory pattern similar to the twentieth century pattern. We cannot speak
of a characteristic regular, indeed cyclical, behavior of the NAF for all times. Fol-
lowing the very large 1668 event, a series of earthquakes seem to have happened
in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries to the west of the surmised
break of the 1668 event, so that it is tempting to see here, albeit with a longer time
frame, a cycle not dissimilar to the twentieth century cycle, most likely for similar
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reasons. The earthquake activity between 1719 and 1912 seems to have migrated
generally westward, with some exceptions; however, here there are disagreements
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as to whether the second of the large 1766 shocks broke the Ganos Fault (see
Altınok et al. 2003).
Earlier than the seventeenth century, all hope of finding any regular behavior of
the NAF disappears. Every century between the eleventh and the sixteenth seems
to have had one major event between Refahiye (39◦ 54 N, 38◦ 46 E) and Karlıova.
A similar recurrence pattern (except for the twelfth century) is seen between the
great central bend of the NAF and its western termination. In between, we have
no record as far back as the seventh century. Is this because nothing happened,
nothing was recorded, or no record survived or has not yet been unearthed in the
area that we have termed, for the sake of provocation, the Paphlagonian Temporal
Seismic Gap? We know that the period indicated was a particularly turbulent
episode in the eventful social history of Anatolia. Beginning with the Muslim
incursions into the Byzantine realm in 662 and the Seljuk advance along northern
Anatolia since 1015, which was followed by the Battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert:
1071) and the Crusades, the first of which (1096–1101) reached as far north as
Kastamonu (41◦ 22 N, 33◦ 47 E; in the Byzantine sources Kastamon) and Samsun
(41◦ 17 N, 36◦ 20 E; the classical Amisos); the Mongol advance; and the catastrophe
of the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243, Anatolia was continuously ravaged by warfare
and resultant displacement and/or annihilation of populations. It was not until
the Ottomans were able to impose their final authority in 1473 (the Battle of
Otlukbeli) that the lands along the NASZ were able to enjoy continuous peace [for
a quick historical orientation, see the two excellent historical atlases (Dağtekin
1981 and Kinder and Hilgemann 1982)]. Interestingly, the 662–1473 interval pretty
much coincides with the Paphlagonian Temporal Seismic Gap. However, social
turbulence cannot be the whole answer because the eastern part of the NAK was not
necessarily a scene of peace and prosperity in the same time interval. If anything,
it was more troubled (see, in addition, Hewsen 2001). Yet from there we have
records. So, the Paphlagonian Temporal Seismic Gap remains a problem to be
explained. It is particularly teasing because it was followed by what were possibly
the two largest earthquakes along the NAF in recorded history (1509 and 1668).
Earlier in the fourth to fifth and in the first to second centuries, a biased eye
may see a pattern not dissimilar to those in the 1668 to 1912 and 1939 to 1999
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 77

cycles. But given the shakiness of the record even for the former of these cycles,
we hesitate to say anything about the nature of the groups of events in the first
five Christian centuries except that earthquakes undoubtedly took place along the
NASZ and that they were numerous in its western part, which happened to be its
most civilized sector.

Motions Along the NASZ Measured by the


Global Positioning System
Figure 15 shows the global positioning system (GPS) vectors of motion for Turkey
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and surrounding regions in a fixed Eurasian reference frame after Clarke et al.
(1998), McClusky et al. (2000), and Meade et al. (2002). The Anatolian Scholle
east of about 31◦ E longitude is now rotating, with respect to Eurasia, around
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an Euler pole near the Nile Delta (Le Pichon et al. 1993, Reilinger et al. 1997,
McClusky et al. 2000; see also Le Pichon et al. 2003). A very remarkable thing
seen in Figure 15 is that along the eastern segment of the fault east of the central
bend, the motion of the Anatolian Scholle with respect to the Black Sea mountains
lying north of the NAF is pure strike-slip. This is in excellent agreement with most
of the best fault plate solutions of earthquakes that occurred on the NAF (nos.
27–31 in Figure 12) and the NASZ (e.g., nos. 32, 33, and 47) but not with some

←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
Figure 14 Historical earthquake activity along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) for
the period 400 BC to AD 2000. Only those earthquakes have been plotted that are
known to have caused widespread damage. Those that have associated surface faulting
are indicated with continuous lines. Those with probable surface faulting are shown by
dashed lines, and those that are suspected to have possible surface faulting are indicated
with dotted lines. The earthquakes have been compiled from Ambraseys (1975), Soysal
et al. (1981), Ambraseys & Finkel (1991, 1997), Guidoboni et al. (1994), Ambraseys
& White (1997), Ambraseys & Jackson (1998), U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1193
(Kropschot 2000), and Ambraseys (2002). The earthquake distribution given here is
strongly dependent on the availability and interpretation of historical records. Given the
character and the state of scholarship on these records (see, for example, the discussion
in Ambraseys & Finkel 1995, pp. 13–34, and compare Ambraseys & Finkel 1995 with
Ambraseys 2002b on the September 10, 1509, Sea of Marmara earthquake), they
most likely do not constitute an accurate picture of the seismic activity of the NAF.
They clearly indicate, however, that the fault was seismically active in the period here
considered. Since the sixteenth century, they also show a general distribution in time
in cycles that always commenced in the east and developed westward. A biased eye
can also detect a similar pattern for the first and the second centuries and for the
fifth and the sixth centuries. However, these latter cannot be rigorously supported by
the data and the much emphasized characteristic behavior of the NAF may not be a
permanent property. Also, the gap preceding the 1668 earthquake that broke a 600-km-
long segment is remarkable, although it is difficult to be sure of its existence owing to
the paucity and the character of the records.
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Figure 15 The present horizontal motions of Earth’s land surface in and around Turkey according to GPS obser-
vations. Note the parallelism of the current motion with the strike of NAF in its eastern half, the transpressional
relationship between 31◦ E and 36◦ E meridians, and the transtensional relationship west of 31◦ E meridian.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 79

others (e.g., no. 25). Because some of the less reliable solutions also generally
agree with the GPS directions (e.g., nos 1 and 2), whereas others do not (e.g., no.
12), the suspicion is awakened that not all seismic deformation follows the large-
scale motions of the landmasses bordering the NASZ. Perhaps some are responses
to local incompatibilities.
According to the GPS observations, immediately west of the central bend of the
NAF, the present-day nature of the NAF is transpressional and remains so, although
in decreasing degrees, to near Bolu. Although the geology agrees (see Figure 9A,
sections 4 and 5), the fault plane solutions here show either pure strike-slip or a
slight normal faulting component (but compatible with northwest-southeast short-
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ening), except earthquake no. 44, which has a considerable northwest-southeast


shortening expressed by a thrust component in the fault plane solution. East of
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Bolu (b in Figure 2) at Yeniçağa, the Northern Strand of the NAF turns into what
would have been a transtensional orientation. Fault-plane solutions (nos. 13, 18,
38, 39, 41) east of the Sea of Marmara could be seen as corroborating this, but
nos. 40 and 42 and all the well-located and well-resolved smaller earthquakes (not
shown in our Figure 12, but see, e.g., Gürbüz et al. 2000, Özalaybey 2002, 2003)
along the Northern Strand are essentially pure strike-slip and compatible with the
orientation of the fault at their epicentral areas. Within the Sea of Marmara, there
is clear strain partitioning, as emphasized by Le Pichon et al. (2001). Whereas
the Main Marmara Fault (i.e., the Northern Strand within the Sea of Marmara;
Le Pichon et al. 2001) gives pure dextral strike-slip solutions everywhere, fault
families to its south, especially in the Çınarcık Basin, indicate normal faulting (see
Figure 16).
In contrast to the Northern Strand, the Southern Strand shows evidence for
transtension as expressed by a string of basins (Yenişehir, Pamukova: nos. 21 and
22 respectively in Figure 7). Those basins are isolated from one another east of Lake
İznik and tied to one another by segments of the NAF, where the Southern strand
is close to a pure strike-slip orientation between the Marmara Block (see Meade
et al. 2002, Le Pichon et al. 2003) and the regions south of the Southern Strand
of the NAF. From there westwards, most of its major splays show transtension
expressed in the linked basins of Bursa-Ulubat-Manyas until the 28◦ E longitude
is reached. From there westward, all branches of the Southern Strand bend into a
transpressive orientation, which is mostly borne out by the fault-plane solutions
(see nos. 19 and 20).
Meade et al. (2002) and Le Pichon et al. (2001, and especially 2003) have shown
that the two strands west of Adapazarı delimit an independent “Marmara block,”
as shown by Dewey & Şengör (1979) and Şengör (1979a). As a result, the motion
along the Northern Strand of the NAF is not concentric with respect to the pole near
the Nile Delta, but instead about a pole located at 36◦ 10 N, 28◦ 38 E. This makes
the Northern Strand in the Sea of Marmara (the Main Marmara Fault of Le Pichon
et al. 2001) essentially a pure strike-slip fault. In fact, as Le Pichon et al. (2003)
pointed out, only the Çınarcık Basin has a significant extensional component across
it that expresses itself in a major way in present structure generation.
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80 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
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Figure 16 Present-day motions of the Sea of Marmara and surrounding regions. The GPS
data are from Meade et al. (2002) and were plotted with respect to a Eurasian reference frame.
The slip vectors have been computed for selected earthquakes from Table 1, and Özalaybey
et al. (2002, 2003) represent the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall.

Another significant result from the latest GPS measurements is Le Pichon


and colleagues’ (2003) inference that strain across the Main Marmara Fault is
asymmetric and the southern wall of the fault, i.e., the northern part of the Mar-
mara Block delimited by the Northern and the Southern strands of the NAF, is
straining more than its northern wall. The asymmetry probably results from the
local geology: The fault delimits the Intra-Pontide suture zone to the north at least
as far west as the 28◦ 30 E meridian and possibly farther west (Şengör & Yılmaz
1981, Yılmaz 1990, Yılmaz et al. 1997b), juxtaposing weaker late Cretaceous to
Paleocene subduction-accretion material to the south against the stronger İstanbul
Zone rocks to the north (see Le Pichon et al. 2003). This has important implications
for the seismicity of the Marmara, and hence of the İstanbul, region: The expected
earthquake is likely to rupture the entire length of the Main Marmara Fault, pro-
ducing an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.6. This might trigger another event
of magnitude approximately 7 along the normal faults south of the Çınarcık Basin
(Le Pichon et al. 2003). Further implications for the seismicity of the asymmetry
have not yet been investigated in any detail.
A glance at Figure 2 suggests that the same asymmetric behavior may be (and
may have been) characteristic of the entire length of the NAF. For most of its length,
the fault is everywhere localized right on the boundary between the Tethyside
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 81

accretionary complexes and the older, stiffer basement fragments to the north (also
see Kaya 1988). Indeed, much of the NASZ is within the Tethyside accretionary
complexes as indicated above, but the NAF nucleated nearly everywhere along a
bimaterial surface (cf. Weertman 1980, Andrews & Ben-Zion 1997, Ben-Zion &
Andrews 1998, Ben Zion 2001).

THE CUMULATIVE OFFSET OF THE FAULT


The cumulative offset of the NAF has long been a contentious issue. Pavoni’s
first attempt was a failure because his database, the 1:800,000 geological map of
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Turkey (Egeran & Lahn 1942–1946), was erroneous. For many years Seymen’s
(1975) estimate of the dextral offset of the Ankara-Erzincan suture zone for some
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85 ± 5 km (Figure 17, markers s-s) was taken as “the” offset, although Şengör
(1979a) pointed out as early as 1979 that the total displacement along the fault
was less in the west than it is in the east. Bergougnan’s (1976) mapping revealed
a similar offset in the same region as Seymen’s offset.
Seymen’s number was disputed by others working on different parts of the entire
NAF (e.g., Barka 1981, 1992; Şaroğlu 1988; Koçyiğit 1988, 1989), but none of
these authors addressed the problem of multiple parallel faults and other structures
that also take up displacement in the NASZ. Because of that, all their estimates
fall short of Seymen’s (and ours in this review; see below).
However, there is a genuine problem with Seymen’s (and Bergougnan’s) esti-
mate that only became known after it was discovered that considerable strike-slip
faulting before the origin of the NASZ may have displaced the continental margin
on which they had measured the offset. First, Yılmaz et al. (1993) showed that
there probably was significant strike-slip faulting, most likely dextral, along the
future site of the NAF between Havza (40◦ 58 N, 35◦ 40 E) and Niksar (40◦ 35 N,
36◦ 57 E). Secondly, Cretaceous mélanges have been found within the mainly pre-
Liassic body of Tokat Massif along narrow zones (Bozkurt et al. 1997) that are
probably of strike-slip nature. If so, these would have displaced the southern mar-
gin of the Tokat Massif, Seymen’s marker “s” of the NAF, before the NAF formed
(Figure 17). Surprisingly, Seymen’s figure of 85 ± 5 km still seems in good agree-
ment with the more recent estimates measured on more reliable markers as dis-
cussed below. Somehow, the earlier faults must have created a geometry that
remained suitable for estimating the total displacement.
Herece & Akay (2003, table 1) tabulated all the former estimates of total offset
along the NAF (except those in Hubert-Ferrari et al. 2002), which range from
7.5 km to 300 to 400 km. Their own estimates on the basis of data displayed in
Herece & Akay (2003, table 2) range from 7 to 155 km. We do not think that all
of the markers they used are equally reliable.
The same applies to Hubert-Ferrari and colleagues’ (2002) estimates of maxi-
mum offset. For instance, their reported offset of the “two sheared folds” between
the Tosya and the Vezirköprü basins (Figure 7, nos. 8 and 9, respectively) cannot
be substantiated in the field because the “matchable” features give offsets of only
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Figure 17 Reliably measured cumulative offsets along the North Anatolian Fault (NAF). Offsets of markers a-a, c-c, d-d, e-e, f-f, and
j-j are our measurements on features, some of which had been pointed out earlier by others (see text). Offsets b-b, g-g, h-h, and i-i are
from Herece & Akay (2003). Offset k-k is from Armijo et al. (2002) and l-l is from Le Pichon et al. (2001). s-s is Seymen’s (1975) offset,
corroborated by Bergougnan (1976).
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 83

13 ± 1 km (see the 1:100,000-scale geological map in Herece & Akay, 2003,


appendix 7). But Herece & Akay’s matching also is not reliable because on both
sides of the NAF, similar units are folded in a similar style and it is arbitrary with
which “southern fold” one wishes to correlate a “northern fold.” This shows the
great dangers of mapping from space images and only cursory field checks, with-
out producing detailed geological maps. Similarly, Hubert-Ferrari and colleagues’
(2002) estimate of 65 to 95 km offset of the Filyos (sensu lato) is unlikely owing
to the complexity of river capture history there (see Erinç et al. 1961a). Below, we
present our own evaluation of the available data on cumulative offsets, including
the data of Herece & Akay (2003).
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The following offsets are the ones we consider the most reliable. In the following
list, G indicates offset of geological markers and M indicates geomorphological
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markers.

1. Offset of the Elmalı-Periçay System (M) (Figure 17, a-a): This tributary of
the Euphrates is deflected right-laterally for some 60 km between Kümbet
(38◦ 54 N, 39◦ 55 E) in the east and Akımlı (39◦ 26 N, 40◦ 19 ) in the west
(Anonymous 1977, sheet 340-A, Erzurum). Hubert-Ferrari et al. (2002) have
here found a similar offset (65 km) resembling the previous estimates (Barka
& Gülen 1989, Gaudemer et al. 1989). Because the river system is Pliocene
in age here (Erinç 1953), the deflection represents a minimum offset.
2. The Yedisu Offset (G) (Figure 16, b-b): Here, the Yedisu Fault, the eastern-
most segment of the NAF, offsets a thrust contact between an Aptian-Lower
Senonian ophiolitic mélange and an Upper Senonian-Palaeogene volcanic
and volcaniclastic unit consisting of agglomerates, andesites, basalts, dacites,
trachytes, and conglomerates for 50 km right-laterally (Herece & Akay 2003,
appendix 13). This is a minimum offset for the NASZ, for south of the NAF
there are a number of fault splays that take up further displacement. Unfortu-
nately, in this region such splays are entirely within Pliocene volcanics and it
is as yet not possible to assess the amount of displacement they accomplish
(see Herece & Akay, ibid.).
3. Offset of the Karasu River (Euphrates tributary) (M) (Figure 17, c-c): Barka
& Gülen (1989) pointed out that the Karasu was displaced right-laterally for
50 km across the Erzincan Basin. However, they ignored the bending of the
river into the fault zone (most probably along a number of parallel faults).
When that bending is taken into account, the morphological offset increases
to some 70 km (Anonymous 1977, sheet 340-A, Erzurum).
4. Turhal-Amasya Plain deflection of the Yeşilırmak (M) (Figure 17, d-d):
Between the town of Turhal and the Amasya Plain the Yeşilırmak is de-
flected right-laterally for some 30 km. This deflection is on strike with nar-
row Albian to Middle Campanian ophiolitic mélange units recognized amid
Paleo-Tethyan mélange units of pre-Liassic age (Bozkurt et al. 1997), which
seem to have been emplaced along young strike-slip faults, expressed in the
morphology as prominent parallel ridges (Anonymous 1977, sheet 324-D,
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84 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

Samsun). We interpret these faults to be related to the Sungurlu Fault some


20 km to the north (and thus parts of the NASZ).
5. Amasya Plain-Lâdik deflection (M) (Figure 17, e-e): This major deflection
of the Yeşilırmak sums the offsets (50 km) between the Sungurlu Fault to
the south and the main strand of the NAF to the north, and hence gives us a
part of the offset along the NASZ (Anonymous 1977, sheet 324-D, Samsun).
If the scenario outlined in Hubert-Ferrari et al. (2002) is correct, this offset
may be as much as 75 km.
6. The Kargi offset of the Kızilırmak (M) (Figure 17, f-f): The Kızilırmak River
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is displaced for some 40 km right-laterally along the main strand of the NAF.
The river here is probably early Pliocene in age, so the offset is probably
close to the true cumulative displacement along the fault. The suggestion by
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Hubert-Ferrari (2002) that the offset is greater (approximately 80 km) and


should be measured between the Soruk Stream and Hacihamza (41◦ 05 N,
34◦ 27 E), where the sharp bend of the Kızılırmak is located, is implausible
because of the absence of terraces in the Soruk valley (Tüysüz 1985). By
contrast, there are terraces of the Kızılırmak, where the river now turns north
at Aşıkbükü (41◦ 08 N, 34◦ 47 E).
7. Mudurnu Çayi offsets (G) (Figure 17, g-g, h-h, and i-i): These three sets
of offset geological markers (Herece & Akay 2003, appendices 3 and 4)
are among the best constrained along the entire NAF. The g marker is a late
Cretaceous ophiolitic mélange thrust over the Lower to Middle Eocene sand-
stones. The h marker is also a steep fault zone juxtaposing Albian to Lower
Senonian sandstones, shales, agglomerates, lavas and red clayey limestones,
and tuffites with Lower Devonian arkosic conglomerates, violet-colored silt-
stones, and fossiliferous siltstones. The i marker is a Devonian tectonic slice
sitting in late Cretaceous (?) ultramafics. All of these are offset for some
50 km right-laterally along the Southern Strand of the NAF. The 110◦ clock-
wise rotation inferred by Şengör et al. (1985) and measured paleomagneti-
cally by Sarıbudak et al. (1990) seems not to have affected this part of the
Almacik “flake.”
8. The Pamukova river diversion (M) (Figure 17, j-j): Koçyiğit (1988) pointed
out that in Pamukova (Figure 7, no. 22) the Sakarya River is deflected right-
laterally for 22 km. We have measured a similar deflection of 26 km.
9. The dextral displacement for 4 km of the northwest-southeast-trending fold
of the Central High (M) (see Figure 12 and Figure 17, k-k): Armijo et al.
(2002) first reported this offset, which is corroborated by Le Pichon et al.
(2003).
10. The displacement of the western margin of the Central Basin of the Sea
of Marmara (M) (see Figure 12 and Figure 17, l-l): Le Pichon et al. (2001)
pointed out that the eastern margin of the Central Basin in the Sea of Marmara
has been displaced for some 4 km since 200 ka ago, which is the age of the
Northern Strand of the NAF here.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 85

Nowhere else along the Northern Strand could a cumulative offset be measured
reliably. The 75 ± 5 km reported by Armijo et al. (1999, 2000) along the Gelibolu
Peninsula has been disputed (Yaltırak et al. 2000) and could not be corroborated
by us in the field (X. Le Pichon, M. Sakınç & A.M.C. Şengör, unpublished obser-
vations) or by others (A.İ. Okay, personal communication, 2003) either.

THE AGE AND EVOLUTION OF THE NORTH


ANATOLIAN FAULT
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One of the main themes of this review is the recognition that the NAF, i.e., the
main, through-going right-lateral strike-slip fault depicted with heavier lines in
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Figure 2, is only a member of a much larger right-lateral shear zone in northern


Turkey consisting of a large number of dextral shear-related structures. Conse-
quently, the age and evolution of the NAF cannot be discussed independently of
the entire shear zone.
We have seen that the oldest basins related to the shear evolution are located
in the easternmost part of the fault and the youngest in its northwesternmost part,
although along its Southern Strand the basins are also as old as late Miocene in age.
The oldest basins are medial to late Miocene in age, whereas the youngest are hardly
older than the Pleistocene (Figures 8A,B). Judging from the basins directly associ-
ated with it, the NAF clearly becomes younger as we go westward [Figure 8B(b)].
This is corroborated by observations in the Sea of Marmara, where the Main Mar-
mara Fault is not much older than 200 ka and the fills of the main basins are not much
older than Pleistocene. Along the Southern Strand, the shear-related basins are late
Miocene in age, as mentioned above, and there are no observations to constrain
the ages of the individual faults making up the Southern Strand. All we have to go
on is the 26-km dextral offset since a certain “Plio-Quaternary” in the Pamukova
Basin (no. 22 in Figure 7) and the fact that the Susurluk farther west is not similarly
offset (Figure 6). However, Şengör et al. (1985) pointed out, and Le Pichon et al.
(2003) concurred, that the “fragmented” nature of the Southern Strand shows that
a through-going main fault has yet to materialize, at least west of Pamukova.
When we consider all the basins in the NASZ, this discrepancy in age and
offset between the east and the west becomes much smaller, if not entirely nonex-
istent. Basins along the Southern Strand of the fault south of the Sea of Marmara
(Figure 9B, nos. 19, 20) are all medial to late Miocene in age, as mentioned above.
One might think that the westernmost basins may have developed in relation to
the Aegean north-south extension independently of the NASZ and only became
incorporated into the shear zone as it developed [Figure 8B(b,c)]. But there are
other basins of similar age outside the area of influence of the Aegean extensional
regime along the NASZ. Even the Çerkeş and the Tosya basins (Figure 7, nos. 7
and 8) may belong to that group. From the age and similarity of style in basins all
along the NASZ, we surmise that the total offset along the shear zone also most
likely remains constant. Clearly, this is only an inference bereft of direct proof.
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86 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

It looks as if the Southern Strand evolved slowly with the rest of the NASZ,
but that the Northern Strand formed very fast (since a certain late Pliocene date)
probably after the NAF was well defined east of Adapazarı (40◦ 47 N, 30◦ 25 E) and
in response to the inability of the south-concave Southern Strand to accommodate
the increased offset and the rate of motion along the NAF (Le Pichon et al. 2003).
It therefore appears that the NASZ as a whole is medial to late Miocene in age,
but not the NAF.
Why is that so? We believe the answer lies in the way through-going strike-
slip faults develop from much wider shear zones as shear progresses (Figure 18).
Figure 19 shows how a certain magnitude of displacement across a shear zone is
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taken up differently by shear zones of differing width. At the displacement given


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Figure 18 Shear evolution in a strike-slip zone and the structures generated. For
discussion and references, see Şengör (1995).
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Figure 19 Three squares of different size (A, B, and C) deformed by the same amount of dextral
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displacement applied to them. Note that the resultant shear strain and the structures resulting from it are
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT

very different. Terminology and structures are from Tchalenko (1970).


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88 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

in Figure 19, shear zone A is still at the prepeak structure stage (sensu Tchalenko
1970; see Figure 18). Individual structures looked at without combining them into
a general picture show hardly an indication of the shear zone. In the same Figure,
shear zone C has already reached the preresidual structure stage (Tchalenko 1970;
Figure 18) with a clear through-going strike-slip fault. Shear zone B has the same
displacement as the other shear zones and it has developed Riedel shears at the
postpeak structure stage I (Tchalenko 1970) that have not yet coalesced into a single
through-going system. At this stage it is not possible to say which of the Riedel
shears in the sheared square B will join up to form a major strike-slip system
(Figure 19). Some will no doubt be left outside the final through-going fault.
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If the displacements along these abandoned structures (including the extensional


structures, such as dykes and normal faults, and shortening structures, such as folds
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and thrusts) are not taken into account while measuring the total displacement, one
would always underestimate the cumulative offset of the entire shear zone.
We have selected five stations to study representative slices of the NASZ during
its evolution (Figure 20). Because the shear zone widens westward, these sections
cannot be squares as depicted in Figure 19, but must be more complex quadrilat-
erals (Figure 21). Strain in these quadrilaterals is not homogeneous simple shear,
but must be inhomogeneous. Figures 21A,B show the geometric properties of such
quadrilaterals and the strain fields in them. Where the NASZ has pure strike-slip,
the geometry and kinematics shown in Figure 21A apply. We assume that this
represents the situation in stations C, D, and E (Figures 20 and 22). By contrast,
regions west of Bolu already have some transtensional component and we have
imposed the same transtension on stations A and B. We are aware, as discussed
above, that the situation along the NASZ is more complicated than these assump-
tions, but we feel that they are adequate to give us a first-order feeling of how the
NASZ and NAF might have evolved. Figure 22 shows the evolution of the five
quadrilateral slices we have selected along the NASZ during six time intervals.
The parameters of this evolution are tabulated in Table 2.
The following discussion shows how the six intervals were selected. We empha-
size that they can be selected in any arbitrary way, so long as they are distributed
in time in a representative way.
Figure 23 is a “speedogram” of the NASZ. It plots cumulative offset against
time since the origin of the NASZ deduced from its associated basins (Figures
8A,B). Also plotted is the present rate of motion of the fault, which is approximately
2.5 cm/year (Figures 15 and 16). If we project the present rate linearly backward in
time, we see that the present cumulative offset could have accumulated in 3.5 Ma.
The NASZ (and the NAF) would have formed in the early Pliocene between
Zanclean and Piacenzian times. This is geologically unlikely: We know from the
Karnos Basin (Figure 8B, no. 15) that the NASZ originated some 13 to 11 Ma ago
in the east (where the NASZ and NAF are almost coincident), not 3.5 Ma ago. We
therefore connect the present rate of motion with the rate of motion at the time of
origin, which had to be 0 cm/year. We make the connection by means of a smooth
curve and explore its implications.
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Figure 20 Five stations selected to study the possible shear history of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF)
according to the shear model depicted in Figure 18. The five quadrilaterals are used to track the shear
evolution.
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90 ŞENGÖR ET AL.
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Figure 21 The geometrical and strain properties of the five representative quadrilat-
erals shown in Figure 19. (A) Case for simple shear: I. The strain quadrilateral: β is the
angle between the two sides of the shear zone, γ is the displacement,  is the shear
angle of the right (eastern) side, and   is the shear angle for the left (western) side of
the representative quadrilateral. Lines ad and bc do not change their length during the
deformation. All other lines of the quadrilateral do change their lengths. II. The distri-
bution of strain zones within the quadrilateral: Zone 1, all lines lengthen at all times
during the deformation; zone 2, lines first shorten then lengthen; and zone 3, all lines
shorten at all times during the deformation. Black area is the family of lines that do
not change their length at all during the deformation. (B) Case for transtension: I. The
strain quadrilateral [symbols are the same as in (A)I, except here  is displacement].
II. The distribution of strain zones within the quadrilateral [symbols same as in (A)II].
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 91


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Figure 22 Shear evolution of the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) as illustrated by
the shear strain undergone by the five selected quadrilaterals, here shown to have undergone
purely ductile deformation to illustrate the variation in shear strain along the NASZ.

We first assume, for the sake of argument, that the NASZ had a uniform width of
some 100 km and a length of 1200 km. This is about the same width to length ratio
as that of the shear zone that Tchalenko (1970) used in his clay cake experiments,
illustrating the evolution of through-going strike-slip faults (see his figure 5). In
these experiments, 13% of the total displacement across the shear zone is ac-
complished at what Tchalenko termed the prepeak strength deformation stage
(Figure 18). If the experiment corresponds to the development in nature (although
it necessarily ignores dynamic rupture in earthquakes), that stage would have been
accomplished along a uniform width NASZ approximately 6 Ma ago, with a total
offset of some 11 km. The rate of motion would have been 0.44 cm/year. At that
stage, no through-going fault would have formed, and shear would have been taken
up by a series of Riedel (R) and anti-Riedel (R ) shears plus some tension gashes
at approximately 135◦ (measured anticlockwise from the ordinate taken parallel
with the shear zone) to the shear zone and folds (and/or thrust faults) at 45◦ . At
the stage called “peak structure” by Tchalenko (1970), 26% of the total offset is
accomplished. At this stage, the R shears usually rotate and lock, and other fea-
tures continue to evolve. There is as yet no through-going fault. Some tension gash
segments may begin to link some R shears. Our hypothetical NASZ would have
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TABLE 2 Evolution of the North Anatolian Shear Zone for six times at stations A to E in Figure 20
Phase of shear
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Time Rate of Shear angle (degree) Shear strain  % Shear zone development
BP Offset motion
(Ma) (km) (cm/year) A B C D E A B C D E A B C D E A B C D E

1 6 11.05 0.44 6.3 8.5 12.4 18.3 41.6 0.11 0.15 0.22 0.33 0.89 11 14.8 22.2 33.3 88.75 pP pP pP pP Pp1
2 4.3 22.10 0.9 12.4 16.7 23.7 33 60.7 0.22 0.3 0.44 0.65 1.87 22.2 29.6 44.4 66.6 177.5 pP pP pP P pR
3 3.3 29.75 1.2 16.7 22 31 42 67.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.9 2.4 29.7 39.8 59.7 89.6 239 pP pP P Pp1 pR
4 2 44.2 1.4 23.7 31 41.7 53 74.3 0.44 0.6 0.89 1.33 3.55 44.4 59.2 88.8 133 355 pP P Pp1 Pp2 pR
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5 0.8 62.9 2 32.2 40 51.6 62.2 78.7 0.63 0.84 1.26 1.9 5 63.2 84.2 126 189.5 505 P Pp1 Pp2 pR pR
6 0 85 2.5 40.4 48.5 59.5 68.7 81.7 0.85 1.13 1.7 2.56 6.87 85.3 113.8 170.7 256 682.7 Pp1 Pp2 Pp2 pR R

pP: pre-Peak; P: Peak; Pp1: post-Peak I; Pp2: post-Peak II; pR: pre-Residual; R: Residual.
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
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Figure 23 The “speedogram” of the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). See text for
discussion.

reached this stage approximately 4.2 Ma ago and would have accumulated by
that time an offset of approximately 22 km. Rate of displacement would have
been 0.9 cm/year. At the first part of the “post peak structure stage,” R shears con-
siderably lengthen and the linking tension gash segments may develop into true
pull-apart basins. Approximately 35% of the total offset is already accomplished at
this stage. This might have corresponded with a 31 km total offset along the NASZ
approximately 3.4 Ma ago, when the rate of motion might have been 1.2 cm/year.
This would have been a time of increased basin subsidence along pull-aparts when
the activity of very much lengthened R shears that may have begun to crowd into the
fairly narrow zone of a future through-going rupture. As yet there was probably still
no through-going main strand. The second part of the postpeak structure stage is the
time when finally a through-going single strand originates by the appearance of
P-shears that link the already much lengthened and overlapping R shears. Just
more than half the total offset is already accomplished by the time these structures
establish themselves. The NASZ, given the hypothetical conditions we imposed
on our discussion, might have reached this stage some 2 Ma ago, i.e., in the
beginning of the Pleistocene, with a total offset of some 45 km and a rate of
motion of 1.4 cm/year. Finally, the through-going fault strand becomes stabilized
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94 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

when what Tchlenko called “the preresidual stage” is reached with 74% of the total
offset accomplished. In our hypothetical case, this would have happened at some
800 ka ago and the rate of motion would have reached 2 cm/year. In the residual
stage, 100% of the current offset is already accomplished and the fault zone is well
established.
This scenario, however, clearly does not fit the NASZ except at its westernmost
station (A in Figures 20, 22, and 24), where the width of the shear zone is indeed
100 km. Eastward, the shear zone becomes narrower, in harmony with the narrow-
ing width of the Tethyside accretionary complexes, and, correspondingly, shear
strain increases! Figure 22 shows five arbitrarily chosen stations along the NASZ,
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

for each of which, and for five times in the past and for the present, we have
computed the shear angle and the shear strain and shown in which of Tchalenko’s
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.

stages they would be found at any given time (Table 2). Figure 24 shows theoretical
structural evolution for each of the quadrilaterals shown in Figures 20 and 22 for
the times selected.
One feature of the evolution thus displayed that is immediately obvious is
the westward propagation of the main through-going fault strand. For instance, a
through-going strike-slip system was already well-established at station E approx-
imately 4 Ma ago (Figures 22 and 24, stage 2), whereas hardly a single strike-slip
fault had formed at station A. Some 850 ka ago (Figures 22 and 24, stage 5), a
major strike-slip fault at station E had already accumulated 63 km of cumulative
offset, whereas at station A there was as yet no through-going main strand, al-
though a number of subordinate R shears must have been active and shared a part
of the total offset.
Another feature that presents itself to our observation is that measuring cumu-
lative offset at the eastern stations (D and E) would be much easier than at the
central and western stations because of the clean nature of the principal zone of
displacement, even if the fault zone had not extended parallel with the predominant
paleotectonic strike-lines in the central and western parts. The fact that the fault
zone is parallel with the main trend-lines in its central and western parts naturally
greatly compounds the difficulty of measuring the cumulative offset along the
NASZ and along the NAF.
In any case, the theoretical scenario discussed above and depicted in Figures 22
and 24 now looks very familiar to students of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. It
explains why the fault becomes younger westward and, if we take the data displayed
in Figures 8B(b) and (c) at face value, suggests a propagation velocity of some
11 cm/year. It also explains why the fault zone is so much narrower in the east than it
is in the west and why the shear-related structures occupy such a wider zone west of
station C than to its east. Almost everyone who has worked on the NAF has obtained
the impression that the cumulative offset along it becomes smaller from east to
west, which is corroborated by the most recent observations, as we discussed above.
The evolutionary model presented here provides a rationale for that inference: The
offset increases eastward because the main through-going fault had formed earlier
there than it did in locations to the west. If our model is correct, the offset along
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Figure 24 Theoretical shear evolution according to the model illustrated in Figure 22 at five selected stations (A, B, C, D, E; see Figure
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT

20) along the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ) at six time intervals (1–6). Here, theoretical structural evolution is shown at every
station, corresponding with the amount of shear strain undergone according to the scheme shown in Figure 18. For the various shear and
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95
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96 ŞENGÖR ET AL.

the fault will have to be found to decrease systematically and continuously from
east to west. And so it seems according to the most recent observations.
We are aware, however, that nature is more complex than our presentation im-
plies. The shear zone pinches and swells, and in the pinched regions the NAF
may have formed earlier than in the swelled regions to their east and west. This
would generate a complex evolution and would mar the simple picture we present.
The greatest advantage of the model presented here lies, however, in the very pre-
cise predictions it makes, as shown in Table 2. All the parameters there shown
can be tested by careful field-mapping. Our model also emphasizes that the NAF
cannot be understood properly unless the entire NASZ is considered. The disparate
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estimates of the age and total offset of the fault have generally resulted from indi-
vidual studies that considered a segment of the fault without taking the evolution
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.

of the entire NASZ into account. The very disparate evolutionary histories in and
around the Sea of Marmara at the western end of the NAF from those in its eastern
parts have been perhaps one of the most valuable lessons learned from the past
four years’ studies.
The one thing that our model cannot predict is the forking of the NAF west of
Bolu. That bifurcation is probably the result of the existence of structures already
established in the west as a result of the Aegean extension. It seems that here,
the NAF in its westerly propagation exploited individual rifts that were already
in place. This is supported by the observation that the Northern Strand is located
in the Northern Marmara Trough and the Southern Strand has several imperfectly
formed branches extending along the transtensional structures south of the Sea of
Marmara. Along both the Northern Strand and the Southern Strand, the Aegean
extensional structures in turn mostly followed the older paleotectonic fabric (cf.
Şengör & Yılmaz 1981, Şengör et al. 1985). In the north, the location of the Intra-
Pontide suture (Şengör & Yılmaz 1981), exactly coinciding with the course of
the Main Marmara Fault, further facilitated the latter’s nucleation and has led to
asymmetric strain across a bimaterial fault.

CONCLUSIONS
The NAF is a diachronous structure that formed by progressive strain localization
in a westerly widening right-lateral shear zone in northern Turkey along mostly a
bimaterial interface juxtaposing subduction-accretion material of the Tethysides
and older and stronger continental basement to its north. It has formed since
approximately 11 Ma ago in the east, near Erzincan, and may have propagated
westward at a rate of 11 cm/year if the assumption of the continuously widening
width of NASZ westward is correct. If not, irregularities will be seen locally in
the rate and direction of propagation. NAF reached the Sea of Marmara no ear-
lier than 200 ka ago, although the NASZ-related deformation there commenced
in the late Miocene. The fault has a very distinct morphological expression and
is seismically active. Since the seventeenth century, it has seemed to display a
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT 97

cyclical seismic behavior, with century-long cycles commencing in the east and
migrating westward, but the record does not lend itself to a unique interpretation
before the twentieth century. For earlier times, reaching back to the third century
BC, the record is less satisfactory, although clearly indicating a lively seismic-
ity. The twentieth century record has been successfully interpreted in terms of a
Coulomb failure model, whereby every earthquake concentrates the shear stress
at the western tip of the broken segments leading to westward migration of the
large earthquakes. It is believed that the August 17 and November 12, 1999, events
have loaded the Marmara segment of the fault and that a major, M ≤ 7.6 event
is to be expected in the next half century with an approximately 50% probability
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on this segment. Now, the strain in the Sea of Marmara region is highly asym-
metric with greater strain to the south of the Northern Strand. This is conditioned
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.

by the geology and it is believed that this is generally the case for the entire
NAF.
What is now needed is a careful revision, and enlargement to cover the entire
NASZ, of the Geological Atlas of the NAF (Herece & Akay 2003) in the light of
the discussions developed here. More intensive paleontological and magnetostrati-
graphic studies in the NASZ basins to date them more precisely and the collection
of more paleomagnetic data along the entire NASZ will be needed. Once such a
data set becomes available, we will be in a better position to assess the history of
the entire NAK.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Ş. Can Genç, Cenk Yaltırak, Ömer Emre, and Gülsen Uçarkuş for help
in pulling the data together. John F. Dewey discussed with us the tectonics of
transtensional zones. We are particularly grateful to Erdal Herece and Ergün Akay,
both of the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) in
Ankara, Turkey, for having placed their great Atlas of the NAF (scale 1:100,000)
at our disposal before publication. Ross Stein and Serkan Bozkurt kindly supplied
Figure 13 and gave permission to include it in this paper. Korhan Erturaç prepared
Figure 1. We thank Kevin Burke for a superb review and Jennifer Jongsma for
excellent editorial work. Şengör and Görür are grateful for the support of the
Turkish Academy of Sciences.

The Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science is online at


http://earth.annualreviews.org

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Figure 1 Digital elevation model of northern Turkey, derived from the GTOPO30 data of the U.S. Geological Survey, showing the North
Anatolian Fault (NAF) and related neotectonic structures forming the North Anatolian Keirogen (NAK).
THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT
C-1
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by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
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THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT C-3

Figure 13 Progressive failure of the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) during the twen-
tieth century earthquake cycle by stress concentration at the tips of failed segments.
Red regions are where the stresses are high, representing likely places where the next
break will take place. Courtesy of Ross Stein and Serkan Bozkurt.
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by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.
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Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences


Volume 33, 2005

CONTENTS
THE EARLY HISTORY OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN: HOMAGE TO
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

ROBERT M. GARRELS, D.E. Canfield 1


THE NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT: A NEW LOOK, A.M.C. Şengör,
˙
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.

Okan Tüysüz, Caner Imren, Mehmet Sakınç, Haluk Eyidoǧan, Naci Görür,
Xavier Le Pichon, and Claude Rangin 37
ARE THE ALPS COLLAPSING?, Jane Selverstone 113
EARLY CRUSTAL EVOLUTION OF MARS, Francis Nimmo and Ken Tanaka 133
REPRESENTING MODEL UNCERTAINTY IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE
PREDICTION, T.N. Palmer, G.J. Shutts, R. Hagedorn, F.J. Doblas-Reyes,
T. Jung, and M. Leutbecher 163
REAL-TIME SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION,
Hiroo Kanamori 195
LAKES BENEATH THE ICE SHEET: THE OCCURRENCE, ANALYSIS, AND
FUTURE EXPLORATION OF LAKE VOSTOK AND OTHER ANTARCTIC
SUBGLACIAL LAKES, Martin J. Siegert 215
SUBGLACIAL PROCESSES, Garry K.C. Clarke 247
FEATHERED DINOSAURS, Mark A. Norell and Xing Xu 277
MOLECULAR APPROACHES TO MARINE MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND
THE MARINE NITROGEN CYCLE, Bess B. Ward 301
EARTHQUAKE TRIGGERING BY STATIC, DYNAMIC, AND POSTSEISMIC
STRESS TRANSFER, Andrew M. Freed 335
EVOLUTION OF THE CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE, Norman H. Sleep 369
EVOLUTION OF FISH-SHAPED REPTILES (REPTILIA: ICHTHYOPTERYGIA)
IN THEIR PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS,
Ryosuke Motani 395
THE EDIACARA BIOTA: NEOPROTEROZOIC ORIGIN OF ANIMALS AND
THEIR ECOSYSTEMS, Guy M. Narbonne 421
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF WHOLE-LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION,
Garry Willgoose 443
VOLCANIC SEISMOLOGY, Stephen R. McNutt 461

ix
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March 23, 2005 16:53 Annual Reviews AR233-FM

x CONTENTS

THE INTERIORS OF GIANT PLANETS: MODELS AND OUTSTANDING


QUESTIONS, Tristan Guillot 493
THE Hf-W ISOTOPIC SYSTEM AND THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH AND
MOON, Stein B. Jacobsen 531
PLANETARY SEISMOLOGY, Philippe Lognonné 571
ATMOSPHERIC MOIST CONVECTION, Bjorn Stevens 605
OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION, Gerard H. Roe 645

INDEXES
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2005.33:37-112. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org

Subject Index 673


Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 23–33 693
by California Institute of Technology on 01/09/13. For personal use only.

Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 22–33 696

ERRATA
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Earth and
Planetary Sciences chapters may be found at
http://earth.annualreviews.org

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