Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
communication is to convey thoughts/ intentions/emotions/
• What is communication? facts/ideas of one person or group to the others. When the
• How important it is in context of business organizations? message sent is received and understood by the receiver in the
• How communication process works? same sense , as the sender wants to convey ,effective communi-
cation takes place. When the receiver misunderstands a message
“Communication” is a process — an activity that serves to we consider it a distortion in communication. Throughout our
connect senders and receivers of messages through space study, we would try to improve our communication skills so
and time. Although human beings tend to be interested that we can make ourselves better understood in our communi-
primarily in the study of human communication, the process is cations.
present in all living things and, it can be argued, in all things. The fact is that we spend so much of our time communicating;
From this we may conclude that communication is a funda- we tend to assume that we are experts. Surveys indicate that
mental, universal process. when business professionals are asked to rate their communica-
How often have you heard statements such as these? tion skills, virtually everyone overestimates his or her abilities as
• If you want to be promoted, you’ll have to improve your a communicator. There is a natural tendency to blame the other
communication skills. person for the problems in understanding or making ourselves
• One of the strengths of our relationship over the years has
understood. The better option is to improve one’s own
been that we communicate so well - in fact, usually I know communication. One has to be always on a look to identify his
what she’s thinking before she tells me! weak points as a communicator and strive to overcome them.
This needs a thorough understanding of meaning and process
• The lightening storm knocked out our communication
of communication.
systems, and since then we haven’t handled a single
customer call. Meaning of Communication
• He’s really smart, and he knows his stuff, but as a teacher he
Communication is derived from the Latin word communis,
just doesn’t communicate it very well. which means, “ to share” that is, sharing of ideas, concepts,
feelings and emotions. The science of communication is almost
• They say they built the product to meet our specifications,
as old as man himself. Form time immemorial; the need to
but it’s not what we asked for - I think we have a share or to communicate had been felt. Different vehicles /
communication problem here. channels were identified and subsequently improvised for the
The word “communicate” derives from the word “common” - purpose of transmission of ideas and concepts. A study of
to share, exchange, send along, transmit, talk, gesture, write, put these channels enables us to gain an insight into the process of
in use, relate. So an investigation of this subject might begin communication.
with the question: What do all studies of communication have
in common? What are the shared concepts that make the study Before a definition of communication is arrived at, a few
of “communication” different from the study of subjects such queries, which arise in the minds of the readers, have to be
as “thought” or “literature” or “life?” When someone says, answered. What is the importance of communication? Why
“this is a communication problem,” what does that mean? should it be studied? Why should the channel be analyzed and
examined?
When a baby sees his mother’s face for the first time, communi-
cation happens. When someone steps out onto a beach in Goa The importance of communication can be gauged from the fact
and water touches his feet communication happens. When the that we are communicating in some from or the other almost
Indian parliament passes a new bill to curb monopolies in the every moment of our lives. Whether we are walking,, talking
market and the President signs, communication happens. ,playing, sitting, or even sleeping, a message is being formulated
When a computer in Delhi calls up a computer in Tokyo and and transmitted. Man, who is a social animal, is constantly
transmits a message, communication happens. interacting with other individuals. For him it is necessary to
understand the art of communication and apply or modify it in
Communication is a general phenomenon. It occurs in nature, a suitable manner. Man possesses the ability to communicate,
wherever life exists. Whether we recognize it or not, we have no which is much more than a composition of certain symbolize
choice but to communicate. If we try to avoid communicating or to understand concepts in terms of images or symbols. It is
by not replying to messages, we are nevertheless sending a this ability that helps him to communicate. Communication
message, but it may not be the one we want or intend. When then, it may be stated, is much more than an understanding of
we don’t say yes, we may be saying no by default – and vice the spoken or written language. It is a composite of symbols,
versa. The only choice we can make about communication is
whether we are going to attempt to communicate effectively.
the written word. This tour presents a fundamental overview of the study of
communication with emphasis on the study of human
Basic Purpose of Communication
communication. The sections may be used in any order, though
People in organizations typically spend over 75% of their time in
a comprehensive study would normally begin with section
an interpersonal situation; thus it is no surprise to find that at the
number one and consider each in the order listed below.
root of a large number of organizational problems is poor
communications. Effective communication is an essential compo- 1. The Communication Process
nent of organizational success whether it is at the interpersonal, Communication is a process that serves to connect senders and
intergroup, intragroup, organizational, or external levels. receivers of messages in space and time. Although human
beings tend to be interested primarily in the study of human
“What is the purpose of (formal) communication?” A
communication, the process is present in all living things and, it
response to a query of this nature would be more beneficial if
can be argued, in all things. From this we may conclude that
attempts were made to understand the business situation
communication is a fundamental, universal process.
where success or failure of issues is always measured in terms
of man- hours spent in the completion of a task. Let us take an
example. Suppose the boss issues instructions to his subordi-
nate to complete a certain project in a particular manner within a
stipulated timeframe. The subordinate does it to the best of his
ability. However, the end result is a miserable failure because the
manner of completion does not match with the expectations
of the boss. A lot of time has been wasted as a result of
miscommunication on the part of the two members of the
2. Self Andsociety
same organization. In fact, more first instance. If the amount
Messages are formed in the mind of one individual and
of time used in completion of this particular task is calculated,
interpreted in the mind of another. Yet the formation and
it would be seen that double the time necessary has been taken.
interpretation of messages are affected by the groups to which
The example cited above is one of the most common and the individuals belong. Thus, a complete understanding of
prevailing examples of miscommunication resulting from a lack human communication must take into account both human
of feedback in organizations. This, however, is not the only psychology and human social interaction.
criterion that qualifies for an in-depth study of communication.
Let us take a look at the communicative competence required at
three different levels in an organization.
In the business situation of a manager, as he goes higher up in
the hierarchy is to coordinate, issue instructions, collate
information, and then present it. All these activities require
effective communication skills the sooner these skills are honed,
the easier it is for the manager to accomplish tasks. Similar is the
case of the junior manager vying for a quick promotion. As
3. Information
work in the organization is always done in conjunction with
To receive messages human beings must make use of their
other people, effective communication skills become a necessity.
senses. However, the senses continually process large volumes
Let us compare the progression of two junior managers up the
of data, not all of which are the result of communication. It is
ladder of success possessing almost the same academic
the human ability to discern, recognize, and remember patterns
qualifications and almost similar personality traits. Only one of
in this constant flow of data that makes meaningful communi-
them would be able to make it to the managing Director’s chair.
cation possible.
Without doubt it would be the candidate with excellent
communication skills.
Prior to entry in any organization, certain communicative abilities
are also looked for in candidates. Ability to speak, conduct
oneself properly in an interview, get along with others, listen
carefully and accurately, make effective presentations, prepare good
yet brief report, make proposals, sell ideas, convince and persuade
others are some of the attributes looked for in a candidate. If an
individual possesses these attributes looked for in a candidate. If
an individual possesses these attributes or can train himself to 4. Signs And Language
excel in them, he himself would realize how much easier it is for Some patterns of data bring to mind memories of previous
him only to secure a comfortable position in an organization but patterns. These “signs,” as they are called, can be assembled into
also to achieve success. large, powerful patterns called “languages.” Much (though
certainly not all) of human communication is carried on
through the use of language.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
A “system” is typically described as a collection of parts which
are interconnected, or related to, one another and which also
relate to the environment which surrounds the system. In the
picture below, the circles and rectangles represent the parts, the
solid lines represent the relationships among the parts, and the
arrows show the system’s interaction with its environment.
formal definition of the term “system” . But communication is not merely passive connection. Rather,
From the simplest perspective, a system can be said to consist communication is the process of connecting. It is a collection of
of four things. renewable actions that work throughout space and over time to
form relationships among objects.
• The first is objects. The objects are the parts, elements, or
variables of the system. These objects may be physical or Communication is not an object itself; it is not a thing, and this
abstract or both, depending on the nature of the system. leads to a second insight into the nature of communication.
• Second, a system consists of attributes, or the qualities or Communication Happens
properties of the system and its objects. This is an important observation. It implies that communica-
• Third, a system must possess internal relationships among tion can never fully be understand by looking only at “things.”
its objects. This characteristic is a crucial defining quality of To understand communication, we must also look at the
systems. A relationship among objects implies a mutual relationships among the “things” and at the environments in
effect (interdependence) and constraint. which the “things” reside.
• Fourth, systems also possess an environment. They do not For example, consider some common communication
exist in a vacuum but are affected by their surroundings. “things”:
Clearly, the “fish” mobile meets these requirements. • A paperback copy of Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol,
• A video tape of the CNN 6:00 news broadcast on May 5th,
1990,
• A written invitation to attend my sister’s wedding.
In each case the thing - the actual book, the actual video tape,
the actual invitation - is not the communication.
• The communication is the process that connects the readers
of the book to the story told by the author.
• The communication is the process that connects the watchers
It is important to do the following exercise. Thinking about of the broadcast to the events of the day.
systems in this way is the most effective way to understand • The communication is the process that connects my sister
them. and I via the announcement of her wedding.
Consider each of the three systems named here and try to: True, the book, the tape and the invitation are a part of the
• Name some of the objects that make up the system, communication process, but they are only a part.
• Name some of the relationships among the objects, There are additional observations to be drawn from these
• Describe the environment of the system, and examples.
• Describe ways in which the system is constantly changing. • Communication always happens between or among - it takes
at least two to communicate.
Three Systems
Your body’s nervous system, • Communication involves an exchange - of electrical signals,
of sounds, words, pages of print, or whatever.
The legal system of the United States,
For ease, these exchanges among communicators will be given
The U. S. Interstate Highway system.
the general name: messages.
The Role of Communication Notice, for example, that each of the previous set of examples
Notice that these example systems have communication in contained sender and a receiver and a message. The book was
common. written by its author to be read by its audience. The video tape
• The nervous system carries messages from the nerve endings was produced by one group of people to be watched by
in our extremities to our brains and back. another. And the invitation is a message sent from my sister to
• The legal system includes thousands of individuals talking me.
to one another, laws being read and interpreted, forms being The idea of “messages” is considered at length in these
filled out, and so on. tutorials. At this point, however, it is appropriate to reiterate the
• The highway system requires constant communication two basic rules that have just been uncovered:
among drivers - turn signals, brake lights, and so on - and 1. Communication is a process that happens among and acts to
between drivers and their vehicles - as, for example, when connect communicators through space and over time.
you “tell” your car to turn left by pulling on the steering 2. Communication involves the creation, transmission, and
wheel. reception of messages.
In fact, it might be said that communication is the “glue” that
holds a system together. This gives insight into the nature of
communication itself, to wit:
Most problems arise because people cannot sustain one can completely avoid these filters. If you start taking every
effective communication. Cultivating the art of listening information and message you get seriously, you would be
helps to build bridges and enhance relationships, says overloaded with information. But if you are not consciously
Santosh BabuAll happy families resemble one another, each aware of this filtering process, you may lose a lot of valuable
unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” Thus begins Leo information. A way to overcome these filters when you want is
Tolstoy’s epic Anna Karenina. What he meant, perhaps, is that through active listening and feedback.
communication is complete when the mind is happy and
Active Listening
uninhibited, and distortion creeps in when the mood is sullen
All of us can hear, but all of us cannot listen. Hearing and
and sad. Most problems in an organization, family or group are
listening are not the same thing. Hearing is involuntary and
the result of people failing to communicate. Haven’t you often
listening involves the reception and interpretation of what is
said “You don’t understand what I say” or words to that effect?
heard. It decodes the sound heard into meaning. Does a knock
Communication is the exchange or flow of information and
on the door sound the same all the time? What if you are alone
ideas between one person and another. Technically, it involves a
and you hear a knock at late night? What happens when you
sender passing on an idea to a receiver. Effective communication
hear a knock while you are expecting someone whom you like?
occurs when the receiver comprehends the information or idea
People generally speak at 100 to 175 words per minute but we
that the sender intends to convey. What does a communication
can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 words per minute. This
process involve? You have an idea that you need to communi-
means most of the time only a part of our mind is paying
cate, and a message is sent to the receiver, either verbally or
attention, it is easy for the attention to drift. This happens to all
non-verbally. The receiver then translates the words or nonver-
of us. The cure: active listening. This involves listening with a
bal gestures into a concept or information. Let’s take, for
purpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions,
example, this message: “You are very intelligent.” Would this
understand others, solve problems, share interests, see how the
message carry the same meaning to the receiver every time you
other person feels, even show support. This type of listening
voice these words? The success of the transmission depends on
takes the same amount of or more energy than speaking. This
two factors—content and context. Content is the actual words
requires the listener to hear various messages, understand the
or symbols that constitutes a part of the message, known as
meaning and then verify the meaning by offering feedback. Here
language. It could be either spoken or written. We all interpret
are some of the traits of an active listener:
words in our own ways, so much so that even simple messages
could be understood differently. • Does not finish the sentence of others.
• Does not answer questions with questions.
Context is the way the message is delivered-the tone, expression
in the sender’s eyes, body language, hand gestures, and state of • Is aware of biases. We all have them... we need to control
emotion (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence and so on). As we them.
believe what we see more than what we hear, we trust the • Never daydreams or becomes preoccupied with one’s own
accuracy of nonverbal behavior more than verbal behavior. So thoughts when others talk.
when we communicate, the other person notices two things: • Lets others talk.
What we say and how we say it. Normally we think communica-
• Does not dominate the conversation.
tion is complete once we have conveyed the message: “I don’t
know why it was not done. I had asked him to do it.” Chances • Plans responses after the other persons have finished
are that the message was not perceived properly. A message speaking, not while they are speaking.
hasn’t been communicated successfully unless the receiver • Provides feedback, but does not interrupt incessantly.
understands it completely. How do you know it has been • Analyses by looking at all the relevant factors and asking
properly received? By two-way communication or feedback. open-ended questions.
Communication Barriers Ourselves • Keeps the conversation on what the speaker says...not on
Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to what interests them.
confusion and conflict. Often, we are thinking about our • Takes brief notes. This forces one to concentrate on what is
response, rather than focusing on what the other person is being said.
saying. Some other factors that cause this are defensiveness (we
feel someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we know Feedback
more than the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of the This is done by restating the other person’s message in your
activity). Perception: If we feel the person is talking too fast, own words. It helps to make sure that you understood the
not fluently or does not articulate clearly, we may dismiss the message correctly. How much better daily communication
person. Our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to listen. would be if listeners tried to understand before they tried to
We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismiss evaluate what someone is saying! Let’s do a test of your
those of low status. Mental state: People don’t see things the listening ability. Get a paper and pen. You have two minutes to
same way when under stress. What we see and believe at a given do this. If you take more time, you need to improve your
moment is influenced by our psychological frames of refer- listening skills. Read all the instructions below before doing
ences-beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences and goals. These anything.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
• Draw five small squares in the top left corner
• Put a circle around each square
• Put an X on the lower left-hand corner
• Draw a triangle around the X you just made
• Sign your name at the bottom of the page
• On the back of your page multiply 70 x 30
• Write the answer to the above problem adjacent to your
signature
• Check whether you have done all the above correctly Now
that you have finished reading carefully, do only the first
instruction. The author is a Delhi-based personal growth
trainer.
LESSON 2:
STAGES IN COMMUNICATION CYCLE
In this case the boss heard far more than a simple message that
Content
Terry won’t be at work today. The boss “heard” hostility from
• Key stages of communication cycle Terry, indifference, lack of consideration, among other emo-
• Methods of Communication – Verbal and nonverbal tions. Terry may not have meant this, but this is what the boss
heard.
The Communication Process Communications is so difficult because at each step in the
Although all of us have been communicating with others since process there major potential for error. By the time a message
our infancy, the process of transmitting information from an gets from a sender to a receiver there are four basic places where
individual (or group) to another is a very complex process with transmission errors can take place and at each place, there are a
many sources of potential error. multitude of potential sources of error. Thus it is no surprise
Consider the Simple Example that social psychologists estimate that there is usually a 40-60%
loss of meaning in the transmission of messages from sender
• Terry: “I won’t make it to work again tomorrow; this
to receiver.
pregnancy keeps me nausious and my doctor says I should
probably be reduced to part time. It is critical to understand this process, understand and be aware
of the potential sources of errors and constantly counteract
• Boss: Terry, this is the third day you’ve missed and your
these tendencies by making a conscientious effort to make sure
appointments keep backing up; we have to cover for you and
there is a minimal loss of meaning in your conversation.
this is messing all of us up.
It is also very important to understand that major of our
In any communication at least some of the “meaning” lost in
communication is non-verbal. This means that when we
simple transmission of a message from the sender to the
attribute meaning to what someone else is saying, the verbal
receiver. In many situations a lot of the true message is lost and
part of the message actually means less than the non-verbal
the message that is heard is often far different than the one
part. The non-verbal part includes such things as body language
intended. This is most obvious in cross-cultural situations
and tone.
where language is an issue. But it is also common among
people of the same cuture. Key Stages in Communication Cycle
Look at the example. Terry has what appears to be a simple Communication is a two- way process in which there is an
message to convey-she won’t make it to work today because of exchange and progression of ideas towards a mutually accepted
nausia. But she had to translate the thoughts into words and direction or goal. For this process to materialize, it is essential
this is the first potential source of error. Was she just trying to that the basic elements of communication be identified. These
convey that she would be late; was she trying to convey anything elements are.
else. It turns out she was. She was upset because she perceived Sender/ Encoder/ Speaker
that her co-workers weren’t as sympathetic to her situation as The person who initiates the communication process is
they should be. Her co-workers, however, were really being normally referred to as the sender. From his personal data bank
pressured by Terry’s continued absences, and her late calls. They he selects ideas, encodes and finally transits them to the receiver.
wished she would just take a leave of absence, but Terry refuses The entire burden of communication then rests upon the
because she would have to take it without pay. sender or encoder. His choice of images and words the
Thus what appears to be a simple communication is, in reality, combination of the two is what goads the receiver to listen
quite complex. Terry is communicating far more than that she carefully. In this process a number of factors come into play,
would miss work; she is conveying a number of complex primary among them being an understanding of the recipient
emotions, complicated by her own complex feelings about and his needs. If the message can be formulated in accordance
pregnancy, work, and her future. with the expectations of the receiver, the level of acceptance is
going to be higher. For example, a consultant wishes to
She sent a message but the message is more than the words; it
communicate with the HRD manager of a company. The
includes the tone, the timing of the call, and the way she
objective is to secure consultancy projects on training of
expressed herself.
personnel. If the consultant wishes the HRD manager to
Similarly, the boss goes through a complex communication communicate with him, he has to ensure that their goals
process in “hearing” the message. The message that Terry sent converge. He has a tough task ahead of him. The manager had
had to be decoded and given meaning. There are many ways to been interacting with many consultants. Why should he pay
decode the simple message that Terry gave and the way the heed to the proposal of this consultant? In a situation such as
message is heard will influence the response to Terry. this, a good strategy to be adopted is to expand the purview of
the proposal and make it company specific. The result could be
has same feelings as you same: You want an individual within an organization to
• Distrusted source, erroneous translation, value judgment, undertake a project. The manner in which it is stated brings
state of mind of two people about a difference in approach. Further, expressions that might
hurt or cause mental pain to the receiver should, as far as
• Perceptual Biases: People attend to stimuli in the
possible, be ignored. For this it becomes essential that the “I” –
environment in very different ways. We each have shortcuts
attitude be discarded in favor of the “you”-attitude. Develop-
that we use to organize data. Invariably, these shortcuts
ment of interest in the “you” will perforce make the other
introduce some biases into communication. Some of these
individual also see the point of view of the other. At the time
shortcuts include stereotyping, projection, and self-fulfilling
of emphasizing the “you-attitude”, only the positive and
prophecies. Stereotyping is one of the most common. This
pleasant “you-issues” should be considered. If it is being used
is when we assume that the other person has certain
as a corrective measure, then the results are not going to be very
characteristics based on the group to which they belong
positive or encouraging.
without validating that they in fact have these characteristics.
2. Clarity. Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning
• Interpersonal Relationships: How we perceive
of the message. The first stage is clarity in the mind of the
communication is affected by the past experience with the
sender. The next stage is the Makes comprehension easier
individual. Percpetion is also affected by the organizational
transmission of the message in a manner which makes it
relationship two people have. For example, communication
simple for the receiver to comprehend. As far as possible,
from a superior may be perceived differently than that from a
simple language and easy sentence constructions, which are
subordinate or peer
not difficult for the receiver to grasp, should be used.
Cultural Differences: Effective communication requires deci-
4. Correctness. At the time of encoding, the sender should
phering the basic values, motives, aspirations, and assumptions
ensure that his knowledge of the receiver is comprehensive.
that operate across geographical lines. Given some dramatic
The level of knowledge, educational background and status
differences across cultures in approaches to such areas as time,
of the decoder help the encoder in formulating his message.
space, and privacy, the opportunities for mis-communication
In case there is any discrepancy between the usage and
while we are in cross-cultural situations are plentiful.
comprehension of terms, miscommunication can arise. If
7 C’S’ and 4 S’s the sender decides to back up his communication with facts
7 C’s and figures, there should be accuracy in stating the same. A
situation in which the listener is forced to check the presented
In any business environment, adherence to the 7 C’s and the 4
facts and figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of terms
S’s helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease and
should be nondiscriminatory, e.g. the general concept is that
accuracy. Lets us first take a look at the 7 C’s:
women should be addressed for their physical appearance
1. Credibility. If the sender can establish his credibility, the whereas men for their mental abilities. This, however, is a
receiver has no problems in accepting his statement. stereotype and at the time of addressing or praising
Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shot members of both the sexes, the attributes assigned should
statement. It is a long-drawn out process in which the be the same. Similarly for occupational references. In the
receiver through constant interaction with the sender business world almost all professions are treated with
understands his credible nature and is willing to accept his respect. Addressing one individual for competence in his
statements as being truthful and honest. profession but neglecting the other on this score because of
• Courtesy. Once the credibility of the sender has been a so-called ‘inferior’ profession alienates the listener from the
established, attempts should be make at being courteous in sender.
expression. In the business world, almost everything starts 5. Consistency – The approach to communication should, as
with and ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact, far as possible, be consistent. There should not be too many
diplomacy and appreciation of people are woven in the ups and downs that might lead to confusion in the mind of
message. the receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it should be
Example: observed without there being situations in which the sender
is left groping for the actual content or meaning. If the
• Jane:” You can never do things right. Try working on this
sender desires to bring about a change in his understanding
project. If you are lucky you may not have to redo it.”
of the situation, he should ensure that the shift is gradual
• Jane: “This is an interesting project. Do you think you and not hard for the receiver to comprehended.
would be able to do it. I know last time something went
6. Concreteness. Concrete and specific expressions are to be
wrong with the project, but everyone makes mistakes.
preferred in favour of vague and abstract expressions. In
Suppose we sat down and discussed it threadbare I’m sure
continuation of the point on correctness, the facts and
your would be able to do wonders.”
figures presented should be specific. Abstractions or abstract
The two statements convey totally different impressions. While statements can cloud the mind of the sender. Instead of
the first statement is more accusative, the second is more tactful stating: “There has been a tremendous escalation in the sales
and appreciative of the efforts put in by the receiver at an earlier figure”, suppose the sender made the following statement:
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
50% as compared to last year.” The receiver is more apt to of the sender. If the receiver is keen an observant, he would
listen and comprehend the factual details. be able to sense the make-believe situation and, business
7. Conciseness. The message to be communicated should be transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.
as brief and concise as possible. Weighty language definitely 4 S’s
sounds impressive but people would be suitably impressed
into doing precisely nothing. As far as possible, only simple S’s Relevance
and brief statements should be made. Excessive information Shortness Economises
can also sway the receiver into either a wrong direction or into
inaction. Quantum of information should be just right, Simplicity Impresses
neither too much nor too little , e.g. Strength Convinces
Usually the policy date… Sincerity Appeals
In the first example, the statement is rather long and convo-
luted. However, the second example gives it the appearance of
Keys to More Effective Communication
being crisp, concise and to the point.
Over 70% of our time is spent communicating with others,
7 C’s and that’s the one interaction every person must do. Everyone
must communicate their needs and ideas. Every organization
must communicate its products and services. Unfortunately,
C’s Relevance
Credibility Builds trust many people have trouble in this area. Some just don’t have the
professional impact they need to get ahead in today’s corporate
Courtesy Improves relationships
world. Communication is just as important as what we say
Clarity Makes comprehension easier because people judge us, our companies, our products, our
Correctness Builds confidence services, and our professionalism by the way we write, act, dress,
Consistency Introduces stability talk, and manage our responsibilities. In short, how well we
Concreteness Reinforces confidence communicate with others.
Conciseness Saves time Successful people know how to communicate for results. They
know how to say what they mean and get what they want
without hurting the people they deal with. You deal daily with
4 S,s peers, outside groups, customers, employees, and managers,
An understanding of the 4 S’s is equally important. and you must have a good communication style.
1. Shortness. “Brevity is the soul of wit,” it is said. The same When we ask people how well they communicate, their answers
can be said about communication. If the message can be usually fall into one of three categories. First, and most prevalent,
made brief, and verbosity done away with, then transmission is the person who responds, “I communicate perfectly. I spell
and comprehension of messages is going to be faster and everything out so there’s nothing left to doubt.”
more effective. Flooding messages with high sounding Another will react with surprise and ask me, “What do you mean
words does not create an impact. Many people harbour a ‘how well?’ I don’t think about communicating, I just do it.”
misconception that they can actually impress the receiver, if
they carry on their expeditious travails. Little do they realize The third type will reflect on the question thoughtfully before
how much they have lost as the receiver has spent a major saying something like, “How can one ever know how well they
chunk of his time in trying to decipher the actual meaning of get their ideas across to another person? All I can tell you is I
the message. work more hours trying to communicate than I can count, and
it still doesn’t work some of the time.” Each answer, in its own
2. Simplicity. Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas
way, is correct.
reveals a clarity in the thinking process. It is normally a
tendency that when an individual is himself confused that he Communicating today is both a discipline and a liberation. Our
tries to use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver in language is flexible; one size fits all. It’s a language in which ravel
a maze. Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simple and unravel mean the same thing; flammable and inflammable
terminology and equally simple concepts. mean the same thing; fat chance, slim chance, no chance at all
mean the same thing. Communication is both a science and a
3. Strength. The strength of a message emanates from the
feeling; it’s often a cinch, and often an impossibility.
credibility of the sender. If the sender himself believes in a
message that he is about to transmit, there is bound to be The smell of a woman’s perfume, the taste of semisweet
strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state. Half- chocolate, the sight of a blind person’s cane, the feel of the
hearted statements or utterances that the sender himself feverish brow of a sick child, the sound of the background
does not believe in adds a touch of falsehood to the entire music of a horror movie—all these move us to action or
reaction. These are all examples of effective communication, and
4. Sincerity. A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to
none of them involve words.
the receiver. If the sender is genuine, it will be reflected in the
manner in which he communicates. Suppose there is a small
and plans we make, we can never really be sure of our success. to a few people. The phone also has more impact and sense of
No communication ever travels from sender to receiver in the urgency than written communication, but not as much as a
same shape intended by the sender. And, no matter how hard meeting. To insure that messages are understood on the phone,
you try, the message will never be what you say—the message is you may want to ask for feedback and check to make sure the
always what they hear. But if you have a system to go by, you communication link is complete.
can at least reduce the risk and improve your chance of being Face-to-face communication has more urgency than meetings. It
effective. also has the advantage of speed, allows considerable two-way
For communication to occur, there must be a two-way inter- communication to take place, and usually elicits a quick re-
change of feelings, ideas, values; clarification of signals; and a sponse. It’s usually best to use face-to-face dialogue when the
fine-tuning of skills. interaction is personal—when giving praise, counseling, or
taking disciplinary action.
Adjust the Climate
Whenever people get together to communicate with one Meetings are appropriate when there is a need for verbal
another, two factors are always present. First, there is some sort interaction among members of a group. Studies have revealed
of content to be covered—instructions, news, gossip, ideas, that supervisors spend more than half of their potential
reports, evaluations, etc. productive time in meetings, discussions, and conferences. For
this reason, it’s important to decide in advance whether a
All of us are familiar with the content of communication,
meeting will actually achieve the desired result.
because it’s the most obvious factor, and because we deal with it
every day. The second factor that is always present when people Eliminate Static
get together to communicate is the atmosphere or feeling that Another helpful skill is elimination of communication “static”
accompanies what you say. This is known as the communica- or barriers. If there’s too much static, or noise, there’s a garbled
tion climate. message. The problem is that each of us has different barriers,
Physical climate affects us in many ways. When it’s cold, we wear and we don’t usually know what kind of noise the other
warm clothes. When it’s raining, we wear protective clothes. person is hearing. Sometimes we guess, and sometimes we
And it’s not uncommon for weather conditions to affect our guess wrong. The major barrier to communication is our
mood. Communication climates also affect us. They can be natural tendency to judge, evaluate, approve, or disapprove the
either positive or negative. When the communication climate is other person’s statements.
positive, it’s easier for us to communicate, solve problems, reach Suppose the person next to you at lunch today says, “I really
decisions, express thoughts and feelings. In short, it makes like what Kay duPont has to say.” What will you say? Your reply
working and dealing with other people more pleasant and will probably be either approval or disapproval of the attitude
productive. We’ve all been in restaurants, stores, offices, and expressed. You’ll either say, “I do too!” or you’ll say, “I think
homes where we felt comfortable and at ease. We usually want she’s terrible.” In other words, your first reaction will be to
to go back to those places. We’ve also been in homes, offices, evaluate it from your point of view, and approve or disapprove
and shops where the climate has been negative. In those what the other person said. Although the tendency to make
instances, we were uncomfortable, uneasy, and less open. We evaluations is common in almost all conversation, it is very
usually don’t enjoy attempting to communicate or do business much heightened in those situations where feelings and
in a negative climate. Are you making the climate negative for emotions are involved.
those you work with? Tune in
Choose Your Channel One of the best ways to “tune in” to the other person is to find
Like a radio, human transmitters and receivers have channels. A out how they process and store the information they receive.
communication channel is the medium through which Studies of Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) have proved
information passes from sender to receiver: lecture, written that there are three sensory process types: Visual, Auditory, and
messages, telephone conversations, face-to-face dialogue, and Kinesthetic.
group meetings. Some people are visually oriented. They remember and imagine
The choice of a channel may affect the quality of the communi- things by what they look like. They store pictures. Some people
cation and, in turn, the degree to which the receiver will respond are auditory—they store sounds. Some people are kinesthetic—
to it. Therefore, you must decide which channel will be most they store touch sensations.
effective in accomplishing your purpose. How can you figure out a person’s processing system? By
Written communication should be used when communicating listening. People tend to broadcast how they process informa-
complex facts and figures or information, such as engineering, tion, how they file their data. Visually oriented people say things
legal or financial data, since communication breakdowns often like: “Here’s what it looks like to me. Do you see what I mean?
result when complex material is presented orally. Written Do you get the picture? I need a clearer vision of that. That’s
communication is also the best channel when communicating not coming in clear to me.” All visually oriented terms.
with large numbers of people, when transmitting large amounts Auditory people remember and imagine things by what they
of data, or when you need a record of the communication. sound like. They say: “Here’s what it sounds like to me. That
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
harmony in this office. We’re not in tune on this.”
Kinesthetic people remember and imagine things by the feel of
them. They say: “Here’s what it feels like to me. Do you grasp
what I’m saying? That was a rough problem. That was a heavy
burden. That was a weighty issue.”
People don’t always use the same sensory words, of course, but
we do tend to use one sensory process about 70% of the time.
If you want me to understand how you feel or see what you
mean or get in tune with your ideas, you need to talk to me in
words I’ll relate to—either visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. If
you talk to me in flowers, and I hear in pastry, we can’t commu-
nicate. This is a very sophisticated form of communicating, and
can be very effective.
Know Your Nonverbals
Body movement, eye contact, posture, and clothing are also very
important elements. In fact, studies prove that 93% of your
message is nonverbal and symbolic. Employees learn to cue on
the boss’ moods, spouses learn to react to each other’s move-
ments, children instinctively watch for signs from their parents.
Studies have also taught us that sometimes our tongues say
one thing, our bodies say another thing, and our symbols—like
clothing and hairstyles—say still a third thing. When this occurs,
the normal person will believe what they see, not what they
hear. So you need to be constantly aware of the image you
portray. Is it one of assertive confidence. . .someone who is
willing to listen and solve problems? Or is it of someone who
is unfriendly and uncaring? Do your clothes and posture reflect
a person of high quality or one of sloppy habits?
Over 2 centuries ago, Ben Franklin said, “Power is with the
person who can communicate well.” It’s truer today than it has
ever been. And the power exists within you. . .all it takes is
awareness and practice.
Exercise
1. Pick up any two students in your class. At random give
feedback to both of them – positive to one and negative to
the other. Note down their verbal responses and body
language. Is there any difference between the responses of
the two students? If yes, what is it? What strategies can be
used to even out the differences?
2. Divide the section into two groups with two observers.
Both the groups are numbered and further subdivided into
senders and receivers. It is decided beforehand that the
message transmitted in the first group is meaningful and in
the second, a mere exchange of social pleasantries. Observers
list down the criteria that help them to determine the
significance of the message – whether it is meaningful or
being used to while away the time. Observe the non-verbal
cues in a piece of communication. How do these cues affect
the meaning of words? What is their impact on the receiver?
LESSON 3:
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Contents
Communication Network
An organization is a composite of many individuals working
• Methods of Communication – Verbal and nonverbal together, towards its growth. They are constantly interacting
• Channels of communication – formal and informal with each other and with people outside the company. The
• Dimensions of communication – upward, downward, horizontal and communication network in an organization is of two types:
diagonal 1. Internal
2. External
We have by now gathered some knowledge on what communi-
Internal Communication
cation is, how is it important in business and key stages of
communication as well. Today we shall learn the different Formal Communication
methods of communication, channels and dimensions of Interaction between members of the same organizations called
communication. internal communication. It could be both formal and informal.
Large organizations with hundreds of people working find it
Introduction very difficult to have direct interaction with each and everyone.
When Anil entered in his office on a Monday morning, he
They adopt a number of strategies, e.g., newsletters, annual
found that somebody had tempered with his personal com-
reports to communicate the essential message. In such large
puter and that it was plugged on. He called up his personal
setups, it is neither possible nor necessary to transmit all
secretary and enquired as to who could have done that. After a
information to every member.
while she reported that two marketing executive came on
Some of the merits of formal communication network are
Saturday evening to seek some information and since he was
discussed below:
not there, they used his computer for that. Sandeep was very
angry and wanted to stop this practice. He called those execu- 1. Satisfy the information needs of the -organization - Formal
tives and and warned them. He issued a memo to this effect channels of communication are designed to cater to the
and distributed it in the office. informational needs of the organization, i.e., when and
where, what kind of information is required and who is to
Here Anil used speech (words spoken), writing (memo) , body
provide it. Thus the formal communication channels are
language (his expression when he talked to the marketing
needed for the very reason of activating information flow in
executives and paralanguage (stern tone of voice) to make his
the organiza-tion.
people aware of his sentiments.
2. Integrates the organization - Formal communication
Both formal (i.e. memo) and informal channels (discussion
channels work as linking wires in a big sized organization,
among employees) contributed to spread the news.
and thus integrate its functioning.
Note the dimensions of communication even in the small
3. Coordination and control- By providing required
office environment. Anil Enquires from his secretary , warns the
information at right time to right places, the formal
executives and issues a memo - all are downward communica-
communication networks greatly facilitates coordination and
tion. Secretary reports, executives reply to Sandeep –all are
control in the organization.
upward communication. Secretary enquires about who came in
the boss’s room – horizontal communication. 4. Sorts the information for high-level executives - Formal
communication channels facilitate the flow of selective
Now we will see the various forms of communication and
information to the top executives. Otherwise they will be
different channels and directions through which communica-
finding themselves in the midst of all relevant and irrelevant
tion may pass.
information.
Methods of Communication 5. Restricts unwanted flow of information - When a person is
One of the ways of communicating is by words whether by supposed to formally communicate some information to
way of speech or by way of writing. Another is by using the some authority, that itself has a restrictive implication that he
expressions other than words , like gestures , body language, need not disseminate this information anywhere else.
etc. A third mode of communication is circumstantial commu-
6. Reliability and accuracy of information - When information
nication, that is the people communicating make no deliberate
moves through formal channel, it has to have some basis to
effort, the message is conveyed by the way the things are . For
substantiate it. It is any time more reliable and accurate than
example : the elaborate décor of one’s office room conveys that
the informally obtained information.
he is holding a high position in the organization. We will divide
our discussion into two categories. However, the formal communication network entails some
limitations also:
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
communication channels involve lot many levels, The grapevine is active in almost every organization. Let’s take a
information takes time to travel across. More-over, paper look at how communication travels along the informal
work, involvement of executive’s time, and other facilities network-the well-known grape-vine. There appear to be four
required for the communication network make it an patterns to this form of communication.
expensive proposi-tion. • The single strand is the way in which most people view the
2. It increases the workload of the line supervisor - Since most grapevine. In this, person A tells something to person B, he
of the reporting goes from down to up, generally line tells that to person C, he tells that to another person down
supervisor is the person who has to devote a good deal of the line to Y and so on. This chain is least accurate in passing
time because in forwarding information, under formal the information.
channels. This leaves him with little time to perform other • In the gossip chain, one person seeks out and tells everyone
organizational functions properly. the information that he has obtained. This chain is often
3. Information may get distorted - There are dangers of used when information of an interesting but non-job
messages being lost, filtered or distorted as they pass related nature is being conveyed.
through many points. • In the probability chain, individuals are indifferent about
4. Creates gaps between top executives and lower subordinates whom they offer information to; they tell people at random,
- Formal communication channels reduce the need of contact and those people in turn tell others at random. This chain is
between the top executive and the subordinates at the lowest often used when the information is mildly interesting but
level. Many a times they do not even recognize each other. insignificant.
This adversely affects superior subordi-nate relationship. • In the cluster chain, person A conveys the information to a
Whatever these limitations are, the need for a formal network few selected individuals; some of those individuals then
of communica-tion cannot be done away with. An organization inform a few selected others. Research evidence shows that
has to have a formal commu-nication structure. Of course one the cluster is the most popular pattern that grapevine
can strive to make it more economic and efficient by not being communications take. That is, a few people are active
too rigid and too elaborate. communica-tors on the grapevine. As a rule, only about 10
per cent of the people in an organization act as liaisons who
Informal Communication
pass on information to more than one other person. Which
Informal communication network is not a deliberately formed
individuals are active on the grapevine often depends on the
network. It arises to meet needs that aren’t satisfied by formal
message. A message that sparks the interest of an employee
communication. Employees form friendships, and cliques
may stimulate him to tell someone else. However, another
develop, they talk in gatherings, the persons working at same
message that’s perceived to be of lesser interest may never be
place may talk just like that, and likewise. These in turn allow
transmitted further.
employees to fill. in communication gaps within the formal
channels. Following are some of the’ sources of informal Grapevine show admirable disregard for rank or authority and
communication: may link organization members in any combination of
directions- horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. As Kieth Devis
1. Grapevine _. channel mostly associated with gossip and
puts it, the grapevine flows around water coolers, down
rumors
hallways, through lunchrooms, and wherever people get
2. Social gatherings - organizational gatherings give a chance to together in groups.
people of various ranks to meet and talk
Merits of informal Communication
3. Management by walking around - where a manager
The informal communication has the following advantages:
informally walks through the work area and casually talk to
employees 1. Satisfies social needs of members - Man being a social
creature needs to have social interaction. Informal
4. Secretaries/administrative assistants - It is very common that
communication satisfies this need very well. Also, it provides
the secre-taries or administrative assistants of the top bosses
the workers an outlet to freely express their fears, views and
pass and receive much information informally.
thoughts.
Since grapevine is the most widespread and commonly used
2. Better human relations - Informal communication is a very
informal commu-nication network, we would discuss it in detail.
good way to promote good human relations in the
The grapevine exists outside the formal channels and is used by
organization.
people to transmit casual, personal, and social interchanges at
work. It is an expression of their natural motivation to com- 3. Speed - The informal communication (specially grapevine) is
muni-cate. It consists of rumors, gossip, and truthful a very speedy network to spread the information. Managers
information. Its speed is very fast as compared formal communi- may use the grapevine to distribute information through
cation. For instance, a study conducted by Keith Davis revealed planned leaks or judiciously placed just between you and
that wife of a plant supervisor has a baby at 11.00 p.m. and a me” remarks.
plant survey the next day at 2.00 p.m. showed that 46% of the 4. It works as a linking chain - It links even those people who
management personnel knew of it through the grapevine. do not fall in the official chain of command.
communication. a few occasions, be slightly relaxed. The same would not hold
true if he is communicating at the external level. Much is at
Limitations of Informal Communication
stake at the time of external communication as individuals are
The limitations of informal communication are as follows:
representatives of the companies, they need to protect the
1. Not authentic - Informal communication is not authentic. image of the organization and create a positive impression that
Different per-sons may distort the message because of has long-lasting impact.
different interpretations.
2. Responsibility cannot be fixed - Informal communication is
Dimensions of Communication
Within an organization, communication may flow downward,
oral in nature and it is very difficult to fix the responsibility
upward, horizontally, or diagonally. Following discussion
of the communicator for the message transmitted. It may
pertains to these dimensions of communication networks:
lead to generation of rumors in the organiza-tion.
3. Not dependable - Informal channels may not always be Downward Communication
active therefore is not dependable. Downward communication occurs when-ever messages flow
from top of the organization through various levels to the
4. It may lead to the leakage of confidential information.
bottom of the organization. There may be several types of
5. Incomplete information - Grapevine information is generally downward commu-nications, namely-:
incomplete.
1. Job procedures/instructions- directions about what to do or
Note that despite all these limitations, the informal communi- how to do the things. For example, when you restock the
cation system permits employees to satisfy their need for social shelves, put the new merchan-dise behind the old stock” is
interaction, and works parallel to the formal network. It can be an instruction.
used positively to improve an organization’s performance by
2. Job rationale- Explanation of purpose of doing a task in a
creating alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient
certain way. For example, we rotate the stock like that so that
channels of communication. The mangers can do this if they
the customers won’t wind up with stale merchandise” is a
pay due attention to informal communication networks.
statement explaining the purpose of the instruction given in
External Communication the above example.
Communication is an ongoing process. It does not only take 3. Policies and practices - Information about rules, regulations,
place with people within the organization but with people policies, and practices to be followed. For example, II don’t
outside the organization as well. If a company has to survive in try to argue with the unhappy customers. If you can’t handle
the competitive environment, it has to adopt the latter form of them, call the manager” is an instruction about the practice
communication also. The image of the company is contingent followed in the organization.
upon the relationship that it maintains with people outside.
4. Feedback/motivation - Telling the subordinates about their
External communication can take on a number of forms.
performance and. motivating them, like- life you keep up the
1. Advertising good work, you will be assistant manager by the end of the
2. Media interaction year”.
3. Public relations Thus when we say downward communication, we mean that
4. Presentations communication is flowing from upper rung of the ladder of
the organization to the lower one, no matter what form it takes.
5. Negotiations
This communication helps the subordinates to know what is
6. Mails expected of them and brings in greater job satisfaction and
7. Telegrams improves morale of the employees.
8. Letters The main problem with the downward communication is that
External communication could again be oral or written. The when the information passes through various hierarchical
first three forms of communication mentioned above, viz. channels, there are chances that it gets distorted by the time it
advertising, media interaction, and public relations, fall mainly reaches to the targeted person. Since the person giving the
within the domain of corporate communications. Establishing message has different level of understanding than that of the
good relations, negotiating or conducting a deal, interacting receiver, it may also happen that the way receiver interprets the
with clients, issuing tenders, soliciting proposals, sending letters message is not what the sender wants to convey. Very often, in
are all part of external communication. this is a different task as practice, the recipient not having the ability to understand the
interaction takes place and varies between a host of people communication may hinder communication. The message may
belonging to different disciplines, with different personalities also be insufficient or unclear. An example would be a commu-
and different expectations. As communication proceeds with nication quoting the location of a meeting without any
external customers, almost all skills needed for adept communi- instruction on how to find that location. The message could be
cation have to be brought to the fore to avoid any too big to be fully understood in the time available. An
embarrassment or lapse in performance. example would be a manager attempting to explain too much
of a complex task at a time. The result may be confusion, or, at
worst, exasperation.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
delayed. At times the message may get lost in between. different functionaries, who look the things from their own
However, these problems do not undermine the importance of angles.
downward communication. If the efforts are made to make
direct and clear communica-tions, these may be overcome.
Upward Communication - Messages flowing from subordi-
nates to superiors are termed as upward communication. Some
of the examples are given below: Department Department
“We will have the job done by tomorrow” - is a reply to an A B
equity from the boss. “The problem with the machine is
continuing. It stops working after every hour and has to be
restarted.” -subordinate informing unsolved work problem to Diagonal or crosswise Communication - Diagonal commu-
the superior. nication cuts across functions and levels in an organization.
When a supervisor in the credit department communicates
Upward communication is important because It helps the top
directly with a regional marketing manager, who’s not only in a
management in knowing about the attitudes, behaviour,
different department but also at a higher level in the organiza-
opinions, activities and feelings of the’ workers on the job. On
tion,- they’re engaged in diagonal communication.
the basis of such knowledge and information, the management
may improve its behaviour, introduce motivational plans and Given the potential for problems, why would individuals resort
improve its controlling function. Subordinates get an outlet for to diagonal communication? The answer again is efficiency and
their grievances, suggestions, and opinions, etc. They may feel speed. In some situations, bypassing vertical and horizontal
that they are contributing towards the goals of the organiza- channels expedites action and prevents others from being used
tion. Despite the importance of upward communication, merely as conduits between senders and receivers. Also, the
employees find it difficult to participate in it. Being frank with increased use of electronic mail systems in organizations has
superiors can be risky, especially when the news is not what the made diagonal communication much easier. A major problem
boss wants to hear. Busy superiors may also be too occupied to with this form of communication is that it departs from the
pay attention to employees. Most of the responsibility for normal chain of command. To minimize communication gaps,
improving upward communication rests with managers. They most diagonal communications also encompass a vertical
can begin the process by announcing their willingness to hear communication to superiors or subordinates who may have
from, subordinates. The management may use an open door been bypassed.
policy, grievance procedures, periodic inter-views, group Communication is required at every level from every direction
meetings and the suggestions book, etc. depending upon the situational need. Formal network channels
facilitate the flow of information in every direction-downward,
upward, horizontal, and diagonal. Although communication
along every dimension entails its own merits and problems, we
Upward Downward cannot do without any of them.
Communication Communication The Strengths and weaknesses of each communication method
are not just a factor of the media elements they can employ, but
also the broad categories that they fall into. There are four
independent dimensions that help considerably in categorizing
the methods:
Horizontal and Lateral Communication - This is a commu- • Recorded v live
nication between persons of same hierarchical level. The main • Passive v interactive
object of this type of communication is to coordinate the
• Local v remote
efforts of different but related activities. The most obvious type
of horizontal communication goes on between members of • Push v pull
the same division of an organization; office workers in the
same department, co-workers on a construction project, For
example – accounts department calls mainte-nance to get a
machine repaired, hospital admission call intensive care to
reserve a bed and so on.
Horizontal communication helps in coordinating the activities
of different departments at the same level. The departmental
heads may sit together and thrash out problems/wastage of
time, money, labor and-materials.
Recorded Live
Recorded communication is prepared in advance of its Live communication is delivered as it happens, in real-time.
delivery. Examples are audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; CD- Examples are live radio and TV broadcasts; one-to-ones;
ROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printed meetings; phone calls and video conferencing calls.
materials; faxes; e-mails; intranet pages and some radio and The advantage of live communication is that it is immediate.
TV broadcasts.
The advantages of recorded communication are that it delivers
a consistent message each time; the message can be a
considered one and the recipient can access the communication
at a time that suits them.
Passive Interactive
Passive communication is one-way. The receiver is not able to Interactive communication is two-way. Each party in the
respond directly to the communication. Examples are audio process is able to send and receive communication. Ex-
tapes and CDs; videotapes; manuals; printed materials; faxes; amples are CD-ROMs (assuming they do not contain purely
radio and TV broadcasts. linear material); letters, memos and e-mails (to the extent
that they are exchanged); the intranet (to the extent that
The advantages of passive communication are that it requires
interactive facilities are provided); one-to-ones; meetings;
less effort from the recipient and that, because there are no
phone calls and videoconferencing calls.The advantages of
opportunities for interaction, it is quicker.
interactive communication are the opportunities it provides
for feedback; the greater degree of confidence it provides that
the message has been understood; the recipient can to some
extent control the pace of the communication and the
message can be tailored to better meet the recipient’s needs.
Local Remote
Local communication is stand-alone and off-line. It occurs Remote communication is delivered at a distance. It is
where you are, even though it might have been originated at a networked, on-line, transmitted. Examples are e-mails; the
distance. Examples are audio tape and CDs; videotapes; CD- intranet; radio and TV broadcasts; phone calls and
ROMs; letters, memos and reports; manuals; printed videoconferencing calls. The process by which faxes are
materials; one-to-ones and meetings. Faxes are local even transmitted is also remote.
though the process by which they are transmitted is not.The
advantages of local communication are that no sacrifice has to The advantages of remote communication are that there is
be made to quality because of bandwidth limitations and that no delay in getting the message to the recipient, wherever
there are fewer restrictions on where the media can be used or they are and that communication can take place over large
the communication can take place. distances. An advantage of remote, recorded media, such as
intranet pages, is that they can be easily updated centrally.
Push Push communications are sent to specific recipients. Pull Pull communications are made available to be accessed
Examples are letters, memos and reports; faxes and e-mails; at the recipient’s discretion. Examples are audio tapes and
one-to-ones; meetings; phone calls and videoconferencing CDs; videotapes; CD-ROMs; manuals; printed materials; the
calls.The advantage of push communication is the greater intranet; radio and TV broadcasts.The advantages of pull
certainty that it provides that a message will reach its target communication are that it is less stressful for the recipient
within an appropriate timeframe. and that very large quantities of information can be made
available at any one time.
Audio Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the spoken word can be When the message can be conveyed
tape/CD accessible when suits user specific, convey tone of voice using sound alone; when interaction
Passive, so requires less effort from Through non-verbal sounds can create is not required; when recipients have
recipient, quicker emotional response, realism access to players; when no other
medium is suitable, e.g. when
Local, so potential for high quality,
travelling
portable
Typical applications: education and
Pull, so less stressful, good for large
training on the move
quantities of info
Video- Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the spoken word can be When the message requires high
tape accessible when suits user specific, convey tone of voice quality moving images; when you
Passive, so requires less effort from Through moving images can be direct need to create a memorable impres-
recipient, quicker and memorable, attract attention, sion; when interaction is not
show motion, including body required; when the size of the
Local, so potential for high quality,
language audience makes it cost-effective; when
portable
recipients have access to players
Pull, so less stressful, good for large Through non-verbal sounds can create
emotional response, realism Typical applications: corporate
quantities of info
communications
CD-Rrom Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message requires a wide
accessible when suits user specific, self-paced Through the range of media types; when interac-
Interactive, so opportunities for spoken word can be specific, convey tion is required; when the message
feedback, can check message has been tone of voice Through still images can needs to be tailored to the recipient;
understood, recipient can control be direct and memorable, self- when the size of the audience makes
pace, message can be tailored pacedThrough moving images can be it cost-effective; when recipients have
direct and memorable, attract access to players
Local, so potential for high quality,
attention, show motion, including Typical applications: training and
portable
body languageThrough non-verbal point-of-sale programmes
Pull, so less stressful, good for large sounds can create emotional response,
quantities of info realism
Letters / Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message can be conveyed
memos / accessible when suits user specific, self-paced using text and still images; when it is
reports Interactive, so opportunities for Through still images can be direct and important that you know the
feedback, can check message has been memorable, self-paced recipient will see the message; when
understood, recipient can control the message needs to be tailored to
pace, message can be tailored the recipient; when e-mail is not
available, when portability is needed
Local, so potential for high quality,
or when hard copy is essential
portable
Typical applications: everyday
Push, so message will reach target on
business communications where no
time
on-line alternative
Manuals Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message can be conveyed
accessible when suits user specific, self-paced using text and still images; when an
Passive, so requires less effort from Through still images can be direct and intranet is not available, portability is
recipient, quicker memorable, self-paced needed or hard copy is essential
Local, so potential for high quality, Typical applications: reference, where
portable no on-line alternative
Pull, so less stressful, good for large
quantities of info
Printed Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message can be conveyed
materials accessible when suits user specific, self-paced using text and still images; when
Passive, so requires less effort from Through still images can be direct and quality is important; when the size
recipient, quicker memorable, self-paced of the audience makes it cost-
effective; when an intranet is not
Local, so potential for high quality,
available, portability is needed or
portable
hard copy is essential
Pull, so less stressful, good for large
Typical applications: corporate
quantities of info
communications, marketing materials
Fax Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message can be conveyed
accessible when suits user specific, self-paced Through still using text and still images; when it is
Passive, so requires less effort from images can be direct and memorable, important that you know the
recipient, quicker self-paced recipient will see the message; when
the recipient is at a distance; when e-
Push, so message will reach target on
mail is not available; when the
time
recipient has a fax machine;
Typical applications: business
messages if no on-line alternative
Intranet Recorded, so consistent, considered, Through the written word can be When the message can be conveyed
accessible when suits user specific, self-paced using sound alone; when the
Interactive, so opportunities for Through still images can be direct and recipient is at a distance; (if live)
feedback, can check message has been memorable, self-paced when communication needs to be
understood, recipient can control immediate; when the recipient has a
pace, message can be tailored radio receiver
Remote, so no delays, regardless of Typical applications: none
distance
Pull, so less stressful, good for large
quantities of info
Radio Passive, so requires less effort from Through the spoken word can be When the message can be conveyed
recipient, quicker specific, convey tone of voice using text and still images; when an
Remote, so no delays, regardless of Through non-verbal sounds can create intranet is not available, portability is
distance emotional response, realism needed or hard copy is essential
Pull, so less stressful, good for large Typical applications: reference, where
quantities of info no on-line alternative
TV Passive, so requires less effort from Through the spoken word can be When the message requires high
recipient, quicker Remote, so no delays, specific, convey tone of voice quality moving images; when the
regardless of distancePull, so less Through moving images can be direct recipient is at a distance; (if live)
stressful, good for large quantities of and memorable, attract attention, when communication needs to be
info show motion, including body immediate; when the recipient has a
languageThrough non-verbal sounds TV receiver Typical applications:
can create emotional response, corporate communications using
realism satellite
One to Live, so immediate Through the spoken word can be When the message requires the
Ones Interactive, so opportunities for specific, convey tone of voice parties to see each other; when
feedback, can check message has been Through moving images (in this case interaction is required; when commu-
understood, recipient can control normal sight) can be direct and nication needs to be immediate;
pace, message can be tailored memorable, attract attention, show when the message needs to be
motion, including body language tailored to the recipient
Local, so can take place anywhere
Typical applications: interviews,
Push, so message will reach target on
everyday business communications
time
Meetings Live, so immediate Through the spoken word can be When the message requires the
Interactive, so opportunities for specific, convey tone of voice parties to see each other; when
feedback, can check message has been Through moving images (in this case interaction is required; when commu-
understood, recipient can control normal sight) can be direct and nication needs to be immediate;
pace, message can be tailored memorable, attract attention, show when the message needs to be
motion, including body language tailored to the recipient
Local, so can take place anywhere
Typical applications: presentations,
Push, so message will reach target on
seminars, reviews, briefing sessions,
time
group decision-making
Phone Live, so immediate Through the spoken word can be When the message can be conveyed
Interactive, so opportunities for specific, convey tone of voice using sound alone; when interaction
feedback, can check message has been is required; when communication
understood, recipient can control needs to be immediate; when the
pace, message can be tailored recipient is at a distance; when the
message needs to be tailored to the
Remote, so no delays, regardless of
recipient; when both parties have
distance
access to a phone
Push, so message will reach target on
Typical applications: everyday
time
business communications
Video Live, so immediate Through the spoken word can be When the message requires the
confer- Interactive, so opportunities for specific, convey tone of voice parties to see each other; when
encing feedback, can check message has been Through moving images can be direct interaction is required; when commu-
understood, recipient can control and memorable, attract attention, nication needs to be immediate;
pace, message can be tailored show motion, including body when the recipient is at a distance;
language when the message needs to be
Remote, so no delays, regardless of
tailored to the recipient; when both
distance
parties have access to video
Push, so message will reach target on conferencing facilities
time
Typical applications: important
meetings held at a distance
Channels of Communication
• Channels between departments or
functions involve lateral communication
• As well as formal channels of
communication, information also passes
through an organisation informally
• Communication is not complete until
feedback has been received
provide them, to see if we can do it better. reason for inconsistent behaviour, change the behaviour —
Which version do you think people will better understand — quickly. Some may believe that management shouldn’t have to
and respond to? explain itself to its employees. Those managers shouldn’t be
surprised if their employees lose faith and interest.
Use Metaphors and Analogy
Metaphors, analogy, examples, or just plain colorful language Listen and Be Listened to
helps communicate complex ideas simply and effectively. Here’s A final rule: communication should be two-way. Explain the
a colorful vision statement from a large corporation that was vision, then listen to the feedback. Don’t forget, a great many
facing fierce competition from a host of new, smaller compa- people at all levels of the organization have to actually imple-
nies: “We need to be less like an elephant and more like a ment the vision to make it real, but they have to believe in it
customer-friendly Tyrannosaurus rex.” first.
The language is imaginative, but also accurate. The transforma- Communicating the vision effectively sets the stage for the next
tion from elephant to T-rex described exactly the direction the phase: getting people to act.
firm wished to take: still big, but more effective. Impact of Information Technology
Use Many Different Forums to Spread In recent years there has been an information technology
The Word revolution. While paper-based manual systems for processing
Spread the word in big meetings, informal one-on-one or information and communicating are still very much evident,
group talks and formal presentations. Encourage your employ- more and more office functions and procedures are now being
ees to read national broadcasts, divisional newsletters Quarterly undertaken by computer-based technology. The implications of
Business Magazines. When the same message comes at people such information technology on communication methods
from six different directions, it’s going to be heard. cannot be ignored. However the technology will always require
people, and in communication it is the input of the operator
Repeat Key Messages that will ensure effective communication (or otherwise).
For the message to be repeated as often as possible, plan
In the area of text creation, computer experts are trying to make
ongoing communication opportunities including developing
the task of creating documents much easier. Programs are
your key messages. Key messages are the ideas that you want
available that will produce standard layouts for most business
your audiences (in your case, your employees) to take home
documents when inputs or variables are keyed in. In other
with them. Key messages should become a natural part of
words, the originator does not decide on the layout, the
meetings, discussions, etc. When responding to a question,
computer program does. Sadly, computer experts who may not
answer the question honestly, but also use it as a chance to
be so expert in the modern display of business documents
repeat a key message if appropriate. One example of a key
write many computer programs. Some of these standard
message is: “The employees of the Royal Canadian Mounted
layouts leave much to be desired.
Police are committed to our communities.” This would
probably never be said as a single statement without example The fundamental skills of structure, tone and composition will
of how we demonstrate this commitment, but it is the essence always be of vital importance in ensuring effective communica-
of what we want our listeners to take away and to repeat, or tion. As an originator of printed communications, you have
think about later on. control over these factors. However, while technological
developments are making your role more interesting and
Lead by Example challenging, the basic presentational conventions should not be
If you do the opposite of what you say, no one will listen to allowed to suffer. No matter how technology develops in the
you. You have to “walk the talk”. future, high standards must be set and maintained in order to
• We are promoting a new, client-focused vision, so ensure that all your communications are not only appropriately
management should guarantee to listen to employees worded and logically structured, but are also consistently and
concerns and respond to their own employees within a attractively presented.
specified period. Information Technology has revolutionized business commu-
• If we are encouraging empowerment and trust on paper, we nication with Emails. Tell me how many of you still write
must put it into action, and give employees the support to letters to your friends, relatives? I guess very few of you and
run with ideas, assuming those ideas are well thought out. that is because you would love to chat with your friends or
• If we espouse community policing, leaders must send an email rather than taking the pain in writing letters
demonstrate this to deliver service to all their “communities” getting it posted and worrying whether your friend will receive
which could include employees, bosses, government officials, your letter? By when? So on and so forth. Similarly in business
and so on. emails are used more as an internal communication tool which
saves time, money and effort. Therefore lets now discuss about
Explicitly Address Inconsistencies
Emails.EMAIL
If there’s a legitimate reason for inconsistent behaviour, explain
yourself. For example, in times of belt-tightening, if spending The rapid growth of email has been the most exciting business
some money up-front can save more in the long-run, explain communication devel-opment in recent years. In just a short
that openly and honestly to your employees, and listen with an
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
communication. letters ( Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Dear Mr., Dear Ms. ) are rarely
used in email. When writing to someone or a group you do not
Evaluating Email’s Pros and Cons
know, it is appropriate to identify yourself early in the message.
The reasons for this rapid growth are the advantages email has
This identification may include your propose and your com-
over other communication forms, especially over its principal
pany. Your title and position also may be helpful.
competitor, the telephone. Among the reasons, the following
are most significant: Organizing the Contents
Conversely, .email saves the time of these busy people. They are Even though email messages often are written under time
spared the interruptions of telephone calls. pressure, you would do well to organize them carefully. For
most short, informative messages, a “top-down” order is
• Email can. speed up the process of making business
appropriate. This plan, used in newspaper writing, involves
decisions, because it permits rapid exchanges from an
presenting the most important material first. The remaining
involved in the decisions.
information follows in descending order of importance. Such
• Email is cheap. It permits unlimited use at no more than the an arrangement permits a busy reader to get the essential facts
cost of an Internet connection. first, and the reader accessing email on a Web phone or other
Email also has its disadvantages. The following stand out: small screen to get the essential facts more easily. Many writers
• Email is not confidential. “It’s just about as private as a routinely follow this practice.
postcard you drop in the mail box.” The longer, more complex, and formal email messages
• Email doesn’t communicate the sender’s emotions well. frequently follow more involved and strategic organization
Voice intonations, facial expressions, body movements, and patterns. As you will see, these patterns vary depending on how
such are not a part of the message. They are in telephone and the reader will likely perceive the writer’s objective. In general,
face-to-face communication. those messages that are likely to be received positively or
neutrally are written in a direct pattern. That is, they get to the
• Email may be ignored or delayed. The. volume of email
goal right away and then present their contents systematically
often makes it difficult for some respondents to read .and act
and quickly. Those messages that are likely to be received
on all of their messages.
negatively are appropriately written in an indirect pattern. Their
Including the Prefatory Elements negative content is preceded by conditioning and explanation
Much of what you. do in constructing email messages is words that prepare the reader for it.
standardized, especially the mechanical parts pertaining to Some long email messages may resemble business reports.
structure. But the second part of your effort, writing the With these messages, you well may follow the organization and
message, is far from standardized. Although the following writing instructions for business reports. You should use your
review covers both, the writ-ing receives the greater emphasis. It knowledge of report presentation in writing them. In fact,
is here that you are likely to need the most help. Although the business reports can be communicated by email just as business
various email systems differ somewhat, the elements are letters can. As you will see in the later lesson on internal
standardized. They include the following parts:. communication, some memorandums are communicated by
• To Here is placed the email address of the recipients. email. The variety of email messages covers the entire spectrum
• Cc If someone other than the prime recipient is to receive a of written business communication.
courtesy copy, his or her address goes here. Writing the Message : Formality
• Bcc This line stands for blind courtesy copy. The recipient’s Considerations
message will not show this information; that is, the or she A review of email writing is uncomplicated by the fact that
will not know who else is receiving a copy of the message. - email messages are extremely diverse. , they run the range “from
• Subject This line describes the message as precisely as the highly informal to formal. The informal messages often
situation permits. The reader should get from it a clear idea resemble face-to-face oral communication; some’ even sound
of what the message is about. like chit that occurs between acquaintances’ and friends. Email
massages are often written in a fast- paced environment with
• Attachments In this area you can enter a file that you desire
little time for deliberation.
to send along with the message. You should make certain
that what you attach is really needed. Because of this diversity, discussing the formality of email
writing is difficult. One approach is to view the language used
• The message The information you are sending goes here.
from three general” classifications; casual, in- formal, and
How to write it is the subject of much of the following
formal.
discussion.
Casual By casual language we mean the language we use in
Beginning The Message talking with close friends in everyday situations. It includes
Typically, email messages begin the recipient’s name. If writer slang and colloquialisms. It uses contractions and personal
and reader are acquainted, first name only is the rule. If not, the pronouns freely. Its sentences are short-sometimes incomplete.
specific situation may determine the first words. A “friendly It uses mechanical emphasis devices and initializes (to be
generic greeting such as Greeting’s” is appropriate for a group discussed later).. Although in actual practice it may be subject to
of people with whom you communicate. Use of the recipient’s
not helpful’ to the communication and should be avoided. important of these instructions under three heads: conciseness,
Casual lan-guage is best limited to your communications with clarity, and eti-quette. A fourth, correctness is equally vital. Each
close friends. Following is an ex-ample of casual language: of these im-portant qualities for email writing is briefly
Hi Cupcake. reviewed in the following paragraphs.
High-five me! Just back from confab with pinheads. They’re Conciseness
high on our marketing plan. But as you crystal balled it, they As we have mentioned, email often is written by busy people
want a special for the jumbos. ASAP, they said. Let’s meet, my for busy people. In the best interests of all concerned, email
cell, 10 A.M., Wed.? messages should be as short as com-plete coverage of the
TTFN subject matter will permit. This means cutting the information
available and using only that which is essential. It means also
Bugger
that the information remaining should be worded concisely. In
Most of your personal email (messages to friends) are likely to the words of one email authority, “Short messages are better,
be casually written. This is the way friends talk and their email even – especially – the important ones”
should be no different. Probably some of the email you will Frequently in email communication, a need exists to refer to
write in business also will fall. in this category. Much of it will previous email messages. The easiest way, of course, is to tell
be with your fellow employees and friends in business. But here your mailer to include the entire message. Unless the entire
some words of caution should be expressed. You would be message is needed, however, this practice adds length. It is
wise to use casual language only when you know your readers better either to paraphrase the essentials from the original or to
well-when you know they expect and prefer casual communica- quote the selected parts that cover the essentials. All quoted
tion. Never should you use words, initializes, emphasis devices, material should be distinguished from your own words by the
or such that are not cer-tain to communicate clearly and quickly. sign > at the beginning and the sign < at the end of the quoted
Informal: informal language retains some of the qualities. of part. Another technique is to place three of these signs (>>>)
casual writing. It makes some use of personal pronouns and at the beginning of all parts you write and three of these signs
contractions. Its sentences are relatively short. It . occasionally (<<<) at the beginning of all parts you are quoting from
may use colloquialisms, but more selectively than in casual previous messages.
writing. It has the effect of conversation, but it is proper Clarity
conversation-not chitchat. Its sentences are short, but they are Especially important in email writing is clarity of wording. You
well structured and organized. They have varied patterns that should select words that quickly create clear meanings. Typically,
produce an interesting literary style. In general, it is the writing these are the short, familiar ones. You should strive for
that you will find in most of the illustrations in Chapters 6-9. It concreteness, vigor, and precision. Your sentences should be
is the language that appears in the text of this book. You short, and so should your paragraphs.
should use its most of your business email messages, especially
when writing to people you know only on a business basis. An Eqiquette
example of an email message in informal language is the It goes without saying that good business etiquette should be
following: practiced in all business relations. We all want to receive
courteous and fair treatment. In fact, this is the way we human
Smita beings prefer to act. Even so, the current literature has much to
The management team has heartily approved our marketing say about anger among email participants. “Flaming,” as the
plan. They were most complimentary. But as you pre-dieted, practice of sending abusive or offensive language is called, has
they want a special plan for the large accounts. As they want it as no place in business. Good business etiquette should prevail.
soon as possible, let’s get together to work on it . Can we meet The skillful use of positive language and your viewpoint also
Wednesday, 10 am my office Brandon’ can be effective in email. So can the use of conversational
Formal language. Nondiscriminatory language also helps, as can
A formal style of writing maintains a-greater distance between emphasis on sincerity. In act, virtually all the instructions given
writer and reader than informal style. It avoids personal on goodwill building apply here. Also in the interest of good
references and contractions. Its sentences are’ well structured and business etiquette, you will want to let your reader know when
organized. Although there is a tendency to create-longer sen- no response is required to your email message.
tences in formal writing, this tendency should be resisted Correctness
Formal style is well illustrated in the examples of formal reports One would think that the need for correctness in email writing
in lesson 22/23 and it is appropriate to use email messages would be universally accepted. Unfortunately, such is not the
resembling formal reports, in messages to people of higher case. Because of the fast pace of email communication, some
status, and to people not known to the writer. practitioners argue that “getting the message out there is the
Writing the Message : General important goal – that style need not be a matter of concern. In
Considerations the view of one in this group, “You should not add stylistics
Instructions for writing email messages are much the same as and grammatical refinements to your email messages because
those given in Chapters 2, 3, and 4 for other types of messages. they’ll slow you down.”
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
much a part of the message. As expressed by one authority, nesses, it is important that you include your company and
“People still judge you on how well you communicate… position.
Commercial email represents your company and your brand. Today most email software has a signature feature that will
There’s no room for excuses.” Bad spelling, illogical punctua- automatically attach a signature file to a message. Most pro-
tion, awkward wording, and such stand out like sore thumbs. grams even allow the writer to set up an alterna-tive signature;
Such errors reflect on the writer. And they can reflect on the giving” users the flexibility to’ choose between a stm1dard, one
credibility of the message. If one knows correctness, it is easy alternate, and none attached at all: Writers sometimes set up a
enough to get it right the first time. What is the logic of doing .formal full signature in one file and an informal-signature in
something wrong when you know better? Clearly, an error-field another. The important point to remember is to close with a
message strongly suggests the writer’s ignorance. signature that gives the reader the information he or she needs
To avoid any such suggestion of ignorance, you should follow to know.
the grammatical and punctuation instructions presented in
Using Emphasis Devices
lesson 5 and 6. And you should follow the basic instructions
When you write email messages, you may find that certain
for using words, constructing sentences, and designing
elements of style are miss-ing either on your system or on your
paragraphs. Before pressing the Send button, proofread your
readers’ systems. While most of the current ver-sions of
mes-sage careful1y.
Windows and Macintosh email programs support mechanical
Using Good Email Etiquette Helps Writers Convey devices such as underscoring, font variations, italics, bold, color,
Intended Message and even graphics, some older or mainframe-based systems do
not. Email writers have attempted to overcome the lim-itations
Using proper email • Have you complied with of these older systems by developing alternative means of
etiquette is as easy as copyright laws and showing emphasis. To show underscoring, they use the sign -
applying a bit of empathy at the beginning of the words needing underscoring. They use
attributed sources
to your messages: send asterisks (*) before and after words to show boldface. Solid
only what you would want accurately?
capital letters are another means of emphasis, although some
to receive. The following • Have you avoided
critics believe this practice is greatly overused. In the words of
additional etiquette guides humor and sarcasm your one critic “Don’t use solid capital letters. People will think you’re
will help you consider a reader may not shouting.” A sign they use to emphasize items in a list is the
variety of issues when understand as intended? bullet. Since there is no standardized bullet character that will
using email: display on all computers, many writers of email use substitute
• Is your message really characters. One is the asterisk (*) followed by a tab space.
• Have you proofread your
needed by the Another is the dash (—) followed by a tab space. Probably these
message carefully?
recipient(s)? devices are used best in the email messages written in casual
• Is this a message you
• Is your message for languages.
would not mind having
routine rather than
• distributed widely? Using Initialisms Cautiously
sensitive messages ?
• Does your signature Probably as a result of the early informal development of email,
• Are you sure your
avoid offensive Quotes a somewhat standardized system of initialisms has developed.
message is not spam Their purpose has been to cut message length and to save the
(an annoying message or
• illustrations, especially writer’s time. In spite of these apparent advantages, you would
sent repeatedly) or a be wise to use them cautiously. They have meaning only if
chain letter? those that are religious,
readers know them. Even so, you should be acquainted with
• Have you carefully • political, or sexual?
the more widely used ones, such as those below. You are likely
checked that your • Are attached files a size
to find others created by your email correspondents.
message is going where that your recipient's
system can handle? ASAP as soon as possible
you want it to go?
• Has your wording • Are the files you are BTW by the way
avoided defamatory or attaching virus free? FAQ frequently asked question
libelous language? FWIW for what it’s worth
l We all interact with the printed word as though l Write a salutation for l Use caps when
each new subject email. appropriate.
it has a personality and that personality makes
l Try to keep the email l Format your email for
positive and negative impressions upon us. brief (one screen length). plain text rather than
l Without immediate feedback your document l Return emails within the HTML.
can easily be misinterpreted by your reader, so same time you would a
phone call. l Use a font that has a
it is crucial that you follow the basic rules of professional or neutral
l Check for punctuation,
etiquette to construct an appropriate tone. spelling, and look.
grammatical errors
• Write in a positive tone • Use smiles J, winks ;), l When you are sending
“When you complete the and other graphical an attachment tell your
symbols only when respondent what the
report.” instead of “If you
appropriate. name of the file is, what
complete the report.” program it is saved in,
• Avoid negative words • Use contractions to add and the version of the
that begin with “un, non, a friendly tone. program.
ex” or that end with (don’t, won’t, can’t). l “This file is in MSWord
“less” (useless, non- 2000 under the name
existent, ex-employee, “LabFile.”
undecided).
l Avoid discussing private concerns and issues. l An elevator summary l Table of contents
should have all the main “This email contains
l It is okay to address someone directly on the components of the
list. Ex, “Hi Leslie, regarding your question” email. A. Budget projections for
“Our profit margin for the the last quarter
l Change the subject heading to match the last quarter went down B. Actual performance for
content of your message. 5%. As a result I am the last quarter
l When conflict arises on the list speak in person proposing budget C. Adjustment proposal
adjustment for the
with the one with whom you are in conflict. following areas…” D. Projected profitability”
Deliver the news up front: Avoid using “weasel words” Ask for help and offer a resolution:
“We are unable to order or hedging: “Please let me know what other options I may have
new computers this “Our pricing structure is overlooked. I am willing to meet with the department
quarter due to budget outdated.” head and the executive board to seek out a solution
cuts.” More examples of hedging that is fair to the members and is good for the business
are: of the organization. ”
Avoid blaming:
Intents and purposes
“I think it will be hard to
Possibly, most likely
recover from this, but
Perhaps, maybe
what can I do to help?”
• You should briefly state • Show why it is critical for • Do not wait until the end
the history of the the problem to be of the day to introduce a
problem to provide resolved by your reader. problem or concern via
context for your reader. • Offer suggestions on memo or email.
• Explain the attempts you ways you think it can be • Avoid writing a litany of
made previously to resolved or how you are concerns that you have
resolve the problem. willing to help in the been harboring for a
matter. long period of time.
• Flaming is a virtual term • Flame fights are the l There are times when
for venting or sending equivalent of food fights you may need to blow off Here’s a way to flame:
inflammatory messages and tend to affect some steam. Flame On
in email. observers in a very l Remember your
negative way. Your message
• Avoid flaming because audience and your
it tends to create a • What you say cannot be situation before sending Flame Off
great deal of conflict taken back; it is in black the email.
that spirals out of and white.
control.
• Before you send an l Read your message l Empathize with the l Avoid getting bogged
email message, ask twice before you send it sender’s frustration and down by details and
yourself, “would I say and assume that you tell them they are right if minor arguments
this to this person’s may be misinterpreted that is true l If you are aware that the
face?” l If you feel you are right, situation is in the
when proofreading.
• Calm down before thank them for bringing process of being
responding to a the matter to your resolved let the reader
message that offends attention know at the top of the
you. Once you send the l Explain what led to the response
message it is gone. problem in question l Apologize if necessary
LESSON 5:
PRACTICE CLASS
Upon completion of this lesson, you will understand the role of One worker is Himanshu, a college - age man who is
communication in business. To achieve this goal you should be able to holding a full time job while going to school - part time.
The other is Akash, an old-timer – a self made man and
• Study, analyze and solve the cases given below.
master craftsman.
• Learn more on importance of communication in business
Himanshu: I like the candidate. He appears young, energetic and
• Explain the communication model. bright.
Students in this lesson we will solve some cases for which lets Akash: He’s young all right. Too young! Too bright ! That fancy
form groups and analyze the case. You may have to give a Harvard degree won’t help him here. Why I’ll bet he hasn’t
presentation once you are through with your answers/ solutions. spent one day in a working man’s shoes.
Himanshu: Now that’s not fair. He was trained to be an
Critical Thinking Exercises
administrator , and he has had experience as an administrator –
1. Nikita is one of the 12 workers in Department X . She has high level experience . You don’t need experience as a soldier to
strong leadership qualities and all her co-workers look up to be a general.
her. She dominates conversations with them and expresses
Akash: Don’t tell me what this company needs. I’ve spent 40
strong viewpoints on most matters. Although she is a good
years here. I know. I was here when old J.P (the company
worker , her dominating personality has caused problems for
founder) was president. He started as a machinist and worked
you , the new manager of department X. Today you directed
to the top. Best presidident any company could have. We loved
your subordinates to change a certain work procedure. The
the man . He knew the business and he knew the business and
change is one that has proven superior wherever it has been
he knew the work we do.
tried. Soon after giving the directive, you noticed the workers
talking in a group, with Nikita the obvious leader. In a few Himanshu: But that doesn’t happen today. Administrators
minutes she appeared in your office . “We’ve thought it have to be trained for admiistration. They have to know
over” she said. “ Your production change won’t work.” administration, finance, marketing – the whole business field .
• Explain what is happening. You don’t get that in the shop.
• How will you handle the situation? Akash: All you kids think that knowledge only comes from
books. You can’t substitute book knowledge for experience
2. After noticing that some workers were starting work late and and common sense . I’ve been here 40 years, son I know.
finishing early , a department head wrote this message to
subordinates: It is apparent that many of you are not giving The dialogue continued to accelerate and soon led to harsh
the company a full day’s work. Thus the following words. Neither Himanshu nor Akash changed positions.
procedures are implemented immediately: Analyse the dialogue using the model of communication as the
• After you clock in , you will proceed to your work stations base.
and will be ready to begin work promptly at the start of the Further Reading
work period. Myths of Effective Communication
• You will not take a coffee break or consume coffee on the job by Brian H. Spitzberg, Ph.D.
at eh beginning of the work period. You will wait until your Dr. Spitzberg is professor in the School of Communication at
designated break times. San Diego State University. He is co-author of Interpersonal
• You will not participate in social gatherings at any time Communication Competence (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA,
during the workday except during designated break periods. 1984), Handbook of Interpersonal Competence Research
• You will terminate work activities no earlier than 10 minutes (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989), and co-editor of The Dark
prior to the end of the work period. You will uses he 10 Side of Close Relationships (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
minutes to put up equipment, and check the work area. Mahwah, NJ, due June, 1998).
• You will not queue up at the exit prior to the end of the Could Harry S. Truman be elected in the today’s political
work period. context? Probably not. A candidate who really tells it like it is
would likely alienate too many factions of the voting public.
The message was not well received by the workers. In fact it led
Instead, contemporary candidates employ vague symbols such
to considerable anger , misunderstanding and confusion.
as peace, prosperity, democracy, freedom, and resounding
Using the model of communication as a base , analyse the phrases such as a “thousand points of light” and “bridge into
message and explain g the probable causes of the difficulties. the 21st century.” So, as a society, we greatly value clarity, specific-
3. After being introduced to a candidate for the presidency of ity, and honesty. Yet, we only elect leaders who are equivocal and
their company, two workers had the following discussion . distinctly reluctant to discuss specifics. Such a mismatch between
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
of the “dark side” of human behavior. Adaptability, the ability to change one’s actions as the situation
What is the dark side of human interaction? It is many things. requires, is essential to interpersonal skills. Or is it? In the world
First, the dark side refers to things we cannot see, things lurking of athletics, proficiency is often based more on performance
in the shadows of ignorance, either not observed or not consistency than flexibility. In many realms we define excellence
understood. Second, it concerns actions we presume to be by how “single-minded” and focused a person is, and how she
positive and valuable, which actually can function in negative pursues the goal to its end with dogged determination.
and destructive ways. For example, honesty is highly valued, but Change brings unpredictability, uncertainty, and often, a
you may be exploited if you are completely honest in the early diminished performance because a person has left his or her
stages of negotiation. Third, the dark side draws attention to domain of expertise. Adaptable people can come across like a
encounters that strike us intuitively as unethical, unpleasant, or chameleon as they change their “face” for each person with
dysfunctional, but that are in fact productive, in often surprising whom they interact. This is itself somewhat unnerving. But if
ways. A manager lays off well-liked employees and creates a everyone is adapting to everyone else’s adaptations, people
climate of uncertainty and dissatisfaction. But in the long run, become chameleons in a paisley room, disabled by the shifting
the efficiencies gained may produce a working climate that is pattern of their social context. Persistence and consistency may
more productive and desirable. This dark side exposes a be hobgoblins of little minds, but they can accomplish great
number of common myths that a leader needs to appreciate. things when applied in a focused manner.
The Myth of Clarity The Myth of Creativity
The ideology of clarity, accuracy, and understanding runs deep in The gurus of creativity tout advantages in innovation, unfore-
the ethos (and mythos) of our businesses, governments, and seen solutions to problems, and new perspectives toward the
relationships. Yet, if we carefully consider these concepts, we world at large. But creativity as an end in itself can result in a
rapidly reveal them to be problematic. Several examples should host of potential problems. Brainstorming groups, for
illustrate. example, can produce so many ideas that the best tree of an idea
Politeness is considered a universal goal. Without basic can get lost in the forest of alternatives. Creativity thrives on
politeness, society begins to fall apart. Yet, much of what passes horizontal thinking, but occasionally a vertical solution is best
for politeness is deceptive. “Hi Jennifer, how are ya?” “Fine.” for vertical problems. Here’s a fruitful example. With a son and
Jennifer may be feeling ill, concerned about not getting the daughter fighting over the only orange in the house, the mother
recent promotion, and apprehensive about her husband’s asks them what they want it for. The boy wants it for a snack
suspected affair. But she says “fine” as a pleasantry, and perhaps and the girl wants it for a recipe that calls for orange peel. The
to avoid appearing less than competent in a competitive mother could get creative and try to think of alternative,
environment. If we are this duplicitous in casual conversation, divergent, or numerous solutions, but in this case, there’s a
consider the possibilities when we communicate about issues singularly obvious solution. For many routine tasks, the best
with larger strategic interests. solutions are known well in advance.
Getting the message across, avoiding communication break- Conformity, by contrast, has the stigma of the old, the
downs, and being “clear” are “good terms” in most people’s traditional, and the boring. But it’s conformity that permits
minds. Even a best selling self-help book admonishes us that society, organizations, and culture, to exist at all. Conformity is
we “just don’t understand,” as if this is one of the worst sins highly efficient because people don’t have to expend mental and
of human relations. Yet, as humans, we thrive on ambiguity and behavioral energy figuring out what you’re going to do. You do
strategic misunderstanding. We often use ambiguity to cope what everyone else does in this situation, and things work.
with predicaments, difficult situations, and conflict situations. A Certainly, conformity is probably dysfunctional in the extreme,
team member who just gave a fairly bad but somewhat as no source of growth and evolution will exist, but it hardly
inconsequential presentation, may ask “How did I do?” How seems as dark as it’s often depicted.
do you respond? You may say something like: “Probably better The Myth of Assertiveness
than I would have done,” or “I’ve never seen a presentation like For the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, many therapists and
it.” Such messages may not satisfy the other person, but they experiential group facilitators got wealthy hyping the key to
assist you in managing a difficult situation and preserving the interpersonal effectiveness: assertiveness training. We were all
peace of work relations. wimps, and assertiveness skills were going to make us power-
Leaders often must rely on equivocal and ambiguous messages ful, successful, and charismatic. A funny thing happened on the
if they are to bring diverse groups together. People find it way to this self-actualization. Research found that when you
difficult to agree on much of anything specific, but almost observed someone else being assertive, that person appeared to
everyone can agree on the values of freedom, prosperity, and so be competent. However, recipients of assertive behavior tend to
forth. People agree to these things in their leaders, without see it as effective, but also rather inappropriate and unlikable. So
having any real idea of what these ideas mean in terms of thousands of us were being trained “how to lose friends and
policy. Through the use of such equivocal symbols, people influence people.”
come together and make progress toward goals, even if they Appropriate, even passive, behavior, has its place in social and
don’t all have the same image of those goals. task interaction, as it serves to balance power disparities and
After Completing This Lesson You Will Nouns that end in a consonant followed by a y are made plural
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
• Brush up your basic grammar by dropping the y and adding ies.
• Study more about nouns, pronouns, gerunds and infinitives, verbs and Example: one country, two countries
adverbs Nouns that end in a vowel followed by a y are made plural by
• Learn to make subjects and verbs agree. adding s.
• Brush up your understanding in phrases and clauses. Example: one toy, two toys
Students, this lesson will make you go back to your primary Nouns that end in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves.
classes where you were taught about basic grammar. It is
Example: one leaf, two leaves
important to ensure that your language in all business commu-
nication is grammatically correct. Therefore let’s start by the Certain irregular nouns have special plural forms.
basics:
Examples: one foot, two feet
Nouns
a mouse, many mice
What is a noun?
A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. Every sentence must To find the plural form of a noun that you are unsure of, check
have a noun as its subject the Gage Canadian Dictionary.
Examples: One week, two weeks NOTE: Many people find the construction “his or her”
wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your
a house, many houses
antecedent so that you can use “they” as your pronoun, it
One box, two boxes
may be wise to do
gender clear, then it is permissible to use just “his” or “her” (Would you say, “he gave the flowers to I”?)
rather than “his or her.” See our handout on Non-sexist NOT: Us men like the coach.
Language for more information. (Would you say, “us like the coach”?)
2. Agree in Person 2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:
If you are writing in the “first person” ( I), don’t confuse He is taller than I (am tall).
your reader by switching to the “second person” ( you) or
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
“third person” (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are
using the “second person,” don’t switch to “first” or She is as noisy as I (am).
“third.” Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above.
her homework ready. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose
the correct case for the pronoun.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your
homework ready.) NOT: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, “than me am tall”?)
3. Refer Clearly To A Specific Noun.
3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Don’t be vague or ambiguous.
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not FORMAL: It is I.
damaged. (Is “it” the motorcycle or the tree?) INFORMAL: It is me.
NOT: I don’t think they should show violence on TV. (Who Use whom in the objective case.
are “they”?) FORMAL: To whom am I talking?
NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, INFORMAL: Who am I talking to?
the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
Verbals: Gerunds, Participles, and
NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This Infinitives
may be his life’s work. (What word does “this” refer to?) There are three types of verbals : gerunds, participles, and
NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer infinitives.
to it. (What does “it” refer to, the sheet or your notebook?) Gerunds and participles are also compared and contrasted in a
Pronoun Case separate section of this handout because they can both end in -
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three ing but have different functions in a sentence. Finally, since they
cases. can both function as nouns in a sentence despite their different
forms, gerunds and infinitives are compared and contrasted in
1. Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
the last section below.
2. Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or
prepositions. Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
3. Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds
of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a
Pronouns that state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it
Pronouns as Pronouns as
show occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily
SUBJECTS OBJECTS
POSSESSION would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement,
I me my (mine) and object of preposition.
You you your (yours) Gerund as subject:
he, she, it him, her, it his, her (hers), it (its) • Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
We us our (ours) • The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new
They them their (theirs) experiences.
Who whom whose Gerund as direct object:
• They do not appreciate my singing.
The pronouns THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE, and WHICH • They do not appreciate my assistance.
do not change form.
Gerund as subject complement:
Some problems of case:
• My cat’s favorite activity is sleeping.
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a
• My cat’s favorite food is salmon.
noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment.
Then you can see which case you want. Gerund as object of preposition:
NOT: Bob and me travel a good deal. • The police arrested him for speeding.
(Would you say, “me travel”?)
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund 5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s)
Participles
that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund,
often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a
such as :
participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
The gerund phrase functions as the and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However,
subject of the sentence. since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or
Finding a needle in
Finding (gerund) pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles
a haystack would be
a needle (direct object of action and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past
easier than what
expressed in gerund) participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked,
we're trying to do.
in a haystack (prepositional phrase eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
as adverb)
• The crying baby had a wet diaper.
The gerund phrase functions as the
• Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective • The burning log fell off the fire.
I hope that you
form, modifying the gerund) • Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
appreciate my
offering (gerund)
offering you this A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a
you (indirect object of action
opportunity. participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun
expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s),
action expressed in gerund) or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the
participle, such as:
The gerund phrase functions as the
Newt's favorite subject complement.
tactic has been lying lying to (gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the
to his constituents. his constituents (direct object of subject of the sentence.
Finding a needle in
action expressed in gerund) Finding (gerund)
a haystack would be
a needle (direct object of action
The gerund phrase functions as the easier than what
expressed in gerund)
object of the preposition for. we're trying to do.
You might get in in a haystack (prepositional phrase
faking (gerund) as adverb)
trouble for faking
an illness (direct object of action
an illness to avoid The gerund phrase functions as the
expressed in gerund)
work. direct object of the verb appreciate.
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as
adverb) my (possessive pronoun adjective
I hope that you
form, modifying the gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the appreciate my
offering (gerund)
subject of the sentence. offering you this
Being the boss you (indirect object of action
Being (gerund) opportunity.
made Jeff feel expressed in gerund)
the boss (subject complement for this opportunity (direct object of
uneasy.
Jeff, via state of being expressed in action expressed in gerund)
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the
Punctuation Newt's favorite subject complement.
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it. tactic has been lying lying to (gerund)
to his constituents. his constituents (direct object of
Points to Remember
action expressed in gerund)
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
The gerund phrase functions as the
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object of the preposition for.
object(s), and/or complement(s). You might get in
faking (gerund)
trouble for faking
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require an illness (direct object of action
an illness to avoid
punctuation. expressed in gerund)
work.
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as
Exercise on Gerunds adverb)
Underline the gerunds or gerund phrases in the following
sentences and label how they function in the sentence (subject, The gerund phrase functions as the
direct object, subject complement, object of preposition). subject of the sentence.
Being the boss
Being (gerund)
1. Swimming keeps me in shape. made Jeff feel
the boss (subject complement for
uneasy.
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun. Jeff, via state of being expressed in
3. Telling your father was a mistake. gerund)
must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following
the noun must be clearly stated. sentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
• Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. * 1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.
• Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step. 2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what hadn’t worked hard enough in high school.
is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. 3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association
Certainly foot can’t be logically understood to function in this revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offer
way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error remedial English classes emphasizing composition.
since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
specific noun in the sentence and is thus left “dangling.” Since a
person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make 5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.
sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the Infinitives
place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb
sentence. (in its simplest “stem” form) and functioning as a noun,
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive,
comma should be placed after the phrase. like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and
• Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the
infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject
• Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore
complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an
muscles.
infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form,
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be
sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the informa- confusing.
tion is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
• To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.
• Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep. (subject)
• The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt. • Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of • His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
the sentence, no commas should be used: • He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
• The student earning the highest grade point average will
• We must study to learn. (adverb)
receive a special award.
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of to
• The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
plus a verb—with a prepositional phrase beginning with to,
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.
usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to
sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it catch, to belong
modifies.
Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house,
• The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the
to the mountains, to us, to this address
streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.) An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an
infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun
• ·Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.) object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in
Points to Remember the infinitive, such as:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d,
-t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a
noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s),
object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to
the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those
nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes
at the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a
nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence
and is separated from the word it modifies.
Examples
He reminded me to buy milk.
Their fathers advise them to study.
She forced the defendant to admit the truth.
In all of these examples an actor is required after the italicized
main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.
Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive Verbs that use either pattern
phrase could be roughly characterized as the “subject” of the
action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat ask expect (would) like want
misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive
phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also Examples
notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the I asked to see the records.
objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, I asked him to show me the records.
when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the Trent expected his group to win.
infinitive phrase; others can’t have an actor. Still other verbs can In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an
go either way, as the charts below illustrate. infinitive object with or without an actor.
Exercise on Infinitives
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the
Verbs That Take Infinitive Objects
sentence, adding any punctuation as needed.
Without Actors
1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
agree begin Continue decide 3. We want to see the play.
fail hesitate Hope intend 4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.
learn neglect Offer plan
Forget and Remember
prefer pretend Promise refuse These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a
gerund or infinitive is used as the object.
remember start Try Examples
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Examples Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn’t
remember now.)
Most students plan to study. Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
We began to learn. Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn’t remem-
They offered to pay. ber sometime later.)
They neglected to pay. Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
She promised to return. 1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more
nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
In all of these examples no actor can come between the
italicized main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object
phrase.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are
connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
LESSON 7:
PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTION AND PUNCTUATION
By the end of this lesson you will learn more about : Introduction
• Prepositions 1. The basic preposition of a direction is “to.”
• Conjunction
TO : signifies orientation toward a goal
• Punctuation
When the goal is physical, such as a destination, “to” implies
movement in the direction of the goal.
Students this lesson is a continuation of lesson 6 and will help
you recall and brush up your understanding about preposi-
tions, conjunctions and punctuation. (1) Sa'id returned to his
Prepositions apartment.
below on by
over by from
2. The other two prepositions of direction are compounds
under before into formed by adding “to” to the corresponding prepositions of
location.
among from on
The preposition of location determines the meaning of the
between since onto preposition of direction.
beside for off
next to until
with after
IN + TO = into:
in the middle of signifies movement toward
the interior of a volume
on
in
at
(“To” is part of the directional preposition toward, and the two
mean about the same thing.)
3. With many verbs of motion, “on” and “in” have a
Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In directional meaning and can be used along with “onto” and
(to) “into”.
Prepositions that express movement toward something: to,
(See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.) This is
onto, and into. First, the prepositions will be introduced as a
why “to” is inside parentheses in the title of the handout,
group. Then, the special uses of each one will be discussed.
showing that it is somewhat optional with the compound
To, into, and onto correspond respectively to the prepositions
of location at, in, and on.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
synonymous:
• Verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate,
appeal (in the sense of ‘plead,’ not ‘be attractive’)
• Werbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/
ride/drive/ fly, travel
(4) Anil jumped in/into Except for transfer, all the verbs in (2b) can take toward as well
the pool. as to. However, “to” suggests movement toward a specific
destination, while “toward” suggests movement in a general
direction, without necessarily arriving at a destination:
(5) Reena fell on/onto (13) Drive toward the city limits and
the floor. turn n orth.
(Drive in the direction of the city limits; turnoff
may be before arriving there.)
Completion of Position of
an Action Subject
Neeta
(8) Neeta dived
is in the
in(to) the water.
water.
Uses of “to”
To occurs with several classes of verbs.
1. verb + to + infinitive (18) Athena climbed on(to) the
back of the truck.
Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or
obligation.
• Willingness: be willing, consent, refuse
• Desire: desire, want, wish, like, ask, request, prefer
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject
• Intention: intend, plan, prepare causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain
• Obligation: be obligated, have, need place (compare #15-17 above).
Examples: Of these verbs, some take only “on”. Others take both on and
(9) I refuse to allow you to intimidate me with your threats. onto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers.
(10) I’d like to ask her how long she’s been skiing. (19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway)
(11) I plan to graduate this summer. (20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto
(12) Henry had to pay his tuition at the Bursar’s office. the tree)
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table)
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck. simple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important
and general rule:
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house.
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound
(25) The baby threw the pot on(to) the floor.
prepositions cannot.
Verbs taking only “on” are rare: set may be another one, and so
Note also that in (27), the word “on” has its ordinary meaning
perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise,
of a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical
scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.
rather than horizontal— the side of a building. The use of
(26) The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground. “onto” in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above.
(27) We’re adding on a wing at the back of the building. 3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which
(28) We’re adding a porch onto the house. are formally like “add on” but have the meaning “of
In (27), on is really part of the verb, while in (28) onto is a continuing or resuming an action” when used in the
simple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important imperative mood.
and general rule: (Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound hang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with
prepositions cannot. on. The meanings of these combinations, some of which are
idiomatic, are given in parentheses.
Note also that in (27), the word “on” has its ordinary meaning
of a position on a surface, but in this case the surface is vertical • Hang on(to the rope)! (‘continue to grasp tightly’)
rather than horizontal— the side of a building. The use of • Carry on (‘resume what you were doing’)
“onto” in (28) is like its use in (24) and (25) above. • Sail on (‘resume or continue sailing’)
3. There are a number of verb-preposition combinations which • Dream on (‘continue dreaming’; a humorous way of saying
are formally like “add on” but have the meaning “of ‘that is an unattainable goal’)
continuing or resuming an action” when used in the
• Lead on (‘resume or continue leading us’)
imperative mood.
• Rock on (‘continue playing rock music’)
(Not all of them have the force of a command.) Except for
hang, which takes both on and onto, they all occur only with Uses of “into”
on. The meanings of these combinations, some of which are 1. With verbs of motion, “into” and “in” are interchangeable
idiomatic, are given in parentheses. except when the preposition is the last word or occurs
• Hang on(to the rope)! (‘continue to grasp tightly’) directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency.
• carry on (‘resume what you were doing’) In this case only in (or inside) can be used.
• sail on (‘resume or continue sailing’) (29) The patient went into the doctor’s office.
• dream on (‘continue dreaming’; a humorous way of saying (30) The patient went in. (not into)
‘that is an unattainable goal’) (31) Our new neighbors moved into the house next door
2. Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject yesterday. (‘to take up residence in a new home’)
causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain (32) Our new neighbors moved in yesterday.
place (compare #15-17 above). In (32), the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the
Of these verbs, some take only “on”. Others take both on and object of the preposition in (32) can be omitted. Of course, in
onto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers. an information question, “into” also can be last word except for
(19) The plane landed on the runway. (not onto the runway) an adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh- word:
(20) Sam hung the decoration on the Christmas tree. (not onto (34) Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
the tree) (35) Now what sort of trouble is she in?
(21) He placed the package on the table. (not onto the table) 2. Verbs expressing stationary position take only “on” or “in”
(22) Joanna spilled her Coke on the rug. (not onto the rug) with the ordinary meanings of those prepositions.
(23) Samir moved the chair on(to) the deck. If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted,
(24) The crane lowered the roof on(to) the house. the construction may have an idiomatic meaning.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Prepositions expressing spatial relations are of two kinds:
prepositions of location and prepositions of direction. Both
kinds may be either positive or negative. Prepositions of
location appear with verbs describing states or conditions,
especially be; prepositions of direction appear with verbs of
motion. It deals with positive prepositions of location that
(36) The cat sat on the mat. sometimes cause difficulty: at, on, and in.
Dimensions and Prepositions
Prepositions differ according to the number of dimensions
they refer to. We can group them into three classes using
concepts from geometry: point, surface, and area or volume.
• Point
(37) The doctor is in his Prepositions in this group indicate that the noun that follows
office. them is treated as a point in relation to which another object is
positioned.
• Surface
Prepositions in this group indicate that the position of an
object is defined with respect to a surface on which it rests.
• Area/Volume
Prepositions in this group indicate that an object lies within the
(38) The doctor is in. boundaries of an area or within the confines of a volume.
('available for consultation')
Notice that although in geometry surface and area go together
because both are two-dimensional, in grammar area and
volume go together because the same prepositions are used for
both.
In light of these descriptions, at, on, and in can be classified as
follows:
3) The house is i n
Tippecanoe county. Three players are practicin g
on the field. (surface)
4) There are five
rooms in the house,
which has a lovely
fireplace in the living Three cows are grazing in
room.
the field. (area)
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
3. Several common uses of in and on occur with street. The first In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years,
two follow the general pattern of in and on usage. The third with seasons:
is an idiom that must be learned as a unit. He likes to read in the afternoon.
The days are long in August.
The book was published in 1999.
a) The children are The flowers will bloom in spring.
playing in the street. Extended Time
To express extended time, English uses the following preposi-
tions: since, for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in
• She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has
b) Our house is on not returned.)
Third Street.
• I’m going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks
there.)
•
• An oak tree grows next to my house Use a colon
• The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
in the following situations: for example:
• I found my pen lying among the books.
after a complete statement in The daily newspaper contains
• The bathroom is opposite that room.
order to introduce one or more four sections: news, sports,
To Introduce Objects of Verbs directly related ideas, such as a entertainment, and classified
English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of series of directions, a list, or a ads.
quotation or other comment The strategies of corporatist
the following verbs. illustrating or explaining the industrial unionism have
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare statement. proven ineffective:
compromises and concessions
• She took a quick glance at her reflection. have left labor in a weakened
(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.) position in the new "flexible"
• You didn’t laugh at his joke. economy.
• I’m looking at the computer monitor. in a business letter greeting. Dear Ms. Winstead:
• We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
between the hour and minutes in 5:30 p.m.
• That pretty girl smiled at you. time notation.
• Stop staring at me. between chapter and verse in Genesis 1:18
biblical references.
Of : Approve, Consist, Smell
• I don’t approve of his speech.
Parentheses ()
• My contribution to the article consists of many pages. Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra,
• He came home smelling of alcohol. nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates,
Of (or about) : Dream, Think sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of
the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always
• I dream of finishing college in four years.
appear in pairs.
• Can you think of a number between one and ten?
Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was
• I am thinking about this problem. a relic of frontier days) caught fire.
For : Call, Hope, Look, Wait, Watch, Wish Dash
• Did someone call for a taxi? Use a dash (represented on a typewriter, a computer with no
• He hopes for a raise in salary next year. dashes in the type font, or in a handwritten document by a pair
of hyphens with no spaces) . . .
• I’m looking for my keys.
• We’ll wait for her here.
• You go buy the tickets and I’ll watch for the train. in the following
for example:
• If you wish for an “A” in this class, you must work hard. situations:
Brief Overview of Punctuation: to emphasize a point or To some of you, my
to set off an explanatory proposals may seem radical-
Semicolon, Colon, Parenthesis, Dash,
comment; but don't -even revolutionary.
Quotation Marks and Italics overuse dashes, or they In terms of public
Punctuation marks are signals to your readers. In speaking, we will lose their impact. legitimation--that is, in
can pause, stop, or change our tone of voice. In writing, we use terms of garnering support
the following marks of punctuation to emphasize and clarify from state legislators,
what we mean. Punctuation marks discussed in other OWL parents, donors, and
documents include commas, apostrophes, quotation marks, university administrators--
and hyphens. English departments are
primarily places where
Semicolon
advanced literacy is taught.
In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent
clauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to for an appositive phrase The boys--Jim, John, and
separate items in a series if the elements of the series already that already includes Jeff--left the party early.
commas.
include commas.
Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony
Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.
As you can see, dashes function in some ways like parentheses
(used in pairs to set off a comment within a larger sentence)
and in some ways like colons (used to introduce material
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
ment). But comments set off with a pair of dashes appear less 2. To show the omission of letters
subordinate to the main sentence than do comments in
3. To indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.
parentheses. And material introduced after a single dash may be
more emphatic and may serve a greater variety of rhetorical Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for
purposes than material introduced with a colon. noun plurals, including acronyms.
Upon completion of this lesson, you will be able to use the accepted standard of English grammar ad punctuation in written business communication. To
reach this you should be able to:
• Punctuate message correctly. ·• Write complete grammatically correct sentence .
7. Trent arrived _____ the school building just in time. insects chirpings and whistlings.
8. The rancher built a fence to keep his cows _____ the 17. Theyre not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though the
pasture. choice is not theirs.
9. Kevin and Mack are out practicing _____ the football field. 18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his two
weeks vacation in the mountains.
10. From afar, Heathcliff could see a light _____ the window.
19. I found myself constantly putting two cs in the word
11. The old house had so much grime _____ the windows
process.
that Bradley could hardly see inside.
20. Johns 69 Ford is his proudest possession.
12. The shepherd boy grazed his flock _____ the grassy
hillside. Sentence Fragment Exercises—#1
13. The audience threw tomatoes _____ the terrible comedian. The sentences below appeared in papers written by students.
Act as their editor, marking a C if the sentences in the group are
14. Wrestling isn’t real; those guys _____ the ring are just
all complete and an F if any of the sentences in the group is a
pretending.
fragment. Could you tell these writers why the fragments are
15. David works _____ the field of network administration, incomplete sentences?
while Marty works _____ web design.
____ 1. Then I attended Morris Junior High. A junior high
16. The car stalled and got stuck _____ the street. that was a bad experience.
17. Audrey lives _____ Third Street. ____ 2. The scene was filled with beauty. Such as the sun
18. If William doesn’t make any money on his book, he’ll be sending its brilliant rays to the earth and the leaves of various
out _____ the street. shades of red, yellow, and brown moving slowly in the wind.
19. I’ll use my cellular phone when I’m _____ the bus, but ____ 3. He talked for fifty minutes without taking his eyes off
never while I’m _____ the car. his notes. Like other teachers in that department, he did not
20. Passengers are not allowed to use electronic devices _____ encourage students’ questions.
airplanes during takeoff and landing. ____ 4. Within each group, a wide range of features to choose
from. It was difficult to distinguish between them.
Apostrophes: Exercise
Punctuate the following sentences with apostrophes according ____ 5. A few of the less serious fellows would go into a bar
to the rules for using the apostrophe. for a steak dinner and a few glasses of beer. After this meal, they
were ready for anything.
1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year?
____ 6. It can be really embarrassing to be so emotional.
2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps
Especially when you are on your first date, you feel that you
jaws.
should be in control.
3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to
fall apart. ____ 7. The magazine has a reputation for a sophisticated,
prestigious, and elite group of readers. Although that is a value
4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again. judgment and in circumstances not a true premise.
5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow? ____ 8. In the seventh grade every young boy goes out for
6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I football. To prove to himself and his parents that he is a man.
remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wicked ____ 9. She opened the door and let us into her home. Not
stepmother. realizing at the time that we would never enter that door in her
7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smiths home again.
children looked so disappointed that we found another ____10. As Christmas grows near, I find myself looking back
spot. into my childhood days at fun-filled times of snowball fights.
8. Its important that the kitten learns to find its way home. To think about this makes me happy.
9. She did not hear her childrens cries. ____11. Making up his mind quickly. Jim ordered two dozen
10. My address has three 7s, and Tims phone number has four red roses for his wife. Hoping she would accept his apology.
2s. ____12. They were all having a good time. Until one of Joe’s
11. Didnt he say when he would arrive at Arnies house? oldest and best friends had a little too much to drink.
12. Its such a beautiful day that Ive decided to take a sun bath. ____13. Although it only attained a speed of about twelve
13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldnt miles an hour. My old rowboat with its three-horsepower
identify the manufacturers name on it. motor seemed like a high-speed job to me.
14. Little girls clothing is on the first floor, and the mens ____14. With my brother standing by my side, I reached for
department is on the second. the pot handle. Tilting the pot way too much caused the boiling
water to spill.
15. The dogs bark was far worse than its bite.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
style. With no difference except the color.
____16. Being a friend of mine like he was when we first
joined the soccer team. Together we learned a lot.
Possessive
Tick on the correct possessive form in the sentences below.
• According the Department of Energy, if we were to set up
an area of solar cells equal to 0.25 the area currently covered
by our roads, these cells could supply our entire (nations /
nation’s / nations’) electrical needs.
• With a rear-facing child seat, the top of the seat and the
(infants / infant’s / infants’) head will be in the deployment
zone of the air bag.
• When you receive my (boss / bosses / boss’s / boss’ /
bosses’) memo requesting your participation, please respond
to her that your job description, as written, will not allow
you to perform that type of work.
This section explains the function of each technique and
describes (its / it’s / its’) advantages and disadvantages.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to of these harmful conditions are crippling your family life and
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
your social and career progress? Do you wonder how you can
• Explain the importance of oral communication
increase the good elements and decrease the bad?
• Outline the steps needed to structure effective oral communication
Well, as stated above, most of life’s successes and problems are
• Barriers to communication founded in the quality of your communication skills. Human
• Understand what Noise is beings are social animals. Our vast civilizations exist and
• Tips for Presentations function only because each of us has learned to control our
behavior in very intricate ways. Still, some of us have a better
Conversation is so basic to human existence that any study of it grasp than others of the complex systems in which we live.
inevitably leads to some of life’s most important rules—rules Those who have the deepest awareness and understanding of
that lead to trouble if ignored. Consider the following list of the core rules are the ones who succeed and prosper. This is a
consequences of poor conversation skills. book of rules, rules many people live and die without ever fully
Ask yourself if any of these basic emotions and conditions is a comprehending.
persistent part of your social and business life: Society’s rules aren’t always obvious. The rules that allow us to
get by and survive are fairly simple (don’t run red lights, don’t
Disrespect Embarrassment make bank robbery a career). But other rules, the ones that
rejection exhaustion confer real success, not mere survival, can sometimes be as
frustration failure difficult to detect as black holes in deep space.
anger fear When your career progress bogs down, when your relationships
being misunderstood humiliation are weak or troubled, when you have a hard time making
being misinterpreted loneliness friends, when you have difficulty making yourself heard, and
depression powerlessness when people take advantage of you, it is because you have an
giving offense weakness imperfect comprehension of those shadowy rules that allow
being insulted being overlooked
you to focus social power to your advantage.
disappointment impatience
No one in our world succeeds strictly on his or her own. True
Good conversation skills, on the other hand, lead to success, accomplishment requires that you efficiently influence those
and success leads to more success. Good verbal abilities usually around you in positive ways. The primary tool of influence is
promote good relations with others, influence, respect, and a communication, and like society itself, communication has rules
reputation for leadership and effectiveness. People with these that few fully understand.
advantages go through life feeling the emotions and talents Introduction
listed below. Communication is a composite of speaking and listening.
Honing skills in both these areas is absolutely essential if the
stimulated empowered communicator wishes to impress the receiver. The initial impact
energized vital is made by speaking abilities of the sender. Equally important is
passionate centered the ability to listen carefully. If the overall effectiveness of these
motivated respected two components is considered. It would e seen that he ability
excited well-liked to listen rather than to speak fluently impress more.
challenged included The two activities viz, speaking and listening, cannot be
determined focused
segregated. Both are closely intertwined an overall impact is
flexible fortunate
created if both these skills are used effectively. Let us use the
contributing rewarded
effective in control word ‘ IMPRESS’ as an acronym to understand the basic
comfortable satisfied features of communication or concept, which, if once under-
confident lucky stood, would define helps us to impress the other person.
resourceful I – Idea
The first step in the process of communication is to decide on
the idea which needs to be communicated. There may be a host
We all feel the above emotions and conditions, good and bad, of ideas passing through the mind of the sender. Depending
from time to time. But do you have the feeling that the negative upon the situation and the receiver, the speaker selects the idea
factors occur too persistently in your life? Do you feel that some suited to the occasion.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Once the idea has been selected, it needs to be clothed in a Sympathy is placing the sender on a higher pedestal and viewing
language that is comprehensible to the receiver. The encoding the other in a sympathetic light.
of the message has to be done keeping a number of factors
inmind. What is it that needs to be stated? What is the language
that is going to be understood y the receiver? Does the idea
necessarily pertain to the interest of the receiver? What is it that
the receiver actually needs to know? Framing of the message , if
done(keeping answers to these question in mind), would
definitely make an impact on the receiver.
P - Pause/ Paragraphs
The significance of pauses cannot be underestimated. Pauses
should be juxtaposed at just the right minute so that the
receiver can assimilate the impact of the message. The use of
pauses would be best understood in the context of a presenta-
tion. The presenter should, at the time of making a
presentation, use this device suitably. Excessive usage of this
device can lead the presentation into being one that is pretty Empathy
boring and monotonous. The right use of pauses actually
stimulates the audience. The impact is often so great and
forceful that the receiver actually leans forward in their chairs
when the presenter pauses, as if urging him to resume the
presentation. This device, in the course of the interaction, lasts S - Sender
for barely a few seconds. However, the impact is long and The communication process hinges on the sender. He initiates
meaningful. In written communication pauses get translated the interaction and comes up with ideas and concepts that he
into paragraphs. If the decision to use a certain number of wishes to share with the receiver. His role is the most crucial.
paragraphs is right and the division of points in these para- The success or failure of interaction depends on him and on the
graphs is also correct, then written communication becomes strategies he adopts to get his message across by securing the
meaningful and creates a positive impression. attention of the receiver. A cautious sender would understand
that there is a difference between the mental frames of the
R - Receiver. participants. Such a difference could be a result of discrepancy in
The receiver is the most important person in the process of
interpretation of words, perception of reality, and attitudes,
communication who could, if he so desires, also prove to be
opinions and emotions. Message, if formulated, with aware-
the most difficult. He is the one who is generally led into the
ness along these areas, is sure to bring success to the sender.
interaction. In order to draw his attention, it is imperative that
there be an extra plus that would retain his interest and make S - Security Check
him attentive to the ensuing communication. To satisfy this Effective communication necessitates that the receiver listens
criterion the sender should address himself to the needs and carefully to the utterances of the sender so that the end results
expectations of the receiver. Formulating the statements are positive. The primary rule is: never be in -a rush to commence
according to a mutually accepted goal is a good way of proceed- communication. Sufficient time and effort should be put in
ing and drawing his attention. formulating the message. Suppose the sender wishes to
communicate five points. The sequencing and necessary
E - Empathy substantiation of points with facts and figures should be done
In communication empathy should be used to help us
prior to the actual beginning of the communication process.
understand the other individual, the strategies that. he adopts
This would build confidence in the message and eliminate
and the responses that he gives at a particular moment. It
possibility of errors in the statements.
would be worthwhile to note that all communication is
situation bound. The same individual in two different situa- To sum up, the sender, in order to impress the receiver should,
tions might use the same words but his intention might be at the start, have an idea encoded in the form of a message. At
totally different. Gauging the exact meaning of an utterance can the time of encoding, the sender does a thorough security check
only”be done when we literally put ourselves in the shoes of to ascertain that all points have been dealt with in a desired
the other person and try to understand the situation from the order. The message is then transmitted to the receiver with the
perspective of the sender. required voice articulations and pauses so as to heighten the
Each individual, as a sender has, what we refer to as, a ‘logic impact. Finally, the response of the receiver should be viewed
bubble’ that enables him to formulate his message in a empathetic ally. Once all these factors have been understood, it
particular fashion. The same holds true for the receiver or the proves easy to prevail upon the receiver.
listener. The greater the empathy between them, the higher the There could, however, be moments when, in spite of efforts
level of understanding and more the receptivity to messages being made to make the interaction informative and meaning-
ful, all communication links fall apart and the process ends in a
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
High and big sounding words definitely look and sound
impressive. But if the receiver is not able to comprehend the
impact of these words, or if they sound ‘Greek’ or ‘Latin’ to Participant Barrier Causative Remedies
factors
him, the entire exercise proves futile. This problem could Sender/Encoder/ 1. Loss in Badly expressed Think prior to
arise in the interpretation of the words or overall meaning Speaker Impact message speaking
of the message It is also related to the understanding of the 2. Ineffective Loss in Remove
grasp of physical
intention behind a particular statement. For the receiver, e.g., message
transmiSSion
noise
the sanctity associated with the word “white” might be 3. Semantic Use simple
violated when the receiver uses it in a careless fashion. Misunderstood problem language
statements
The idiosyncrasies of the receiver should be well understood Make the
by the sender if he does not wish these barriers to crop up at 4. Groping for
Over/Under
quantum
the right of
the time of communication. The look on the face of the message
communication
communication
listener should be sufficient to warn the sender that he has just right
overstepped his limits or he has been misunderstood. 5. Lack of
Minimise usage
collaborative "I-attitude"
4. Over/ Under Communication of "I"
effort
The quantum of communication should be just right. Formulate
6. Biased messages
Neither should there be excess information nor should it be Prejudices
communication with an open
too scanty. Excess information may confuse the receiver as he mind
has to figure out the exact import of the message, and scanty
information would make him grope for the actual intent of
the message .The sender should ,as far as possible try to get Rules for Overcoming Sender - Oriented
the profile of the receiver so that at the time of Barriers.
communication he knows how much material is needed and These barriers are not insurmountable. Care and constant
how much can be done away with. Suppose he starts with practice on the part of the sender can remove these barriers.
some information that the receiver already possesses, the Some of the rules for overcoming sender-oriented barriers are
latter might lose interestas it is merely repetition of what he as follows:
already knows . So b the time he arrives at the core of he 1. Plan and clarify ideas.
matter , he had already lost the attention of the receiver. Ideas should be carefully formulated/thought out before
5. ‘I’ -Attitude. beginning any kind of communication. This can be done by
Imagine a piece of communication that begins and ends following few steps. Primary among them is to test thinking
with the pronoun “I”. How tedious it is going to be for the by communicating with peers and colleagues. It is said that
listener to sit through the entire piece of interaction. If the two minds are always better than one. Ideas, when discussed
sender starts every sentence with “I”, it gradually leads to aloud with another person, necessarily take on a shape and
what is referred to as the I-syndrome. He would not be form. Errors of logic, if any, get sorted out. In this process
receptive to changes, if suggested by the receiver; as such, the concepts of others can also be collated and incorporated
changes would go against his personal formulation of to make the communication richer and more fruitful. As
certain views. these steps require preplanning and extra time, the sender
should be highly motivated. Unless he is sufficiently
6. Prejudices.
motivated, he will not spend extra hours in planning the
Starting any piece of communication with a bias or know-it- message and clarifying it by facilitating discussions with other
all attitude can prove to be quite detrimental to the growth members in the organization.
of communication process. Though it is easier said than
2. Create a climate of trust and confidence.
done, still, when communication commences, all sorts of
prejudices should be done away with, and the mind should In order to win the trust and confidence of the receiver, the
be free of bias. This would enable the sender to formulate sender has to put in extra effort through which he is able to
his message, Mind, free of keeping only the receiver and his win the trust and confidence of the recipient. This is what we
needs in mind. Thoughts like “Last time he said this...” or normally refer to as establishing sender credibility. If the
“Last time he did this...” or “He belongs to this group...” receiver is convinced that the sender has his best interests at
can totally warp the formulation of the message. This barrier heart, he would be willing to pay attention to all that is being
can also be extended to the receiver. If the respondent starts said and try to grasp the import of the message in the
with prejudices in mind, he too would be unable to listen to manner in which it is intended.
the intent of the message. His understanding of the 3. Time your message carefully.
message is going to be warped. The messages are going to be Different occasions and different hours necessitate a change
understood in relation to the prejudices that a receiver in the encoding of the message. The sender has to be careful
harbors against the sender. of the time and the place he makes his statements. As all
communication is situation bound, a statement made at an
undesired response. The most prudent step is to measure simultaneously with listening. The minute sender opens his
the import of the message in relation to the situation and mouth, if the listener starts mentally pronouncing
then impart it. judgments concerning his style or content, he has actually
4. Reinforce words with action. missed out on a major part of what has been said. His
responses naturally are then going to be incorrect or expose
Whatever statements are made should be reinforced by
his misunderstanding.
action on the part of the sender. The receiver should not feel
that there are two codes at play, one for transmittal and the 4. Interests and attitudes.
other for action. If there is harmony between the two, the “I am not interested in what you are saying” or “My interest
decoder is mentally at peace, for his grasp is more accurate lies in other areas”. Starting any piece of communication
and thorough. with this kind of indifference can thwart any attempts at
5. Communicate efficiently. communication. Fixed notions of this kind should be
dispensed with. It is not possible to be interested in all that
The sender can only ascertain whether communication has
is being said. But to start any communication with this
been effective when he confirms with feedback. The receiver
notion is hazardous.
on his part is also wary as he knows that he would be
requested for feedback. Soliciting and receiving feedback is the 5. Conflicting information.
simplest and the surest way of removing any barriers that Dichotomy in the information that the receiver possesses
might crop up in the course of communication as a result of and that which is being transmitted can create confusion and
either over communication or a semantic problem. result in miscommunication. Conflict between the existing
Once all barriers to communication have been overcome, information and fresh one results in elimination of the latter
communication, it is said has been meaningful and unless and until the receiver is cautious and verifies with the
purposeful. sender the reliability and validity of the message. The sender
should convince the receiver that whatever is now being said
Receiver-Oriented Barriers is correct and relevant to further proceedings.
Receiver can also have some barriers in the course of the
6. Differing status and position.
interaction. Although his role in the initial phase is passive, he
becomes active when he starts assimilating and absorbing the Position in the organizational hierarchy is no criterion to
information. He is equally to blame if the situation goes awry determine the strength of ideas and issues. Rejecting the
and communication comes to a stop, or there is miscommuni- proposal of a subordinate or harboring a misconception that
cation. Some of the barriers emanating from the side of the a junior cannot come up
receiver are as follows: with a “eureka” concept is not right. In fact, many companies
1. Poor retention. have started encouraging youngsters to come up with ideas/
solutions to a particular problem. These ideas are then
Retention is extremely important during interaction. If the
discussed among the senior managers and their validity is
receiver has poor retention capability, he would probably get
ascertained keeping the workings and the constraints of the
lost in the course of the proceedings. There would be
company in mind. The basic purpose of this upward
no connection between what was said initially and what is
traversing of ideas is that fresh and innovative minds can
being said now. He might counter statements instead of
come up with unique solutions. If an individual has been
seeking clarifications that might lead to clamping on the part
working in a particular company for some years, it is natural
of the sender. If the decoder feels that his retention
that his mind gets conditioned in a particular manner.
capacities are not good, a judicious strategy for him would be
Challenging newcomers to innovate,as a part of company
to jot down points. It does not portray him in a poor light.
policy takes care of ego problems that may arise if this is not
On the contrary, it shows how conscientious he is to get the
a accepted norm.
message right.
7. Resistance to change.
2. Inattentive listening.
The mind has its own way of functioning. It is very difficult Fixed ideas, coupled with an unwillingness to change or
to exercise control over ones mind. Listening is more of an discuss, hampers listening and results in miscommunication.
exercise in controlling the mind and exercising it to assimilate Novae concepts that require discussion before they can really
messages. The errors in listening arise primarily because the materialize, if rebuked, fall flat. The onus lies directly on the
receiver is either not interested in what is being said, or has receiver who is unreceptive and unwilling to change. People
other things to concentrate on. The art of listening is an with dogmatic opinions and views prove to be very poor
exercise in concentration. communicators and erect maximum number of barriers.
Being judgmental and evaluative are both the starting points Refutations and arguments are negative in nature. Trying to
for miscommunication. Remember, one mind cannot communicate with the sender on the premise that
perform two activities at the same time. If it is evaluating, refutations and arguments can yield fruitful results would
listening cannot take place. Evaluation should always be a prove to be futile.Communication is a process in which the
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
minute refutations or discussions arguments begin, there is a tion throughout the organization, posing questions or
shift in balance between the two participants, after which the suggesting new product ideas to any individual, regardless of
receiver moves to a conceived higher position and the sender their location or status.
remains at the same level. In case there are some Increased competition has forced us to look for ways to do
contradictions that need to be resolved, discussion is the everything exponentially better, faster and at less cost. It’s caused
right way to approach. Listening to the views of the other, us to challenge all the rules, processes, policies, programs and
trying to understand or at least showing that there has been structures. Self-direction, virtual offices, spiderweb organiza-
understanding, appreciating and, finally, positing own views tional structures and telecommuting has forced many
should be the sequence to be followed. The strategy adopted organizations to adopt more efficient and effective ways of
should not make the sender feel small or slighted. moving information among people who need that it. A new
Exhibit 11.4 Receiver-oriented Barriers partnership has evolved from a recognition that assets such as
capital, raw materials and technology are inert until people do
something with them. Those firms that can get the right people
doing the right things at the right time with precious finite
Participant Barrier Causative Remedies assets will be tomorrow’s winners. Communication in its
factors broadest form is a critical enabler that can engage people and
Receiver! 1. Dichotomy Poor retention Jot down unlock the discretionary effort that’s needed to win. Organiza-
Decoder! in reception points tions that understand these factors and manage
and
comprehension
communications well have adopted or are adopting the
Listener 2. Partial grasp Inattentive Keep the following two best practices.
of topic listening mind open 1. Using a concept commonly called open book
3. Distancing Tendency to Delay leadership, they’re creating businesses of business
from the evaluate evaluation
people where everyone thinks and acts like a business
speaker
4. Lack of Differences in Find an
owner.
interest nterests and area of In these organizations, often considered the model of
attitudes interest communication management, everyone knows how the
enterprise makes money and how to track business
5. Mental Conflicting Check performance. Everyone knows that a large part of the job is
turbulence information reliability to move the numbers in the right direction. The income
and statement, cash flow statement and balance sheet are the
validity primary communication media. Everyone works to manage
6. Superior Differing Listen to these three statements prospectively. (For instance, if a
attitude status/Position ideas variance in material usage is projected on next month’s
Self-experience
income statement, employees who can influence material
7. Mental block Resistance to Be open to
change changes usage work to avoid the variance. This effort may involve
8. Lack of Refutations Enter into frontline employees; it may involve others. Focusing
provision of and arguments healthy communication primarily on frontline people at the
correct discussions exclusion of others could too often circumvent people who
feedback have valuable contributions to improving the organization’s
financial health.
2. They’re seeking faster, more focused ways to get
Article relevant information into the hands of those who can
most influence business performance.
A Strategic Focus on Face-to-face Communication
These businesses understand that some organization
By Jim Shaffer
capabilities or processes drive the business more than others.
Superior communication management should help improve
In a world of finite resources, it’s often strategically efficient
organizational performance. Its job is to focus people on what’s
to focus on these needed-to-win capabilities or success
required to win and build an environment that gives them the
drivers. For instance, if an electric power company were
information needed to improve performance. It should do its
deficient in a needed-to-win capability such as creating
job as effectively and efficiently as possible. Three factors have
strategic partnerships, it should direct its attention at
reinvented the way we must manage communication: technol-
eliminating this deficiency. This may or may not involve
ogy, increased global competition and the emerging partnership
frontline employees but would address a major competitive
between an organization and its members.Technology has
issue.
replaced layers of management that frequently blocked commu-
nication back in the days when the communication process was If a retail store were deficient in a core driver such as increasing
thought to be a hierarchic, cascading, up and down process. in-store traffic, it would want to fucus on this activities that
would increase in-store traffic. This might include merchandis-
• Always use a title slide. Put it up about five • Keep the presentation look simple. You
minutes before your presentation begins. don’t want to distract from the content of
• The presentation should set the tone of the the slide/presentation.
message. • Keep a consistent look from slide to slide.
– If you are sharing good news, your presentation • Create high contrast between the
can use a lot of fun art, audio and video. If you background and the text.
have bad news, stick to the points.
• Consider creating a company specific
background for sales presentations.
• One of the significant advantages of using • Limit your bullet points to three or four
presentation software packages is that you have items.
access to color. Use it wisely and judiciously. • Try to have no more than 24 words on any
– Keep it simple and consistent. one slide.
– Use no more than five colors for charts or graphs. • Be careful when using abbreviations,
– Choose no more than two colors for text. acronyms, and special phases on your
– Be careful with the use of red because the eye will slides. Explain them quickly or you lose
naturally go there first. your audience.
• One of the significant advantages of using • Fonts are like colors, just because you have
presentation software packages is that you have a lot of them to choose from you don’t have
access to color. Use it wisely and to use them all! No more than two or three
judiciously.(cont) per slide.
– Use complimentary colors together. • Be consistent from slide to slide.
– Never use red and green together unless you want • Don’t overdo the use of italics, bolding and
your audience to think of Christmas!
shadows and like e-mail, do NOT use all
caps.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand: Note that in both the cases, the listener has not listened to the
actual message. In the first case, listener has taken the message
1. How important listening is in oral communication
without giving proper attention to understand it, and in the
2. Common faults we make while listening second case, the listener has a blocked mind to listen anything
3. How we can improve our listening skill other than his own notions. Situations like this are disturbingly
4. Different approaches to listening common in business. They show that listening failures can
prove to be very costly. Because of listening mistakes, letters
Students, today, lets learn about the importance and listening . have to be retyped, appointments rescheduled, shipments re-
Do you think you are a good listener? I do hear a loud Yes routed, productivity is affected and profits suffer. Thus poor
from you all!!! At the end of the lesson we have some exercise listening habits can keep an organization from functioning
to evaluate your listening skills. properly.
Industrial firms have recognized the importance of the listening
Introduction skill to manag-ers for some time. Dr. Earl Planty, in his role as
“It’s a pity that Raman didn’t receive the promotion he wanted,
executive counselor at Johnson and Johnson, has said: “By far
but he has one big fault: he doesn’t know how to listen.” This
the most effective method by which executives can tap ideas of
remark was made by a department head in a manufacturing
subordinates is sympathetic listening in the many day-to-day
firm. Listening is a skill, an art necessary for success in life and
informal contacts within and outside the work place. There is
work.
no system that will do the job in an easier manner. Nothing can
Do you know that we devote about 40 to 45 per cent of our equal an executive’s willingness to listen.”
working hours to listening? And do you know that, if you have
The benefits of applied listening skills are impressive. Good
not taken steps to improve this skill, you listen at only 25 per
listeners make a company a more effective organization. They
cent efficiency?
have better rapport with others, they get more out of meetings
For a long time most persons assumed that listening was a and are more effective in conferences, and they are better at
natural trait, but practically, not all people are good listeners. understanding the needs of others.
Evidence indicates that many persons do not know how to
listen - that listening is a skill that must be developed. In
Common Faults of Listening
Research studies shows that our listening efficiency is no better
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Marc Antony realizes that persons
than 25 to 30 per cent. That means the considerable informa-
don’t listen readily, for he begins his famous oration by saying,
tion is lost in the listening process. Why? Some reasons follow-
“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
1. Prejudice against the speaker – At times we have conflict
As you will learn in the following pages, listening effectively is
in our mind as to the speaker. Whatever he speaks seems to
hard work. It involves far more than sitting passively and
be colored and we practically don’t listen what he says.
absorbing others’ words. It occurs far more frequently than
speaking, reading, or writing and is just as demanding and 2. Rehearsing – Your whole attention is on designing and
important. preparing your next comment. You look interested, but
your mind is going a mile a minute because you are
What Listening is thinking about what to say next. Some people rehearse
Johnson defines listening as “the ability to understand and whole chains of responses: I’ll say, then he’ll say, and so on.
respond effec-tively to”Oral communication.”
3. Judging negatively – Labeling people can be extremely
Thus, we can state at the outset that hearing is not listening. limiting. If you prejudge somebody as incompetent or
Listening requires more than hearing; it requires understanding uninformed, you don’t pay much attention to what that
of the communication received. Davis states it this way: person says. A basic rule of listening is that judgments
“Hearing is with the ears, but listening is with the mind.” should only be made after you have heard and evaluated the
Consider the Following Examples content of the message.
“I told him we were meeting this Tuesday, not next Tuesday. 4. Identifying – When using this block, you take everything
Now we have to reschedule the meeting. It will cost us a week’s people tell you and refer it back to your own experience.
time and we will not be able to meet the deadline.” They want to tell you about a toothache, but that reminds
He said he was listening, but he’d obviously made up his mind you of your oral surgery for receding gums. You launch
before I started. He didn’t give me a minute to talk before he into your story before they can finish theirs.
started interrupting.”
have to hear more than a few sentences before you begin message. Effective listening requires sustained concentration
searching for the right advice. However, while you are (regardless of the length of the message), attention to the main
coming up with suggestions and convincing someone to ideas presented, note-taking (if the conditions are appropriate),
just try it, you may miss what is most important. and no emotional blocks to the message by the listener. You
6. Sparring – This block has you arguing and debating with cannot listen passively and expect to retain the message. If you
people who never feel heard because you are so quick to want to be an effective listener, you must give the communica-
disagree. In fact, your main focus is on finding things to tor of the message sufficient attention and make an effort to
disagree with. understand his viewpoint. Here are some practical suggestions
for effective listening, which, if followed, can appreciably
7. Being Right – Being right means you will go to great
increase the effectiveness of this communicative skill.
lengths (twist the facts, start shouting, make excuses or
accusations, call up past sins) to -avoid being wrong. You 1. Realize that listening is hard work – You must appreciate
can’t listen to criticism, you can’t be corrected, and you can’t the art of listening, and make conscious effort to listen
take suggestions to change. others.
8. Derailing – This listening block involves suddenly 2. Prepare to listen – To receive the message clearly, the
changing the subject. You derail the train of conversation receiver must have the correct mental attitude. In your daily
when you get uncomfortable or bored with a topic. Another communications, establish a permissive environment for
way of derailing is by joking. each communicator. .
9. Placating – Right. . . Absolutely. . . I know. . . Of course 3. Have positive attitude – If you have to do it, do it with a
you are. . .Incredible ... Really? You want to be nice, positive attitude.
pleasant, supportive. You want people to like you. So you 4. Resist distractions – Tune out internal and external
agree with everything. distractions by facing and maintaining contact with the
10. Dreaming – When we dream, we pretend to listen but speaker. If you experience some negative environment
really tune the other person out while we drift about in our factors, you can sometimes move to another loca-tion in the
interior fantasies. Instead of disciplining ourselves to truly room. Good listeners adjust quickly to any kind of
concentrate on the input, we turn the channel to a more abnormal.
entertaining subject. 5. Listen to understand, not refute -Respect the viewpoint
11. Thinking speed – Most of us speak between 60 to 180 of those you disagree with. Try to understand the points
words per minute, and people have capacity to think at the they emphasize and why they have such feelings (training,
rate of 500 to 800 words per Minute. The difference leaves background, etc.). Don’t allow your personal biases and
us with the great deal of mental spare time. While it is attitudes to influence your listening to the message.
possible to use this time to explore the speaker’s ideas, we 6. Keep an open mind – A good listener doesn’t feel
most often let our mind wander to other matters - from the threatened or insulted, or need to resist messages that
unfinished business just mentioned to romantic fantasies. contradict his beliefs, attitudes, ideas, or personal values. Try
12. Premature evaluation – It often happens that we to identify and rationalize the words or phrases most
interrupt the speakers before they complete their thought, upsetting to your means.
or finish their sentence, or state their conclusions. Directly as 7. Find an area of interest – Good listeners are interested
a result of our rapid thinking speed, we race ahead of what and attentive. They find ways to make the message relevant
we feel is the conclusion. We anticipate. We arrive at the to themselves and/ or their jobs. Make your listening
concluding thought quickly although often that is quite efficient by asking yourself ‘what is he saying that I can use?
different from what the speaker intended. Does he have any worthwhile ideas? Is he conveying any
13. Semantic stereotypes – As certain kind of people bother workable approaches or solutions? G. K Chesterton once
us, so too do certain words. When these words are repeated said, There is no such-thing as an uninteresting subject;
time and again, they cause annoyance in the mind and there are only uninteresting people.
effective listening is impaired. 8. Concentrate on the context – Search out main ideas.
14. Delivery – A monotonous delivery by the speaker can put Construct a mental outline of where speaker is going. Listen
listeners to sleep or cause them to loose interest. for transition and progression of ideas. If need be, you
may reinforce the mental outline by physically taking down
15. External distractions – The entire physical environment
the notes.
effects the listen-ing. Among the negative factors are noisy
fans, poor or glaring lights, distracting background music, 9. Capitalize on thought – speed – Most of us think at
overheated or cold rooms, a conversation going on nearby, about four times faster than the communicator speaks. It is
and so on. almost impossible to slow down our thinking speed. What
do you do with the excess thinking time while someone is
How to Improve Listening Skill speaking? The good listener uses thought-speed to
The ability to listen more effectively may be acquired through advantage by applying spare thinking time to what is being
discipline and practice. As a listener you must be physically said. Your greatest handicap may be not capitalizing on
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
converted into your greatest asset. Here are some hints and tips to make you a better listener:
10. Combine verbal delivery with nonverbal cues – F. S. 1. Listen carefully to what the speaker says. Pick out the key
Pearls, author of Gestalt Theory Vibration, said “Don’t words in any information. It’s easier to remember one or
listen to the words_ just listen to what the voice tells you, two important words than a whole sentence.
what the movements tell you, what the posture tells you If you’re taking a message for someone it’s easier to write
what the image tells you”. down key words to help you remember the message than it
11. Show some empathy – Empathy means placing yourself in is to try to write everything out. You can add to your
the shoes of speaker and try understand his viewpoint from message after you’ve finished listening to the information.
there. If we show some empathy, we create a climate that 2. Give each new stage in a set of instructions a number, it
encourages others to communicate honestly and openly. will help you remember them later.
Therefore, try to see the communicator’s point of view.
12. Hold your fire – Be patient. Don’t interrupt. Don’t
become over-stimulated, too excited, or excited too soon,
by what the speaker says. Be sure you understand what the
speaker means; that is, withhold your evaluation until your
comprehension is complete. Mentally arguing with a
communi-cator is one of the principal reasons so little
listening takes place in some discussions. Don’t argue. If
you win, you lose.
13. Listen critically and delay judgment – Good listeners
delay making a judgment about the communicator’s
personality, the principal points of the message, and the
response. Ask questions and listen critically to the answers.
Then, at the appropriate time, judgment can be passed in an
enlightened manner.
Approaches to Listening 3. Repeat the instructions or the information you’ve been
Just as a carpenter or a chef uses different tools to tackle a job, given back to the person who gave them to you. If you’ve
listeners can take advantage of several skills for listening and got anything wrong the person will correct you and the
responding to messages at work. Different approaches to repetition will help you to remember.
listening are discussed below-: 4. Ask questions about anything that you are unsure of, or
Passive listening - Sometimes the best approach to listening is replay the recorded message.
to stay out of the way and encourage the speaker to keep going:
“Uh-huh”, “really”, “Tell me more”, and so on. Non-verbal
cues like eye contact, attentive posture, and appropriate facial
expressions are an important part of the passive listening.
Generally this approach is used when there is one to one
conversation or the speaker is giving a formal presentation.
Questioning - Sincere questions are genuine request for
information: “when did you find that fuel was leaking from the
barrel?”, “When did you inform your manager?”, and the like. 5. Go through the complete sequence in your mind so that it
These questions may be used to gather facts and details, clarify is clear. If you’re taking a message for someone else
meanings, and encourage a speaker to elaborate. you might want to rewrite it using complete sentences
Paraphrasing - Paraphrasing occurs when a listener restate the so that it will make sense to the reader.
speaker’s ideas in his own words in order to ensure that he has
understood them correctly. This is often preceded by phrases 6. If you are with someone you need to do some extra things
such as, “Let me make sure I understand what you are say- while you are listening, because you are part of a two-way
ing...”, “or “in other words you are saying...” and the like. We process and you want to encourage the other person.
often think that we understand other person but we may be Look interested in what they are saying
wrong at times. Paraphrasing is a practical technique that can Maintain eye contact
highlight misunderstandings. If the person is giving you directions, pay attention to the
“It is the recipient who communicates. The so called direction they are pointing. Gesture can be very important
communica-tor, the person who emits the communication, and can often make the speaker’s meaning much clearer.
does not communi-cate. He utters. Unless there is someone
who hears, there is no. communication. There is only noise”.
Peter Drucker
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
dealt with. example:
The group should also come to a consensus on how to proceed What do you think?’
with the proposal you are discussing. Note that consensus 4. Ask questions about something that has been said (to clarify
means that you come to a group view. It is different from a vote or expand)
in which the majority rules. I don’t understand the point about…
Nominate someone to lead the group, someone to take notes Did you consider trying to…
and someone to act as a ‘critical friend’. Keep a personal record Does that mean it won’t work?
of the roles you play, so that you have an opportunity to take or in informal conversation
different roles throughout the semester. What did he say to that?
What did you wear?
The Leader of the Group Should What are you going to say to them?
1. Encourage all people to contribute — make sure that 5. Use eye contact to show concentration on the person
everyone has a turn at speaking
6. Using facial expressions (smiles or frowns, nods or shakes
2. Ensure that the discussion sticks to the topic of the head) to show interest or concentration
The Note Taker Should 7. Use confirming words and phrases
1. Record the names of group members Yes.
2. Keep notes of the main points raised Really?
Go On!
3. Record the group’s point of view (arrived at by consensus) You don’t say!
4. Report back to the class Oh no!
The Critical Friend Should 8. Uses the person’s name when speaking to them
1. Observe the way the group functions (including body 9. Allow the speaker to make a point or tell a story without
language). interruption
2. Report on how each member participated, including whether 10.Encourage others to take a turn, and to respond when
they contributed and whether they allowed or encouraged someone presents a different view during discussion
others to contribute.
A Poor Listener May
Scenario 1 1. Not focus on the speaker (e.g. look around the room)
You are concerned about water usage in your school. You 2. Interrupt when another speaker is taking their turn, or before
would like to put in a tank to use rainwater for drinking the person has finished
purposes.
3. Talk about themselves only
Scenario 2 4. Maintain a blank face
You would like to organize an overseas tour of students to a 5. Show no interest in the topic or not understand the points
country which speaks the language you are studying (e.g. Italy, being made (e.g. lack background in the topic)
France, China, Indonesia, Japan, Germany)
6. Not ask questions about what has been said
Scenario 3 7. Aggressively disagree with the points being made (although
You are concerned about the amount of litter in your school or this may be because the listener is appalled by the ideas being
local area. You would like to improve student attitudes towards presented!)
recycling.
The Speaker’s Background
Listening to Others The background or relationships of the speakers/listeners can
Reflect on the group discussion that you have been involved in also have an impact. For example, suppose that you are
while completing the above exercises. Did everyone speak for listening to someone put a point a view about race relations in
about the same length of time? How easily was consensus Australia. Discuss how your response might differ if the person
achieved? How often did the group stray from the topic (e.g. by putting the point of view is:
talking about personal matters). Did anyone ask questions of • A friend
other group members?
• A member of your group in a discussion
Consider the characteristics of listeners. Who are people whom
• Your employer
you consider to be good or bad listeners? What is it about them
that leads you to make this judgment? • Your teacher
1. Work co-operatively and concentrate. • An aboriginal guest speaker invited to your class
• Folding arms
• Putting arms behind head
• Frowning
• Smiling
• Nodding/shaking the head
• Sneering Reflecting
• Fidgeting with hands or an object (e.g. a pen)
n Purpose
• Scribbling
¨ To show that you understand how the person
• Rocking on the chair feels.
• Leaning forward n Action
• Leaning back ¨ Reflects the speaker’s basic feelings.
• Looking around the room n Example:
• Staring at the speaker “You seem very upset.”
Summarizing Restating
n Purpose n Purpose
¨ To show you are listening and understanding what is
¨ To review progress. being said.
¨ To pull together important ideas and facts. ¨ To help the speaker see other points of view.
¨ To establish a basis for further discussion. n Action
n Action ¨ Restate basic ideas and facts.
¨ Restate major ideas expressed, including feelings. n Example
¨ “So you would like your friends to include you at
n Example recess, is that right?”
¨ “These seem to be the key ideas you’ve expressed…”
Validating
n Purpose
¨ To acknowledge the worthiness of the other person.
n Action
¨ Acknowledge the value of their issues and feelings.
¨ Show appreciation for their efforts and actions.
n Example
¨ “I
truly appreciate your willingness to resolve this
matter.”
2. Listen for ideas Listens for facts Listens for central or overall
ideas
3. Find an area of interest Tunes out dry speakers or Listens for any useful
subjects information
4. Judge content, not Tunes out dry monotone Assesses content by listening
delivery speakers to entire message before
making judgments
5. Hold your fire Gets too emotional or worked Withholds judgment until
up by something said by the comprehension is complete
speaker and enters into an
argument
Sources: Derived from N Skinner, “Communication Skills,” Selling Power, July/August 1999, pp 32-34; and G Manning, K
Curtis, and S McMillen , Building the Human Side of Work Community (Cincinnati, OH: Thomson Executive Press, 1996), pp
127-54.
6. Work at listening Does not expend energy on Gives the speaker full
listening attention
8. Hear what is said Shuts our or denies Listens to both favorable and
unfavorable information unfavorable information
10. Use handouts, overheads, Does not take notes or pay Takes notes as required and
or other visual aids attention to visual aids uses visual aids to enhance
understanding of the
presentation
Students, this is the last lesson of Unit one and here we shall learn about nonverbal
communications. The blank faces I see today is also a nonverbal communication wherein
the class tells me how prepared they are for the lesson. Ok, lets proceed.
The very attempt to mask one's communication communicates something in and of itself.
If you are playing poker with someone who has been talking normally, but who suddenly
stops talking and goes "stone-faced," that person has communicated something. It may be
a very good hand, or a very bad hand, but at the least the poker player has communicated
a desire to hide what is there. Long periods of silence at the supper table communicate as
clearly as any words that something may be wrong.
No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning varies not only by culture and
context, but by degree of intention, i.e., you may not be intending to communicate (in the
absence of nerve disorders, people seldom talk out loud when they don't intend to). A
random gesture may be assumed to have meaning when none at all was intended. Plus,
some people who may feel emotion strongly nevertheless find that their bodies simply do
not respond appropriately, i.e., someone who is feeling happy may not necessarily smile.
While watching someone's eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand gesture.
Everything is happening at once, and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with
everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously. This has both
advantages and disadvantages. Because we interpret nonverbal cues subconsciously and
in a "right-brained", holistic fashion, it can happen quickly and fairly accurately.
However, because it is not conscious and more "right-brained" it is difficult to put one's
finger on exactly why one got a certain impression from someone, or even to put it into
"left-brained" wording.
Nonverbal cues are culture-bound
Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown when
unhappy. A few other gestures seem to be universal. However, most nonverbal symbols
seem to be even further disconnected from any "essential meaning" than verbal symbols.
Gestures seen as positive in one culture (like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be
seen as obscene in another culture.
Personal Space: This category refers to the distance which people feel comfortable
approaching others or having others approach them. People from certain countries, such
as parts of Latin America or the Middle East often feel comfortable standing closer to
each other, while persons of Northern European descent tend to prefer a relatively greater
distance. Different distances are also intuitively assigned for situations involving intimate
relations, ordinary personal relationships (e.g., friends), social relations (e.g., co-workers
or salespeople), or in public places (e.g., in parks, restaurants, or on the street.)
Eye Contact: This rich dimension speaks volumes. The Spanish woman in the Nineteenth
Century combined eye language with the aid of a fan to say what was not permissible to
express explicitly. Eye contact modifies the meaning of other nonverbal behaviors. For
example, people on elevators or crowds can adjust their sense of personal space if they
agree to limit eye contact. What happens if this convention isn't followed? This issue of
eye contact is another important aspect of nonverbal communication.
Modern American business culture values a fair degree of eye contact in interpersonal
relations, and looking away is sensed as avoidance or even deviousness. However, some
cultures raise children to minimize eye contact, especially with authority figures, lest one
be perceived as arrogant or "uppity." When cultures interact, this inhibition of gaze may
be misinterpreted as "passive aggressive" or worse.
Position: The position one takes vis-a-vis the other(s), along with the previous two
categories of distance between people and angle of eye contact all are subsumed under a
more general category of "proxemics" in the writings on nonverbal communications .
Posture: A person's bodily stance communicates a rich variety of messages. Consider the
following postures and the emotional effect they seem to suggest:
Touch: How one person touches another communicates a great deal of information: Is a
grip gentle or firm, and does one hold the other person on the back of the upper arm, on
the shoulder, or in the middle of the back. Is the gesture a push or a tug? Is the touch
closer to a pat, a rub, or a grabbing? People have different areas of personal intimacy, and
this refers not only to the sexual dimension, but also the dimension of self-control. Many
adolescents are particularly sensitive to any touching that could be interpreted as
patronizing or undue familiarity. Even the angle of one's holding another's hand might
suggest a hurrying or coercive implicit attitude, or on the other hand, a respectful, gentle,
permission-giving approach .
Locomotion: The style of physical movement in space also communicates a great deal, as
well as affecting the feelings of the person doing the moving
slither crawl totter walk
stroll shuffle hurry run
jog spring tiptoe march
jump hop skip climb
swing acrobatics swim slink
Adornment: Our communications are also affected by a variety of other variables, such
as clothes, makeup, and accessories. These offer signals relating to context (e.g. formal
vs. informal), status, and individuality. The ways people carry cigarettes, pipes, canes, or
relate to their belts, suspenders, or glasses also suggests different semiotic meanings.
(Semiotics is the science of the emotional or psychological impact of signs, appearances–
not words–that's "semantics"-- but of how things look.)
Context: While this category is not actually a mode of nonverbal communication, the
setting up of a room or how one places oneself in that room is a powerfully suggestive
action. Where one sits in the group is often useful in diagnosing that person's attitude
toward the situation. Group leaders need to be especially alert to the way the group room
is organized. Consider the following variables and imagine how they might affect the
interaction:
- amount and source of light
- color of the lighting
- obvious props, a podium, blackboard
- the size of the room
- colors of the walls, floor, furniture
- seating arrangements
- number of people present
- environmental sounds, smells, and temperature
- the numbers and ratios of high-status and low status people
- the positioning of the various people in the space,
who sits next to whom, who sits apart, who sits close, etc.
While a few of these behaviors can be mimicked, for the most part these reactions happen
involuntarily. The only exercise is to watch for these reactions in oneself or others, at
least mentally note their occurrence, and consider what the meaning of that emotional
reaction might be.
Immediacy cues communicate liking and pleasure. We move toward persons and things
we like and avoid or move away from those we dislike. Generally, we instinctively
decide whether we like someone or not and then later find "reasons" to back up our
feelings. We can summarize the nonverbal behaviors then by saying that cues that move
or lean or otherwise open up or go toward the other person communicate liking.
Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, mutual eye contact, touching,
leaning forward, and touching.
Arousal
Arousal in this usage is similar to animation. That is, when we are interested in
communicating with someone else, we tend to be more animated. A flat tone of voice and
very little movement indicate a lack of interest.
Cues that fall in this dimension include eye contact, varied vocal cues, animated facial
expressions, leaning forward, movement in general.
Dominance
These cues indicate something about the balance of power in a relationship. They
communicate information about relative or perceived status, position, and importance.
For instance, a person of high status tends to have a relaxed body posture when
interacting with a person of lower status. High-status people tend to have more space
around them, such as bigger offices, and more "barriers" such as more hallways, doors,
and gatekeepers such as secretaries.
Don't try to interpret cues isolated from other such cues, from the verbal communication,
or from the physical or emotional context. As we've said in class, someone's arms being
crossed may indicate nothing more than physical discomfort from a cold room.
This is the nonverbal context itself. See if the arms being crossed are accompanied by a
resistance to eye contact and a flat tone of voice.
We can more accurately interpret the behavior of people we know. For one thing, we
notice changes in behavior more than the behavior itself. Unless we know someone, we
can't know that something has changed. For another thing, we interpret patterns of
behavior. Your mother may always cry when you come home from school with an A, and
so you learn that this represent happiness in that particular situation.
This is basically the art of asking questions. For instance, you come home and announce
to your significant other that you have received a great promotion that requires you to
move to another state. Your announcement is met with silence. Rather than assume that
s/he is upset, ask, "Does your silence mean that you're opposed to the move?" You may
find out that s/he is simply stunned at the opportunity. Recognize that you are interpreting
observed behavior, not reading a mind, and check out your observation.
It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it
that can make the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential
component of communication.
• Eye contact
• Facial expressions
• Gestures
• Posture and body orientation
• Proximity
• Para linguistics
• Humor
Eye contact:
Facial expressions:
• Happiness
• Friendliness
• Warmth
• Liking
• Affiliation
Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm
and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and
learn more.
Gestures:
If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and
unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes
the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment.
Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and
indicate that you are listening.
You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit.
Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students
that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal
closeness results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your
back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates
disinterest to your class.
Proximity:
Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You
should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Some of
these are:
• Rocking
• Leg swinging
• Tapping
• Gaze aversion
Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is
usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to
increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make
better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.
Paralinguistics:
For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice.
One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners
perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and
lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to
modulate their voices.
Humor:
Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in
college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and
student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students
to do the same. It fosters a friendly environment that facilitates learning.
Human beings constitute the integral part of any communication. It is people who give
out messages. It is people who receive messages. It is people who understand messages
and act on them. Herein lies the significance of human behavior and its impact on
communication. Human beings are extremely divergent and no two individuals are
identical in all respects. Man is not just a physical being or a rational being. He is a social
and an emotional being. These factors bring in a new dimension to the entire process of
communication. Effective communication becomes more challenging. It is rightly
observed, "meaning is in people, not in words". Human beings interpret the words. They
translate the messages they receive. In translating the messages, in interpreting the words,
each individual brings into the process his or her total personality. The literal and
mechanical dimension apart, the behavioral dimension assumes significance.
Human behavior in any given context is the product of his or her perceptions, attitudes,
beliefs, values, norms and experiences. They distinctly influence a person's role and
response in communication as the sender and the receiver. In order to ensure the
effectiveness of communication, it is, therefore, very essential that we understand the
meaning and impact of each one of them. Each one of them may bring in a bias or an
expectation that will affect communication. Let us, therefore, take a brief look at each of
them.
Perception
The word perception has many shades of meaning as per the dictionary. It can mean "act
or power of perceiving' or 'discernment' or 'appreciation of any modification of
consciousness'. It could also be used to indicate 'the combining of sensations into a . recognition
of an object' or ' reception of a stimulus' or 'action by which the mind refers its sensation3
to external object as cause' and so on.
Perception implies discernment, reception of a stimulus and an act by which the mind
refers its sensations to an external object as cause. In other words, perception is a process
of making sense out of events. It is we who perceive the meaning of any event. In the
organisational context, the commonly used word is "role perception". As against a
defined role, there is a perceived role. The definition mayor may not be adequate. It is the
attitude of the individuals that will influence their perception of the role-whether to
continue in the defined role or go beyond it. Great leaders and achievers bring their own
perceptions to the legally or organizationally defmed roles. It is such positive perceptions
that help people become more creative and make human endeavour much more
meaningful.
Good or Bad
Beautiful or Ugly
Sincere or Manipulative
Fair or Unfair
Precise or Exaggerated
These are not absolutes. They have an element of judgment. Perception is the action by
which the mind refers its sensations to these external stimuli and the individual draws his
own interpretations. A good communicator has to have a good understanding of the
perceptions of the persons with whom he is communicating. He has to recognize the fact
that others may not necessarily perceive his intentions as he himself does.
Although the event or information base is the same, the inferences are quite different.
Attitude
The dictionary provides several meanings to the word attitude. Attitude means a >posture
or position or affected posture; settled behaviour, as indicating any condition of things or
persons viewed as expressing some thought, feeling etc.
Attitudes exercise a strong influence on human relationships .in any sphere" be it family,
society, group, organisation or nation. Attitudes can be both positive and negative.
Positive attitudes contribute to the _,effectiveness of any process. Negative attitudes
hinder-or vitiate the process. Attitudes, however, are not necessarily permanent in nature.
It is possible, with conscious efforts, to change the’ attitude of a person or group of
persons. Organisations and businesses are all the time making efforts to change attitudes
to make them more positive. Negative attitudes bring negative: feelings that undermine
achievement of personal and organisational objectives.
Deficiencies in service by the staff at the counters and the front line staff, in service
organizations like banks can be attributed to attitudinal factors as well. They can
communicate better, they can interact more meaningfully by developing the right attitude.
In the training programmes organised by various organisations, the attitudinal and
behavioural aspects are recognised to be as important as imparting of knowledge and
development of skills.
Beliefs
The word belief again has different shades of meaning: faith-, intuition, judgement, trust
or confidence, acceptance as true or existing of any fact or statement, persuasion
of the truth of anything etc.
Like perceptions and attitudes, people have their beliefs as well. They are not easily
changed. Beliefs can cover different areas. Belief in God, fate, superstition, religion and
belief in future. So strong are such beliefs, that quite often people spend much time,
energy and efforts in pursuing those beliefs.
While it is appropriate to recognise the existence of beliefs, it is not always desirable to
make a judgement on various beliefs. The fact that one individual, or a group of
persons, believes-in a particular father judgement does not mean that all others have to
necessarily subscribe to it. Organisations generally exhibit a degree of tolerance to
accommodate such beliefs as long as they do not affect their functioning. Every country,
every race, every group has its share of beliefs developed over the years, which must be
recognised.
Values
Values constitute yet another dimension of human behaviour. Values exist at various
levels. There are individual values, social values, organisational values, national values
and one can even refer to global values. They are so integral that often one can see the
existence of a value system within a group or community.
Values refer to a certain intrinsic quality or worth. Values are seen as standards or criteria
that people develop for guiding their actions. Values are Cleve loped or adopted in terms
of various influences, upbringing, group identification, needs, expectations and
c<5mparative standards. Values and ethics often go together. Ethics relates to the
treatment of morality or duty. Ethics deals with that branch of philosophy which is
concerned with human character and conduct. When we refer to values we are also
referring to the ethical dimensions, i.e., the human character, conduct and moral values.
It is widely accepted that any business or organisation can achieve sustainable success
only when its activities are governed by a sound value system. Every- profession has to
have its set of values. There are values in teaching, in banking, in trading, in corporate
governance etc. These values cover various groups of people with whom interaction takes
place. These are values in relation to employees, values in relation to customers, values in
relation to competitors, values in relation to community and so on.
The process of communication is influenced _Y.. values and value systems. It would be
necessary to take note of the degree of congruence or divergence in values. When there is
a high degree of congruence, communication is easy. If the values are highly divergent,
communication becomes more complex.
Similarly human beings face a variety of experiences in their lives and work situations.
People naturally tend to relate events and messages to their previous experience in
dealing with them. People associated with the process of communication should
necessarily take cognizance of this. Based on their past experience, people may
categories communicators and communications like boring speaker, impatient listener,
not very articulate, prone to exaggeration, evasive, contradicts himself, persuasive, well
informed, insightful, etc. A good communicator makes it a point to be in the know of
such perceptions and impressions. He tries to overcome negative impressions through
conscious efforts.
Various aspects of human behavior generally come into play in any human interaction
and thereby make the communication process more complicated. There are both positive
and negative aspects. Some of them exercise a strong influence, others don't. Some of the
negative factors may exist and will have to be removed so as to make communication
effective. A good communicator is one who develops a clear insight into human behavior
and uses that knowledge to his advantage.
Honing Your Nonverbal Communication
Skills
THE BOTTOM LINE: To improve your communication skills use body
language such as eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to make your
conversation more interesting.
The words you use have only a 7% impact on your communication; your tone of voice,
another 38%. But your nonverbal body language has a 55% impact on the message you're
trying to communicate.
Body language refers to the way you sit, stand, move and look when talking to others.
Without it, your conversations would be boring and less effective. These five nonverbal
communication skills will help you add vitality to your conversations.
EYE CONTACT
Where you look is one of the most obvious aspects of behavior when talking to another
person. Looking directly at the person as you speak helps to communicate your sincerity
and increases the directness of your message. It shows you respect the person, which
helps create a more positive relationship.
Even more importantly, avoiding eye contact can make you seem sneaky, guilty, bashful
or frightened. The common expression “He couldn't look me in the eye” is often used to
describe a person's guilt.
While using eye contact, be careful not to stare, squint or blink your eyes rapidly. It's
more natural to look away from time to time in a relaxed, comfortable manner.
BODY POSITION
Observe how people stand or sit while talking to others. You'll be surprised how many
people talk with their bodies turned away from those they're speaking to.
Standing side by side may disconnect you from your partner, and standing face to face
may seem confrontational. Instead, stand or sit at an angle from the other person. And,
whenever possible, sit or stand at the same eye level as the other party, which signals
you're equals and decreases any feelings of intimidation.
Posture also matters. Good posture reflects your confidence and helps ensure others will
pay more attention to your message.
DISTANCE
Pay attention to how close you are to another person. Some people feel comfortable with
physical closeness; others may be offended. Many cultures also place limitations on such
closeness. If you sense someone feels uncom fortable, put a little more space between
you.
GESTURES
Gesturing with your hands adds life and meaning to your message. Practice in front of a
mirror using your hands to emphasize important points. When not gesturing, don't cross
your arms; that signals anger or a lack or openness. And don't play with your clothing,
jewelry, pencils, etc., which is distracting. Instead, relax your arms at your side.
FACIAL EXPRESSION
Have you ever seen someone trying to express anger while smiling? It just doesn't come
across. Effective assertions require an expression that agrees with the message. If you're
sending mixed messages, others will believe your facial expression, not your words. For
example: A forced smile makes you appear insincere. Tension can be seen in your face
with a wrinkling forehead or a pursed or tight-lipped moutb. Rolling your eyes and other
disapproving looks can have powerful negative effects on communication.
If you have to say something negative, sit down and have a meaningful discussion with
the other person; your body language will naturally coincide with your verbal message.
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
Try to use these five skills each day to improve your nonverbal communication. Others
will find you more enjoyable to talk to, and you'll communicate more persuasively,
interestingly and effectively.
LESSON 12:
PRACTICE CLASS
Upon completion of the lesson , you will be able to listen well and minutes of exchanging remarks twice more so that each person
understand non verbal communication. To reach these goals , you have to takes each role once. The entire practice session should take
about 25 minutes.
• Participate in the following exercises and know your listening skills.
When you are finished, form the large group. Your facilitator
• Explain the listening problem and how to solve it.
will help you share your practice experiences. How are these
skills relevant to your work? Where else would they be useful?
Practice Class
Go around the group so that participants have a chance to share
Listening Skills at least one thing they have learned about themselves in this
The group should be divided into subgroups of three. There practice session.
will be three roles in each subgroup: speaker, listener, and
Listening Skills
observer. Everyone will take each role once in this practice, so
Questions, Reflections, Summarization
divide into your subgroup and decide who is going to take
which role first. Form subgroups of three and practice using question asking as
a listening skills. Each member of your subgroup should take
Directions turns being the speaker, the listener (who practices the skill of
Objective—The point of the practice session is to give each
questioning), and the observer.
person the opportunity to learn how to use verbal and non-
verbal minimal encouragers and become a better listener. To the speaker: In the speaker role, we ask you to share
something that is a real concern to you. Obviously, we are not
To the speaker—Your task is to talk about something that is
asking that you share anything that is very private or that might
important to you: your job, your family, a decision, or a
be embarrassing. Sharing a real part of your life, however, will
question. The practice will be more helpful if you talk about
make this practice both interesting and useful. (And you might
something you
find it helpful to have someone carefully listen to your concern).
really care about, although role-playing is possible. You may
Or, you can tell of situations that occur in work—we all have a
find yourself in the midst of discussing something important
storehouse of work problems that give us difficulty.
when the allotted time runs out. If this happens, you could
make an agreement with the person listening to carry on later, The qualifier on being “real” in the practice sessions, however, is
after work or during a break. that we are here to give the listener a chance to practice interactive
skills. If you, as the speaker, take all of the practice time in a
To the listener—Your task is to practice the skills of the
monologue about yourself, the listener will not have a chance to
session: eye contact, body language, silences, and verbal minimal
practice listening skills. So, be sure to pause often to encourage
encouragers. Don’t panic! Just concentrate on following the
the listener to respond, even though this may seem a bit
speaker’s train of thought. Try to limit your responses to the unnatural. Try to share information that allows the speaker to
skills discussed in this session. practice the skill of the session—the art of
To the observer—Your task is to observe the listener’s verbal questioning. If you give the complete details of your concern,
and non-verbal skills. Observe and count only as many for example, it may be difficult for the listener to find anything
behaviors (eye contact, body posture, verbal minimal encourag- to ask questions about. Or, if your story is completely factual
ers, topic and does not include your personal feelings or opinions, the
jumps) as you can manage and still be relatively accurate. listener may have difficulty asking questions with a speaker
focus. As the speaker in the practice session, part of your job is
Procedure
to help your listener practice listening skills.
The first speaker will talk with the listener for three or four
minutes. The listener will then discuss the listening experience To the listener: In this session try to concentrate on asking
with the two other members of the subgroup. (To the listener: questions, reflecting, and, at the end, summarizing even though
What was comfortable? Difficult? Did you stay with the this may seem difficult. You may use minimal encouragers
speaker?) Then the speaker will share his or her feelings about occasionally, as long as your primary responses are questions.
the listener’s listening. (To the speaker: Did you feel listened to? Vary your responses between open and closed questions and
Was it helpful? Did the listener have any habits you found vary the focus of your questions (i.e., on speaker, topic, or
distracting?) The observer will then share observations. This others). By using both open and closed questions you will also
sharing process should take about three or four minutes. see how your question and its focus can determine the course
Now everyone change places. Have the listener become the of the conversation.
speaker, the speaker the observer, and the observer the listener.
Go through the five minutes of talking and listening and five
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Include the number of open and closed questions used by the
listener and the focus of each question; note the use of feeling
and factual reflection, and the effectiveness of the listener’s
summary.
Procedure
The speaker and listener will have a conversation of three or
four minutes duration. The observer can also time the conversa-
tion, gently announcing “stop” when the time is up.
After the conversation, take a few minutes: First, the listener will
share thoughts about how they used questions; second; the
speaker will comment on his/her experience during the conversa-
tion and the listener’s use of the skill; finally, the observer will
share observations and comment on the conversation.
Now change roles and repeat the practice.
Each listener practice should take eight to ten minutes:
• Three or four minutes for the initial conversation and three
or
• Four minutes to review it—to share the listener’s and the
• Speaker’s impressions and the observer’s reactions (l/2
hour).
When exchanging observations about a conversation, please
give the listener accurate feedback about how he or she used the
skills. If the listener is having difficulty asking open questions,
reflecting, or summarizing, say so and help him/her learn how
to do so better. Remember that the purpose of practice is for
the listener to learn the listening skill. Feedback and sugges-
tions from both speaker and observer are essential to the
learning process.
After completion of this lesson you will be able to determine your purpose. The typical audience is other profes-
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
of knowledge, presentation, and graphics or visuals. Experts are For most academic papers, the teacher is the explicit audience.
often “theorists” or “practitioners.” For the “expert” audience, But even within the same discipline, professors might expect
document formats are often elaborate and technical, style and quite different formats for papers. For example, in sociology,
vocabulary may be specialized or technical, source citations are one professor might ask you to write mainly about your own
reliable and up-to-date, and documentation is accurate. experiences and your reactions to your experience. Another
professor might want you to do library or field research about a
Academic Audiences
social problem and never refer to your own experiences or
Assuming you are writing a paper for a class, ask yourself who
attitudes toward that problem.
is the reader? The most important reader is probably the
Teachers will often try to give students more experience with
instructor, even if a grader will look at the paper first. Ask
writing to different audiences by targeting particular readers for a
yourself what you know about your teacher and his or her
given paper. Then students address the target audience (class
approach to the discipline.
members, members of a business community, congressional
Do you know, for example, if this teacher always expects papers representatives, and so on), including the teacher as a secondary
to be carefully argued? Has this teacher emphasized the audience.
importance of summarizing cases accurately before referring to
When asked who their audience is, many students say, “It’s my
them? Will this professor be looking for an “argument
teacher.”
synthesis,” showing how the cases all support one point or will
I think it’s useful for students to widen their sense of audience
this professor be more interested in seeing how the cases
in order to realize that their specific teacher is, in fact, a represen-
complicate one another? In other words, take the time to
tative reader from a particular academic field or discourse
brainstorm about what you’ve learned about the teacher to help
community. Their teacher may be a composition teacher, an
you meet his or her expectations for this paper. You probably
English literature teacher, a historian, a chemist, a psychologist,
know more about the teacher than you think, and asking
or a biologist—and they want and expect writing that is
questions about how the teacher treats this material in class will
appropriate for their field.
help you remember those details to help you shape your paper.
In terms of their expectations about effective writing, each of
Nonacademic Audiences these teachers “wants’ something slightly different, and those
Nonacademic audiences read your writing for reasons other differences reflect the expectations of different academic areas. A
than to grade you. (Some teachers assign papers specifically composition teacher may want an introduction that gradually
asking students to write for nonacademic audiences). They will leads into the topic; a journalist may want an article that begins
gain information from your writing. Think about writing a immediately with the most startling fact or event; a chemist may
newsletter or a resume: an audience read these for information, want to begin with a review of the research. Psychologists,
only how they use the information varies. A nonacademic literature professors, and historians may or may not want you
audience involves more than writing. Consider the following: to use your own personal experience, depending on the level
• You’ll have to determine who the audience is. (informal to formal) of the writing. Not all-academic writing
• You’ll have to think about what is an appropriate format to has the same requirements, and those requirements are not so
use. much personal whims (Professor Jones hates it when I use
first-person or “I”!) as they are the expectations of that
• You’ll have to consider what is and is not an appropriate
particular academic discourse.
topic for your audience. (If you don’t have one already.)
So when you are writing an essay, imagine writing not just for
• You’ll have to determine how your topic will fit the format. your teacher, but for your teacher as a representative of a larger
Audience Invoked Versus Audience group of readers who belong to that particular academic area.
Addressed That awareness may help you see that the requirements of that
An audience addressed versus an audience invoked is basically assignment are not just strange or quirky, but make some sense
your real audience versus the reader you create through your text in the larger context of that particular academic discourse.
and introduction. In a way, you tell the reader who you want General Format
them to be. In a conference paper I’m writing, I start off by When you write a business letter, you will follow a general
assuming that we’re (the reader and myself) sharing some format. However, your instructor or your company may have
presumptions. By saying that, I’m almost telling the reader who specific requirements that you must use. For instance, a
I want them to be. I’m creating an audience position that “Yes, company might have a particular way of presenting a salutation
there exists some reality.” But I’m also trying to create it for or may even use a specific type of letterhead.
people who are going to approach this and say, “Okay there are
Because a business letter is an effective way to communicate a
things I think we all hold in common. I don’t say that in my
message, its format should allow readers to quickly grasp
text, but my text invokes it. The other audience, the real
information. Information should stand out to readers as they
audience, is those who will be at the conference. Who’s at the
scan the document. Remember, a business letter reflects your
conference and who reads the journal are not always the same.
professionalism.
• Heading or Return Address
• Inside Address
• Organization (as the company calls itself) • One or more body paragraphs
If your reader has a courtesy title, such as Professor, then use it. Like essays written for college courses, a business letter intro-
Otherwise use Mr. or Ms., unless you know the reader prefers duces one main idea and then supports this idea. At the end of
Miss or Mrs. These should also appear identically on the the letter, always include a way for your readers to contact you.
envelope. For example: Finally, consider how your letter looks. If you have nothing but
Dr. Ram Malhotra, Professor paragraph after paragraph of text, you might use lists to draw
ICU Technical College attention to specific information. Lists are effective ways to
New Delhi, 110004 present information because they break down large amounts of
text and are visually pleasing. Lists are especially useful when you
Attention Line have to convey steps, phases, years, procedures, or decisions,
When you cannot address a business letter to a particular and can be bulleted or numbered.
person, use an attention line:
When creating a list, consider writing phrases, fragments or even
Attention: Human Resource Manager questions and answers. By avoiding full sentences in a list, your
Use the attention line if you want an organization to respond information is concise and more likely to engage your readers.
even if the person you write to is unavailable. In this instance, For example, to receive a degree in engineering, you must
put the name of the organization or division on the first line complete the following:
of the inside address, and the attention line immediately
• Core Courses
afterwards:
• Elective Courses
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Empathy means to care about someone’s feelings or ideas. A
Complimentary Close and Signature
well-written business letter will convey the feeling that the writer
Business letters should end with a closing, such as:
does care about the reader and is genuinely interested in
• Sincerely, working together to solve a problem or discuss a concept.
• Cordially,
To write a good letter, put yourself in the reader’s shoes and try
• Best regards, to anticipate the reader’s reaction to your comments. By doing
• Yours very truly, this, you are more likely to choose more appropriate words and
Capitalize only the first word in the complimentary close, and use the correct tone.
follow all phrases with a comma. Persuasion
You should also remember to sign and type your name under Every business letter is in some degree a sales letter, because you
the closing. are always requesting a response or course of action. Therefore,
the following principles of persuasion will help you compose
End Notations and efficient and effective Business Letter:
If someone else types your letters, the reference line identifies • Plan according to the reader’s reaction
this person, usually by initials. It appears a few spaces below the
• Write with the “you” attitude- the state of mind where you
signature line, along the left margin. The writer’s initials come
always emphasize the benefits to the reader and subordinate
first, and they are capitalized.
your interests. This can be accomplished by using empathy
For example, if Nina sharma wrote a letter that Ajay Singh and the words “you” and “your” often
typed, it would appear like this:
• Adjust the language to the reader and use terms and
NS/AS. concepts that the reader is familiar with
If the envelope contains any documents other than the letter
• Write positively and with confidence
itself, identify the number of enclosures:
Enclosure or Tone
Enclosure (1), which means two documents Tone is the use of accent and inflection to express a mood or
emotion in speaking or writing. Many times it is not what you
In determining the number of enclosures, count only the say in a business letter, but how you say it. It is a good idea to
separate items, not the number of pages. always consider your tone so that you do not risk upsetting the
Copy Line reader, thereby lessening the chances your requests and com-
The copy line is used to let the reader know that other people ments will be respected.
are receiving a copy of the document. Use the following You can avoid making mistakes with tone by using the
symbols: following techniques:
• c: for copy • Avoid the “I” attitude by having more emphasis on the
• pc: for photocopy reader and not yourself
• bc: blind copy • Avoid extreme cases of humility, flattery, and modesty
Follow the symbol with the names of the other recipients, • Avoid condescension
listed either alphabetically or according to organizational rank. • Avoid preaching your ideas
If you do not want your reader to know about the other copies,
type bc on the copies only, not the original.
Effective Writing Facts about the business
Even though no one formula exists for a perfect business letter,
some basic guidelines will help you, regardless of the form,
letter
purpose, and audience of the document. n One of the cheapest forms of comm.
Many executives still prefer a written document over other n Permanent record
forms of communication, because the document can serve as a n Conveys a professional & business -like
contract, the facts will be on record in writing, and executives do impression
not have to rely on memory.
n Allows you time before replying
This is why it is important to write a good business Letter, and n Can reach where no telephones or fax
the principles below will help you do so. machines are available
• Empathy
• Persuasion
• Tone
• Service Perspective
Applications of the
business letter Five ways
ways to
to make
make aa business
business
letter more readable
n
n To persuade:
persuade: e.g.e.g. sales
sales letter
letter
n A clear
clear subject
subject line
line
n
n To express an opinion: e.g. letter to the
press n Short sentences
n To get somehing done: e.g. letter of
n
n Short paragraphs
complaint n Simple vocabulary
n To supply somebody
n somebody else
else with
with information:
information: n Enough spacing
e.g. letter of invitation / application
n To obtain information:
n information: enquiry
enquiry
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
plish your objectives. 12 Rules is the companion article to The language and lip reading.
Art of Writing Letters. All of Kathryn’s friends communicate by oral speech, not
1. Before you write a letter, answer these questions. sign language. Kathryn would not be able to speak, listen,
giggle with her friends.
Why? Why am I writing? What am I trying to accomplish?
Do you see how Kathryn’s mother begins her letter “I’d like
What? What do I want? What are my goals?
to share a story with you . . .”
Get three blank sheets of paper. Gradually, the letter shifts as the mother makes her case. She
On the first sheet write “WHY? Why am I writing this leads the reader into agreeing that placing Kathryn in a class
letter?” where children don’t speak or listen is not appropriate.
On the second sheet write “WHAT? What are my goals in 3. Allow for “cooling off” and revision time.
writing this letter?” After you write the first draft, put your letter away for a few
On the third sheet write “Other Thoughts.” days. DO NOT SEND IT!
Brainstorm. Write down your thoughts. Make lists. Firing off a letter is one of the most common mistakes
Don’t worry about writing in sentence or prioritizing. Your parents make. You must give “cooling off” and revision
goal is to dump your thoughts from your brain onto these time. Later, parents say “But they said I had to respond
sheets of paper. Write down any additional ideas and right away . . .”
thoughts on the third sheet of paper. You will write down Ninety-nine percent of letters from the school system DO
your important thoughts in less than ten minutes. Do not NOT
allow yourself to obsess about details. You are interested in require you to respond immediately.
the Big Picture.
A “cooling-off period” allows you to look at your letter
2. First Letters are Always Drafts more objectively. If you send a letter without allowing for
You write letters to: “cooling off” and revision time, you’ll probably damage
1. Make a request your credibility and your position. Sometimes, this damage
is impossible to repair.
2. Clarify an event
4. You are always negotiating for services.
3. Decline a request
As you are learning, you negotiate with the school for
4. Express appreciation
special education services. If you are negotiating with the
5. Create a paper trail school for special services or with a car dealer for a car, the
Some letters have more than one purpose. Because letters you principles are the same. You never begin negotiations by
write to schools are so important, you need to do it right. telling the other side what your “bottom line” is.
If you anticipate resistance, you may begin by telling a story In negotiations with schools, parents often make the
to get the reader’s interest. Let’s see how Kathryn’s mother mistake of being too open. Parents think they have to share
used the story telling method to begin an important letter everything with the school - immediately. They hope that
to the school: by sharing everything, they’ll be rewarded with the help their
I’d like to share a story about Kathryn with you. This year, child needs. This doesn’t happen.
when Kathryn turned four, we had a birthday party for her. You need to share the results of all evaluations and any
She looked very grown-up in her pink dress. More than a other new information with the school, as soon as you
dozen friends from pre-school and dance class came to her receive it. However, you do not need to share your wish list
party. You can imagine what this was like. or your bottom line.
The children were laughing, singing, shouting, and creating 5. Never threaten. Never telegraph your punches!
a huge ruckus. We had a big chocolate birthday cake. The You’ll remember that in the first chapter of this Tactics
children were covered with icing. section, the parents wrote two letters. In their first letter,
As we watched our daughter with her friends, we felt so they made several threats. In their second letter, they made
proud of her. She was laughing, shouting, giggling with no threats, and told their story in a compelling way. If you
her friends. Only we knew how hard she worked for this make threats (i.e., “we’re going to call our lawyer”), you may
day. experience temporary relief but you’ll pay a high price later.
Kathryn is hard of hearing. With hearing aids, she can hear As a negotiator, one of the most powerful forces you have
at almost the same level as normal children. But if Kathryn on your side is the “Fear of the Unknown.” When you
had gone into the public school program with hearing threaten, you are telling the other side what you plan to do.
impaired children, she wouldn’t be able to have a birthday If you tell them what you plan to do, you have told them
party with friends who laugh, and sing, and shout. how to protect themselves. At that moment, you lose your
In the public school program, the children don’t learn how advantage - which is the wonderful, powerful Fear of the
to sing or shout or speak. Their classroom is very quiet. If Unknown. Never telegraph your punches – you will destroy
we had allowed her to attend the public school program, their power and effectiveness.
You went to the doctor to get the results of your annual avoid “We ALWAYS handle ABC situations this way. We
physical, including your lab work. As your doctor, I come in ALWAYS have handled ABC situations this way. We
and tell you that: ALWAYS will handle ABC situations this way. We can’t
make exceptions for you.”
The results of your blood work are very concerning.
However, I’m behind schedule right now. We need to admit If you present your situation as unique, it won’t be listed in
you to the hospital as soon as bed space is available - the Bureaucrat’s Big Book of Rules and Procedures.
probably tomorrow or the next day. I don’t have time to Remember: bureaucracies are inflexible and rule-bound. By
discuss the results with you right now. I’m behind schedule presenting your situation as unique, you can sometimes get
and have other patients waiting. I’ll be in to talk with you people in the system to see things differently. If they see
after you are admitted. things differently, they may be able to handle things
differently.
Fear. Panic. What happens now? You’ll imagine the worst
case scenario. 8. You ARE writing letters to a Stranger. You are NOT writing
letters to the school.
Now, let’s change the facts. You are at the doctor’s office to
get the results of your physical. As your doctor, I come in When you write a letter to the school, you are really writing a
and tell you that: “Letter to the Stranger.” Why? You have to assume that
someone outside your school system will decide this issue.
Some of your blood work is not clear. It’s probably only
This person will have no personal interest in you or your
ABC and if it is ABC, we have nothing to worry about. The
child. This person won’t care what “program” your child is
worst case scenario is that you have XYZ. XZY is
enrolled in.
inconvenient but it’s certainly not life threatening. Nine
times out of ten, people have ABC. However, it’s still When you write letters, keep this Stranger in your mind’s
important for us to rule out XYZ. eye. Who is this Stranger? What does he look like? How
does he think?
Unfortunately, we can’t run the additional tests here. We
just aren’t equipped to do it. So, we need to send you to the The Stranger is an older person who has worked hard all his
hospital where they have more sophisticated equipment. We life. He’s conservative, fair, and open minded. He knows
can schedule your admission tomorrow or the next day. that life is often difficult and unfair. He doesn’t have much
This is not so important that we have to do it today. patience with complainers. He’s more sympathetic to people
who have a plan to solve problems. He dresses casually.
Can you feel the difference?
When he sits down to read your letter, he sips a cup of tea
When you know what you’re facing, is your fear as intense? and lights his pipe.
No.
The Stranger doesn’t know you, your child, or your
If you don’t fill in answers – if you don’t telegraph your situation. Your letter gives you the chance to sell the
punches - then the fear of the unknown will force the other Stranger on the justice of your cause. You can describe the
side to attribute more power to you. Because they’ll be in problem and tell the Stranger what should be done to make
the “fear of the unknown,” they’ll wonder what you’re things right.
going to do – and they’ll imagine a worst case scenario.
Judges are Strangers. Most judges aren’t knowledgeable
6. Assume that you won’t be able to resolve your dispute. A about special education or children with disabilities. When
special education due process hearing will be held - and you you write letters, you are also trying to educate and inform
will not be able to testify or tell your side of the story. this person.
These are important assumptions. These assumptions are 9. You write business letters to the school. When you write
one of the keys to successful letter writing. Assume things business letters, you use tactics and strategy (your brain).
will get worse. Assume that success in securing services for You do not demand, threaten, ventilate anger or frustration
your child depends on how well you describe the events (your emotions).
that cause you to write to the school.
If you are writing an important letter to the school, you
A letter you write today may sit in your child’s file for want it to be smooth, polished, and professional. Begin
months or years. If things blow up later, these letters can be your letter chronologically and develop it chronologically. To
the most compelling evidence in your favor. Bob’s letter at see how this is done, go back and read the original “Letter
the beginning of this chapter shows how letters can work to the Stranger” at the beginning of this section. The letter
against you. began like this:
7. Make your problem unique. Dear Mr. So and So:
If you are writing a letter about a specific problem (i.e., a We received a letter from you dated February 1, and were
teacher’s refusal to follow an IEP), present your situation as very perplexed by the content.
unique. You want the person who reads your letter to see
To put my letter into the proper context, let me go back to
your problem as different. You want them to think “Wow!
the beginning . . .
We’ve never had this problem before!”
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
cheap shots. from professional editors. ALWAYS have at least one
10. Never make judgments. outside person read your letters. Your “reader” should be
someone who will tell you the truth, especially when you
“What a jerk you were! You didn’t have enough guts to be
don’t make things clear or you need to tone the letter down.
straight-up with us!”
Ask your “reader” to pretend that he or she is a Stranger.
NO!
You want your reader to tell you if answered the three
Never be judgmental. You want the Stranger to be questions we listed at the beginning of this chapter:
interested, not anxious. Provide information logically, then
• What am I trying to accomplish?
let the Stranger draw conclusions. You want your Stranger
to conclude “What a jerk!” • What do I want?
11. You are telling a story. Write your letter chronologically. • What are my goals?
Don’t broach the main issue in the first paragraph of your The answers to these questions must be clear. After your
letter. “Stranger” has read the draft of your letter, ask the person to
Tell your story chronologically, weaving in your facts. Your answer these questions. If the reader cannot answer these
objective is to write a letter than is interesting, and easy to questions clearly means you haven’t expressed yourself
follow. clearly. Remember: your letter is to the Stranger, not the
special ed supervisor or the building principal. If you find
Remember, when you write a letter to the school, this is
yourself explaining your real point to the reader, stop, and
your chance to “present your case” and tell your story. The
write down the explanation. Incorporate this into your letter.
Stranger won’t understand the background or history unless
you provide this information. You can provide background Letter Writing Tips
information very naturally and easily by going back to the Make It Clear
beginning and writing a chronological story. It’s incredibly easy to get side-tracked when writing letters. This
For example: “On DATE, our son entered your program is especially true if you’re feeling upset or emotional. Remem-
because . . . ber: You’re writing to make a point, clarify an event, make a
You can move the clock earlier if this helps you tell the request, and create a paper trail. Refer back to the sheets of paper
story. “We realized that our daughter’s problems were you used during the brainstorming stage. Have you answered
serious when she was unable to communicate with others these three questions?
by her third birthday.” • Why are you writing?
Where should you begin? Begin wherever you want. In your • What is the point you want to make?
mind, you know when things “began.” Then, continue to • What do you want?
tell your story: “Then this happened . . . When she started
Talk out loud. Avoid vague words, jargon, and long rambling
school . . .”
sentences. Use short words when possible. If you naturally use
You are telling a story and you are using your facts. Select long words to express yourself, try substituting short words
your facts carefully and keep your opinions to a bare that mean the same thing. Long rambling letters put people off
minimum. As you tell the story, you’re planting seeds in the because they are hard to read. You don’t want this to happen.
memories of Strangers who read your letter later. Let these You want the reader, your Stranger, to enjoy reading your
Strangers water the seeds using their own imaginations! letter.
There is another reason to write chronologically. If you
Make It Short
jump from issue to issue, the reader will get confused, then
Say what you have to say. Be succinct. Most people don’t have
frustrated. Readers have negative reactions to people who
the time to read long letters. If you repeat yourself, you’re
write letters that are hard to follow. The Stranger may get
wasting the reader’s time and your letter will generate a negative
angry at you if he can’t figure out your point. If the
response. Keep your message short and to the point.
Stranger gets frustrated, he will quit reading – and he’ll
blame you for this frustration. You don’t want this to There is one exception to this rule. If you are writing a letter to
happen to you. request a due process hearing, then the letter needs to be a
comprehensive “Letter to the Stranger.” This letter should tell
12. Write letters that are clear and easy to understand.
story, from the beginning, using visual imagery.
Letters provide you with an opportunity to make your
case while you create a positive impression. An Make It Alive
important part of the impression you make will depend on Speak directly to the reader. Use the same words and figures of
how you express yourself. speech you use in your day-to-day speech. Think about the
Stranger as a real person. Visualize the Stranger and imagine
We don’t like to think that our writing skills need
yourself talking with him about your problems. This is the
improving. Unless you are a professional writer or editor,
person you are writing to. You’re not firing a letter off to the
you will need to spend time improving your writing skills
person who chaired the IEP meeting and didn’t have the
in four areas: clarity, brevity, interest, accuracy.
You won’t be worried about forgetting something important. all and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no real
It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in what purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your
order things should appear. Your list is already organized. reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all
When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a that is not helpful.
checklist And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion
now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body
Draft Your Letter
of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your
Working from an outline is the simplest way to draft a adjust-
inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader
ment letter. Refer back to your list and turn each fragmentary
reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective
sentence into a full and complete sentence expressing a single
with a question that calls for an action.
thought or idea.
Concentrate on communicating your objective to your reader. Sample Acknowledgement Letter
Be certain that you describe the scope of your solution with an __________Better Widget Makers, Inc.__________
appropriate amount of information.
5555 Widget Avenue
Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For an overall
sense of cohesion, be as quick as you can. Spelling, grammar, Silver City, CO 80456
sentence and paragraph structure need not be perfect. Those October 1, 2003
details will be tuned up in the final step when you review and Mr. Russ Hamilton
revise your work.
Vice President, Sales and Marketing
Start with the point that you feel the strongest or most
confident about and then do the others. Remember to do this Golden Bread Company
quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be 123 Loaf Street
saved and edited. Silver City, CO 80451
Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most
Dear Mr. Hamilton:
confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the
others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion I received your price information packet today and appreciate its
you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited. prompt delivery. It
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
The scope of a complaint letter should include only the relevant detail is very important. Feel free to delete or add items. You can
facts validating your claim and a request that appropriate save and edit this list as you work. On completion you will have
corrective steps be taken. The scope may also detail the options determined your scope.
that you are willing to accept in satisfaction of the claim.
Organize Your Letter
In the sample complaint letter the writer explains that an
Organizing a complaint letter is a simple procedure designed to
incorrect shipment was received and that a promised correction
help you draft your request. You have already started this task.
has not materialized. He then proposes two equally satisfactory
You have established your objective and determined the scope.
solutions.
Refer back to them. Together they make up the main compo-
• Identify your reader. nents in the body of your letter.
• Establish your objective. A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably do
• Determine your scope. the job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place,
either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Put
• Organize your letter.
each item where it belongs.
• Draft your letter With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your
• Close Your Letter thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task.
• Review and Revise Your Letter You won’t be worried about forgetting something important.
It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in what
Identify Your Reader order things should appear. Your list is already organized.
Although a clearly identified reader is not absolutely necessary, a When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a
complaint letter should be addressed to the person who is checklist
most able to resolve an unsatisfactory situation. In a very small
business the owner is generally the contact person. In a mid-size Draft Your Letter
company a vice president or upper level management person Working from an outline is the simplest way to draft a adjust-
solves problems. Large companies often have a Customer ment letter. Refer back to your list and turn each fragmentary
Service department to whose attention a complaint can be sentence into a full and complete sentence expressing a single
addressed. In these cases, the inside heading should contain just thought or idea.
the name and address of the company. The salutation will then Concentrate on communicating your objective to your reader.
be replaced by a simple attention getting device such as that Be certain that you describe the scope of your solution with an
shown in the sample complaint letter. appropriate amount of information.
Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For an overall
Establish Your Objective sense of cohesion, be as quick as you can. Spelling, grammar,
The objective of a complaint letter is to prompt an action that sentence and paragraph structure need not be perfect. Those
resolves a conflict. You should avoid threats and accusations details will be tuned up in the final step when you review and
when providing the details of your complaint. Stick to the facts revise your work.
and your reader will comprehend what went wrong and what Start with the point that you feel the strongest or most
action you expect to have implemented. confident about and then do the others. Remember to do this
Any company or business organization with a legitimate quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be
complaint lodged against them will act quickly to resolve the saved and edited.
problem. Doing so fulfills a primary business goal: keeping the Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most
customer satisfied. confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the
In the first sentence of the sample complaint letter, the writer others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion
clearly states that he has received an incorrectly filled order, you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.
establishing legitimate grounds for both his complaint and
request for corrective action. Close Your Letter
Briefly list your complaints. Sentence fragments are fine for this A complaint letter should close with a professional tone and
exercise. On completion your objective will be clearly stated. You style. Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a
can save and edit this list as you work. complimentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” and
your printed name.
Determine Your Scope
If your credit letter is written in conjunction with an official
The scope of a complaint letter should encompass the relevant
duty, place your title below your printed name as shown in
information necessary to resolve a problem, correct an error or
sample complaint letter. Additional information such as
repair a defect. It should provide the reader with exact descrip-
dictation remarks, notification of enclosures and copies sent to
tions, including dates, times and places. It should reference
other individuals should be placed beneath your title line.
purchase orders, invoice numbers, payment records and even
In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult
dollar amounts when appropriate.
the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options.
In the body of the sample complaint letter the writer politely
expresses dissatisfaction that a problem’s promised resolution
is long overdue. He supports his claim with facts.
Reviewing and revising your complaint letter is the final step in Deluxe Widgets. This was a
the writing process. You will check your draft in this step, COD order, paid for with check #250564 in the amount of
making sure that your objective is clear and your scope is $1,913.50, which has already
concise. Put yourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine the
cleared through our bank. If these Widgets cannot be shipped
rough draft. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able
February 20th, please
to comprehend the request quickly and if enough information
has been included to enable a timely response. cancel the order and send a refund check in the amount of
Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence $1,368.00 for the unfulfilled
structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice portion of the order.
is not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiry I have enclosed a copy of the original order.
to be strong, so write with an active voice.
Thank you,
Keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness of the whole unit.
Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of completeness. Ask Jim Dandy, Jr.
yourself if the transitions between paragraphs are working and General Manager
if your point of view, tone and style are consistent throughout Enclosure: Order Letter dated February 3, 2004
the text.
Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to
Inquiry Letters
A letter of inquiry is a letter of request. The objective is to get
confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at
the reader to respond with an action that satisfies the request.
all and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no real
The action taken can benefit either the writer or the reader, and
purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your
sometimes both. That being the case, the scope of an inquiry
reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all
letter must include enough information to help the reader
that is not helpful.
determine how best to respond.
And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion
In the sample inquiry letter there is a benefit to both the writer
now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body
and the reader. In it the writer asks for some information and
of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your
some help. She also makes an offer to the reader that provides
inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader
an incentive to act.
reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective
Here are the steps to follow when writing an inquiry letter:
with a question that calls for an action.
As shown in the sample complaint letter, the writer’ opening • Identify your reader.
paragraph states the problem and the closing paragraph requests • Establish your objective.
a specific solution. • Determine your scope.
Sample Complaint Letter • Organize your letter.
__________Dandy Manufacturing, Inc.__________ • Draft your letter
2525 E. 34th Street • Close Your Letter
Greeley, CO 80631 • Review and Revise Your Letter
February 18, 2004
Identify Your Reader
An inquiry letter should be addressed to a specific person
Better Widget Makers, Inc. whenever possible. Doing so improves your odds on receiving
5555 Widget Avenue a reply. Naming a person in your letter’s salutation, and on the
inside heading and envelope informs the reader that you have
Silver City, CO 80456
done your homework. It announces that you have identified
Attention: Customer Service Department them as being the likely contact person to whom you can direct
On February 9th I received an incorrect shipment of Widgets your request, and to whom you can turn for help.
fulfilling the order I placed Identifying your reader is not always possible, but often a quick
on February 3rd. Rather than the 300 Deluxe Yellow Widgets phone call will do the job. Most businesses and organizations
(Ref. # XT111) that I will supply names and contact procedures over the phone. It is
especially important to check on procedures, as it is not unusual
ordered, the shipment contained 300 Regular Yellow Widgets
for large companies to have specific protocols for contacting
(Ref. # XT101).
their employees and associates. You will be expected to follow
As per the instructions we received on the telephone, the them.
unwanted Regular Widgets were Remember that people do business with people first, busi-
shipped back the same day. It was promised that the correct nesses second. Valuable time can be lost when an inquiry letter
items would be shipped out is sent to the wrong person or address. In the inside heading of
the very next day, February 10th, and be delivered freight free the the sample inquiry letter the reader is identified by both his
following week. name and the title he holds. In situations where you do not
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options. exercise. Feel free to delete or add items. On completion you will
have determined your scope. You can save and edit this list as
Establish Your Objective
you work.
The objective in an inquiry letter is communicated by one or
more questions to which the writer desires a response. The Organize Your Letter
question(s) will either ask the reader to provide something Organizing an inquiry letter is a simple procedure designed to
beneficial to the writer, or ask the reader to take advantage of a help you draft your request. You have already started this task.
benefit that the writer has to offer. You have established your objective and determined the scope
Phrase your question(s) in a tone and style that is both courte- of your inquiry. Refer back to them. Together they make up the
ous and straightforward. Be specific and brief. If you are asking main components in the body of your letter.
for multiple pieces of information you might consider placing A simple outline will get you organized. A list will probably do
them into a bulleted list. This tactic acts like a snapshot the job. Consider each item on the list as having a logical place,
highlighting the components of your objective. either at the beginning, the middle or the end of your letter. Put
In the body of the sample inquiry letter, the writer states her each item where it belongs.
objective by asking the reader for help in compiling informa- With list in hand you can begin a rough draft. Most of your
tion. She then outlines the scope of her needs in a bulleted list thinking is done and you can concentrate on the writing task.
immediately following her request. You won’t be worried about forgetting something important.
Answer the questions raised by the sample statements or build It’s already on your list. You won’t be worried about in what
your own. You will end up with a list of things you want the order things should appear. Your list is already organized.
reader to do or provide. Sentence fragments are fine for this When you begin the rough draft your outline will become a
exercise. On completion you will have shaped your objective. checklist.
You can save and edit this list as you work. Consult the points you have established in your objective and
Determine Your Scope scope and decide where they belong. Are they part of the
The scope of an inquiry letter is contained in the information beginning, the middle or the end? Organize the information
you provide for the specific purpose of helping the reader grasp point by point in an order that makes sense. If it does not flow
your objective. You may safely assume that your reader is a busy naturally, you may have something out of order. Feel free to
person, so getting to the point is important. Your goal is to move things around. On completion you will have a simple
have the reader make a decision quickly and respond in a timely outline that can be saved and edited.
manner. Information that is not related to your objective Draft Your Letter
should be left out. Drafting an inquiry letter is a process by which your outline
Consider your targeted reader. Make it your business to now notes become sentences and paragraphs. Keep in mind; it’s
something about that person. What is their title or position? O.K. to be sloppy, you are writing a rough draft. Your spelling
Are they the president of the company or the shipping clerk? can be imperfect, your sentences can be grammatically incorrect
Do they have what you want? Can they do what you ask? and your paragraph structure can be less than impeccable. These
Give them the relevant background informationneeded in order things will be accounted for in the final step when you review
to make an informed decision. Let the reader know who you are and revise your work.
and something about your motive. If you are to receive some Write without fear. Your only concern is getting the point of
benefit, it may help to explain for what purpose the benefit will your objective across to the reader and providing the relevant
be used. If the reader is to receive some benefit, it may help to scope of information that supports your request. A draft will
offer an incentive to respond. get it all down on paper. Best advice; be quick about it. Enlarge
Put yourself in the reader’s shoes and ask yourself what and each sentence fragment in your outline until it expresses a
how much background information is needed in order to take complete thought. Gather your thoughts into paragraphs and
the action you are requesting. Would you already know every- then give yourself a rest. That’s right-take a break.
thing you need to know, or would you need a little more? Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most
While you are in their shoes you might also ask yourself how confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the
much persuasion you would you need in order to be moved to others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion
act. you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited.
This will help you determine whether you have supplied too Close Your Letter
much information, or not enough. It will also help you An inquiry letter should close with a professional tone and style.
determine what information needs to be qualified or amplified Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a compli-
for the reader’s benefit. mentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” and your
In the body of the sample inquiry letter the writer supplies printed name.
relevant logistical information that the reader will need in order If your inquiry letter is written in conjunction with an official
to respond quickly and effectively. duty, place your title below the printed name as in the sample
Make a list of relevant information that explains the reason for inquiry letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks,
your inquiry. Think about what your reader will need to know notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals
In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult Dept. of English
the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options. Colorado State University
Review and Revise Your Letter Fort Collins, CO 80523
Reviewing and revising your inquiry letter is the final step in the May 23, 1999
writing process. You will check your draft in this step, making Ms. Dawn Snyder,
sure that your objective is clear and your scope is concise. Put Professor
yourself in the reader’s shoes as you examine the rough draft. ICU Technical College
Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to compre- Portland, ME 04101
hend the request quickly and if enough information has been
Dear Ms. Snyder:
included to enable a timely response.
Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence I am a professor in English at Colorado State University
structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice organizing a seminar on concept mapping for a colloquium
is not as commanding as an active one. You want your inquiry coming up in December. Based on your experience in this area, I
to be strong, so write with an active voice. was wondering if you would be interested in attending.
The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness The deadline for admission is August 13. It would be a great
of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of honor to have you in attendance. Enclosed is an admissions
completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between para- form and more information on the colloquium.
graphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are Thank you for your time,
consistent throughout the text.
(signature here)
Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to
confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at I.B. Writing,
all and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no real Professor, CSU
purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your IW/gt
reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all Enclosure(4)
that is not helpful.
And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion
now is the time. The introduction needs to lead into the body
of your letter with a firm statement about the subject of your
inquiry and enough supporting information to keep the reader
reading. Your closing remarks need to reiterate your objective
with a question that calls for an action.
At the beginning of the sample inquiry letter the writer
introduces a situation and announces a compelling opportunity
from which the reader stands to gain.
At the end of the sample inquiry letter the writer reiterates her
request for help, establishes a timeline in which she would like
the help to be offered, asks for a meeting and strongly reinforces
the benefit to the reader.
As the title indicates, the purpose of this form is to obtain
information from the reader. If the reader is expecting the letter,
your task is easy. For example:
Could you please send me the admission requirements for your program so
I can apply for next fall semester?
A secretary or school official in the college department receives
many of these requests each month and would have no
problem comprehending the meaning or necessary actions.
If the reader is not expecting your letter, then it is more
difficult. In this case, following these four guidelines will be
helpful:
• State your purpose
• List your questions or requested action
• Offer something in return to encourage action
• Follow up with a thank you note, e-mail, or phone call to the
person who helped you with your request
By the end of the lesson you will The scope of an order letter should include only the informa-
tion needed to fulfill the order. Keep in mind that in most cases
• Learn about how to write a response to an inquiry letter
the seller does not need to know why you are placing the order,
• Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter. what it is going to be used for or for whom it is intended. Such
• Learn about the format of a complaint letter and order letter. information is unnecessary when placing an order.
• Get tips as to how do you draft a good business letter. In the sample order letter the writer purchases three specific
widgets from an out of date vendor catalogue. The reader can
Students now that we have learnt about acknowledgement infer that either an infrequent customer or a new customer is
letter and inquiry letter we will today learn about responding to placing the order.
an inquiry letter, complaint letter and sales letter. • Identify your reader.
Response to an Inquiry Letter • Establish your objective.
When you receive an inquiry letter, answer the questions as • Determine your scope.
clearly and as concisely as possible. If you cannot answer the
• Organize your letter.
questions, explain the reasons and offer to assist with alternate
methods. • Draft your letter
Example Response to an Inquiry Letter • Close Your Letter
Dawn Snyder, Professor • Review and Revise Your Letter
ICU Technical College Identify Your Reader
Portland, ME 04101
An order letter does not necessarily need a clearly identified
May 27, 1999 reader. In fact, most first-time and one-time-only orders are just
Professor I.B. Writing, addressed to the attention of the Sales department within a
Colorado State University company.
Fort Collins, CO 80523 In these cases, the inside heading of the letter will contain just
Dear Mr. Writing: the name and address of the company to whom the order is
being sent, and the salutation will be replaced by a simple
I would be honored to attend your colloquium on concept
attention getting device such as that shown in the sample order
mapping in December. I think you know how strongly I feel
letter.
about that paradigm and the role the great state of Maine has
Establishing an account with a company will announce that
played in its development.
your intention is to have an ongoing business relationship. At
I am enclosing the admissions sheet sent to me, as well as the that time a specific contact person, to whom all future orders
articles you requested that I have recently published on the can be directed, will be assigned to handle your account.
subject. Good luck on organizing the event- I cannot wait to be In situations where you do not have the name of a contact
there! person to address, consult the Formatting Business Letters
Sincerely, page for acceptable options.
(signature here) Establish Your Objective
I.B. Writing, The objective of an order letter is to clearly indicate to the
Professor, CSU recipient that you are making a purchase. You should be brief.
DS/ls In the body of the sample order letter, the writer begins by
Enclosure(114) saying that he is placing an order. He concludes his order with
c: Scott McRae, Dean of Department of Journalism some specific instructions.
reached should there be any difficulties fulfilling the order. Ask yourself, as the recipient, whether you are able to compre-
Make a simple list of what you want to purchase. Be specific. hend the request quickly and if enough information has been
Attention to detail is very important. Feel free to delete or add included to enable a timely response.
items. You can save and edit this list as you work. On comple- Look for the obvious errors first. Check for spelling, sentence
tion you will have determined your scope. structure and grammar mistakes. Remember that a passive voice
is not as commanding as an active one. You want your order to
Organize Your Letter
be strong, so write with an active voice.
Organizing a order letter is just a practical way to begin drafting The important thing to keep in mind is the overall cohesiveness
a written notification of pending purchase. You have already of the whole unit. Look for accuracy, clarity and a sense of
started this task by establishing your objective and determining completeness. Ask yourself if the transitions between para-
the scope. Refer back to them. Together they make up the main graphs are working and if your point of view, tone and style are
components in the body of your letter. consistent throughout the text.
A simple outline will get you organized. Make a list of the Examine your word choices carefully. Ambiguous words lead to
things that your credit letter will include and put them in a confusion. Jargon and abstract terms may not be understood at
sequential order that will best help your reader comprehend all and affectations, clichés and trite language serve no real
your response. purpose and will obscure your objective. You want to help your
If the information does not flow naturally, you may have reader understand exactly what it is that you want, so remove all
something out of order. Feel free to move things around. On that is not helpful.
completion you will have a simple outline And finally, if you have not written an opening or a conclusion
Draft Your Letter now is the time. The introduction should lead into the letter
Working from an outline is the simplest way to draft a adjust- with a firm statement about the details of your order. The
ment letter. Refer back to your list and turn each fragmentary conclusion should reiterate your objective and, when appropri-
sentence into a full and complete sentence expressing a single ate, contain any explicit instructions.
thought or idea. This is the most common form of business communication,
Concentrate on communicating your objective to your reader. and it is written for a manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer.
Be certain that you describe the scope of your solution with an When writing an order letter, include all the information the
appropriate amount of information. reader will need to identify the merchandise, such as
Keep in mind that you are writing a rough draft. For an overall • Quantity
sense of cohesion, be as quick as you can. Spelling, grammar,
• Model number
sentence and paragraph structure need not be perfect. Those
details will be tuned up in the final step when you review and • Dimensions
revise your work. • Capacity
Start with the point that you feel the strongest or most • Material
confident about and then do the others. Remember to do this • Price
quickly. On completion you will have a rough draft that can be
saved and edited. As shown in the sample order letter, the actual details are
Do one at a time, starting with the point that you are most formatted into a table bracketed by very short opening and
confident about turning into a complete sentence. Then do the closing paragraphs.
others. Remember, it is best to do this quickly. On completion Example Order Letter
you will have a rough draft that can be saved and edited. Dept. of English
Close Your Letter Colorado State University
An order letter should close with a professional tone and style. Fort Collins, CO 80523
Once your last paragraph is written, sign off between a compli- May 23, 1999
mentary close such as “Sincerely” or “Thank you,” and your Ms. Dawn Snyder,
printed name. Professor
If your order letter is written in conjunction with an official ICU Technical College
duty, place your title below the printed name as in the sample Portland, ME 04101
order letter. Additional information such as dictation remarks, Dear Ms. Snyder:
notification of attachments and copies sent to other individuals
should be placed beneath your title line. Would you please send me the following articles via COD?
In situations where you are unsure of the proper close, consult According to your Web site, all articles are in your possession
the Formatting Business Letters page for acceptable options. and all is needed is the article name, date, and number of pages.
Reply to a letter of
Reply to a complaint
enquiry
n Introductory paragraph n Introductory paragraph
– Acknowledge receipt and express – Acknowledge receipt and thank the
appreciation customer
n Other paragraphs n Other paragraphs
– Answer all questions in detail – Explain the cause of the problem
– Recommend someone to help ifif you
you are
are – Apologize
Apologize ifif needed
needed
not able to help – Explain how you plan to solve the
n Closing paragraph problem
– Promote goodwill, offer further assistance n Closing paragraph of goodwill
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
• Correct Keep Your Sentence Average Length Low
• Courteous Sentence length is crucial to good writing. Almost everything
• Conversational written by good writers has an average sentence length of
between 15 and 20 words. This doesn’t mean writing every
• Convincing
sentence the same length. Good writers naturally vary the length
• Complete and rhythm of their sentences—longer sentences balanced with
When you write a letter, you are trying to convince someone to shorter ones—but they keep their average sentence length well
act or react in a positive way. Your reader will respond quickly below 20 words.
only if your meaning is crystal clear. Compare These Examples
Put yourself in the reader’s shoes and write in a friendly and
helpful tone. Don’t represent your company as one that cannot
make a mistake and must always be in the right. Try not to reply
in the normal bland and defensive way of organizations—write Long Sentence Shorter Sentences
a sincere and helpful letter.
Show you are interested in the reader’s circumstances. If he or I refer to my letter of 13th I have not yet received
she has mentioned something personal in the letter, refer to it June and am writing to advise your reply to my letter of
in your reply. This builds a bridge between you and the reader. you that if we do not receive 13th June. If we do not
Read the original letter carefully and see if there is something your completed application receive your completed
form within the next fourteen application form within
you can put in your letter to show your interest.
days, I shall have no fourteen days, I shall have
Writing Your Business Plan in Plain alternative but to arrange to arrange property
English property insurance on the insurance on the bank's
bank's block policy. (One block policy.
Good writing is effortless reading that makes you want to read Sentence—45 words)
more. It is clear and concise, uses short sentences and simple
(Two sentences—13 words
words. It keeps to the facts and is easy to read and to under-
and 24 words)
stand.
Plain English is clear English. It is simple and direct but not
simplistic or patronising. Using plain English doesn’t mean Use Simple Words Rather than Complex
everyone’s writing must sound the same. There is no one ‘right’ Ones
way to express an idea. There’s plenty of room for your own Many writers have difficulty keeping their message simple and
style—but it will only blossom once you have got rid of the clear. Instead of using everyday words they use complex or
poor writing habits that are typical of most business writing unfamiliar words. Simple, everday words will help you get your
Here are some of the key techniques to help you write in plain message across. Too often we use words such as additional,
English: indicate, initiate and proliferate for extra, show, start and
spread.
Use Active Verbs Rather Than Passive
Verbs
Using active verbs rather than passive verbs is the key to good Complex words Simple words
writing. Why? Because passive verbs are longwinded, ambigu-
ous, impersonal and dull. Active verbs make your writing As we noted in the As we noted in the previous
simpler, less formal, clearer and more precise. Here’s an example: preceding section, if you section, if you bought extra
Passive: It was agreed by the committee... purchased additional printer printer equipment, such as
options, such as a second a second printer tray, you
Active: The committee agreed...
printer tray, it is a must check you install it
Passive: At the last meeting a report was made by the Secre- requirement you verify its correctly.
tary... correct installation.
Active: At the last meeting the Secretary reported...
Passive: This form should be signed and should be returned
to me. Edit Wordy Phrases
Active: You should sign the form and return it to me. Padding is the enemy of good writing. Unnecessary words and
In switching your style from passive verbs to active verbs phrases clutter up sentences and obscure meaning. By compari-
throughout your writing, you face several problems. son, economy of words is the mark of good writing. You have
to learn to make every word count in technical documents. You
• You must accurately spot them. Often writers miss passive
must edit ruthlessly, cutting any word. Set yourself a target of
verbs or try to change verbs that are already active.
cutting 10 to 20 percent of the words in your document.
• You need to measure your use of passive verbs. One or two
passive verbs a page will not ruin your style, nine or ten will.
Avoid Jargon and Technical Terms For example, what is a device, output or facility. Such words
It’s up to you to judge how much you need to explain your are so abstract they become meaningless to the reader. String
industry jargon and specialist terms by putting yourself in your them together, such as output device and you have instant
readers’ shoes. Don’t overestimate your readers’ understanding jargon for the word printer. Add them to acronyms and you
of terms because they may have a hazy idea of the true defini- can produce CAS Facility which in turn means Civic Amenity
tion. Site Facility, pure jargon for Council Recycling Site.
Acronym Meaning
CRA Camera-ready Artwork
DPI Dots Per Inch
DTP Desktop Publishing
PMS Pantone Matching System
SC Spot Color
UGD User Guide Documentation
How many did you get right? Two out of six? Probably DPI
for dots per inch and DTP for desktop publishing as these are
industry terms. Many people would not recognize these two. As
for CRA, camera-ready artwork would be better. SC for spot
color is an unnecessary shortened form and UGD for User
Guide Documentation is jargon for a manual.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
sample business letter. Parts of that business letter will be
• Be perfect in writing letter particularly business letters.
discussed. Different formats of typed business letters will be
discussed.
Students, just learning the tips and format of letters will not Here is the form that will be used:
help you in the long run. As you all know ‘practice makes a man
perfect’ this lesson will help you remember what you studied in 4 blank lines from top of page
lesson 14 and 15 and try to put your learning into practice. ( Heading )
I am sure at the end of the lesson you’ll have more confident skip line
in writing business letters. (Inside Address/address to recipient)
So lets start the exercise _____________________________
_____________________________
Practice Exercise on Personal Letter 1 blank line
Writing Skills Dear Sir or Madam: (Salutation or Greeting)
Overview : Students need to practice writing a friendly 1 blank line(Body)
letter. Please send me any information that is available on the events
Activity Time: 50 minutes in (City name) during the month of June. My mother, father,
brother, and I plan to visit the area and will also need a list of
Objectives:
accommodations and restaurants. Sometimes we camp if there
1. As a result of this activity, the students will is a nearby campground. Please supply this information, also.
2. Better understand parts of a greeting letter and envelope. Directions to places and maps of the area would be helpful.
3. Be able to address an envelope. 1 blank line
Do you have a web site where I might learn more about your
4. Be able to write a letter to a friend.
city?
Materials 1 blank line
Poster of a letter and envelope I will appreciate any pamphlets or information sheets that you
Labels to identify the parts of the letter and envelope could send me along with the activities, accommodations, and
Piece of paper and a envelope for each student in the class their directions to help us plan a fun and meaningful vacation.
1 blank line
Activities and Procedures Very truly yours, (Closing)
1. Call on different students to point out different parts of a 3 blank lines for your handwritten (Signature)
letter and envelope.
(Your Name)
2. The class will discuss writing a letter together (e.g., the class
could discuss writing to a person in the class or the principal Now students will discuss possible business letters that
of the school). they may want or need to write in the future. Envelopes
will be prepared during this class, also.
3. Have students write a friendly letter and address an envelope
to anyone they would like to write.
Evalution : This letter will be put into the student letter
portfolio. On the fifth day spent on friendly letters, students
will choose one of theirs to read aloud to the class. If this letter
is chosen, students will type the letter and spell check it on the
computer. The chosen letter will be graded according to the
teacher’s rubric for letter writing evaluation.
Practice Exercise on Business Letter
Writing Skills
Objective
1. Students will become familiar with business letters and the
difference between a business letter and friendly letter.
2. Students will know how to address an envelope for sending
business mail.
Score 1 2 3 4
Letter is unattractive Letter appears busy The letter is eye-
or inappropriate. or boring. Text may catching and The letter is
Text is difficult to be difficult to read. attractive. Text is creatively designed
read. It does not May have some easy to read. with easily read text.
Layout/ Design
have proper grammar and or Grammar, style, and Grammar, style, and
grammar or punctuation that punctuation is purpose all excellent
punctuation for a indicates it is a indicative of a for a friendly letter.
friendly letter. friendly letter. friendly letter.
Information is
Information is Some information is accurate and
Information is well
Information, style, poorly written, provided, but is complete, is
written and
audience, tone inaccurate, or limited or creatively written,
interesting to read.
incomplete. inaccurate. and is cleverly
presented.
Most friendly letter Some friendly letter Letter is complete
Accurate Parts of the Improper form is
elements out of elements may be with all required
Friendly Letter used.
place or missing. missing. elements.
Letter
Grammar, Information Style, purpose,
Grammar, Excellent job on
punctuation, and mislabled or missing. audience, grammar,
Punctuation, and presentation, style,
choice of words Inaccurate and punctuation all
choice of words for grammar, and
poor for a friendly punctuation or fair and indicative of
the friendly letter punctuation.
letter. grammar. a friendly letter.
Students are always
Students are often on task, stay in their
Following Students Students stay in
out of their area own area, and work
Classroom occasionally leave their area and talk
without permission quietly. Students
Guidelines and area without quietly to their own
and are disruptive to followed project
Directions permission. partner only.
the class. directions and
classroom directions.
Heading 15 points
Inside Address 15 points
Greeting 10 points
Body 40 points
Closing 10 points
Signature 10 points
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Score 1 2 3 4
Letter appears busy The letter is eye-
Letter is unattractive
or boring. Text may catching and The letter is creatively
or inappropriate.
be difficult to read. attractive. Text is designed with easily
Text is difficult to
May have some easy to read. read text. Grammar,
Layout/ Design read. It does not have
grammar and or Grammar, style, and style, and purpose all
proper grammar or
punctuation that punctuation is excellent for a
punctuation for a
indicates it is a indicative of a business letter.
business letter.
business letter. business letter.
Information is
Information is poorly Some information is Information is well accurate and
Information, style,
written, inaccurate, or provided, but is written and complete, is creatively
audience, tone
incomplete. limited or inaccurate. interesting to read. written, and is cleverly
presented.
Most business letter Some business letter Letter is complete
Accurate Parts of the Improper form is
elements out of place elements may be with all required
Friendly Letter used.
or missing. missing. elements.
Information Style, purpose,
Grammar, Grammar, Excellent job on
mislabled or missing. audience, grammar,
Punctuation, and punctuation, and presentation, style,
Inaccurate and punctuation all
choice of words for choice of words poor grammar, and
punctuation or fair and indicative of
the friendly letter for a business letter. punctuation.
grammar. a business letter.
Students are always
Students are often on task, stay in their
Students stay in their
Following Classroom out of their area Students occasionally own area, and work
area and talk quietly
Guidelines and without permission leave area without quietly. Students
to their own partner
Directions and are disruptive to permission. followed project
only.
the class. directions and
classroom directions.
Letter appears busy The letter is eye-
Letter is unattractive
or boring. Text may catching and The letter is creatively
or inappropriate.
be difficult to read. attractive. Text is designed with easily
Text is difficult to
May have some easy to read. read text. Grammar,
Layout/ Design read. It does not have
grammar and or Grammar, style, and style, and purpose all
proper grammar or
punctuation that punctuation is excellent for a
punctuation for a
indicates it is a indicative of a business letter.
business letter.
business letter. business letter.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Your application letter is one of your most important job- Organize the middle paragraphs in terms of the qualifications
search documents. An effective letter can get you a phone call for that best suit you for the job and the organization. That is, if
an interview, but a poorly written application letter usually spells your on-the-job experience is your strongest qualification,
continued unemployment. The difference can be a matter of discuss it in detail and show how you can apply it to the needs
how you handle a few key points. The following are some tips of the company. Or if you were president of the Marketing
to help you develop effective application letters. Club and you are applying for a position in marketing or sales,
elaborate on the valuable experience you gained and how you
Individualizing Your Letter
can put it to work for them. If special projects you’ve done
Give your readers some insight into you as an individual. In the
apply directly to the job you are seeking, explain them in detail.
example below the writer chose to describe particular experiences
Be specific. Use numbers, names of equipment you’ve used, or
and skills that could not be generalized to most other recent
features of the project that may apply to the job you want.
graduates. Draft your letter to show how your individual
qualities can contribute to the organization. This is your letter, One strong qualification, described so that the reader can picture
so avoid simply copying the form and style of other letters you actively involved on the job, can be enough. You can then
you’ve seen. Instead, strive to make your letter represent your refer your reader to your resume for a summary of your other
individuality and your capabilities. qualifications. If you have two or three areas that you think are
strong, you can develop additional paragraphs. Make your letter
Addressing a Specific Person strong enough to convince readers that your distinctive
Preferably, the person you write to should be the individual
background qualifies you for the job but not so long that
doing the hiring for the position you’re seeking. Look for this
length will turn readers off. Some employers recommend a
person’s name in company publications found, if the name is
maximum of four paragraphs.
unavailable in these places, phone the organization and ask for
the person’s name or at least the name of the personnel Other Tips
manager. • Refer to your resume. Be sure to refer to your enclosed
Catching Your Reader’s Attention resume at the most appropriate point in your letter, for
Your introduction should get your reader’s attention, stimulate example, in the discussion of your qualifications or in the
interest, and be appropriate to the job you are seeking. For closing paragraph.
example, you may want to begin with a reference to an adver- • Conclude with a clear, courteous request to set up an
tisement that prompted your application. Such a reference interview, and suggest a procedure for doing so. The date
makes your reason for contacting the company clear and and place for the interview should be convenient for the
indicates to them that their advertising has been effective. Or interviewer. However, you’re welcome to suggest a range of
you may want to open by referring to the company’s product, dates and places convenient to you, especially if you travel at
which you want to promote. Such a reference shows your your own expense or have a restricted schedule. Be specific
knowledge of the company. Whatever opening strategy you use, about how your reader should contact you. If you ask for a
try to begin where your reader is and lead quickly to your phone call, give your phone number and the days and times
purpose in writing. of the week when you can be reached.
First Paragraph Tips • Be professional. Make sure your letter is professional in
Make your goal clear. format, organization, style, grammar, and mechanics.
Maintain a courteous tone throughout the letter and
• If you’re answering an advertisement, name the position
eliminate all errors. Remember that readers often “deselect”
stated in the ad and identify the source, for example: “your
applicants because of the appearance of the letter.
advertisement for a graphic artist, which appeared in the
Times of India, May 15, 1998,...” • Seek advice. It’s always good idea to prepare at least one
draft to show to a critical reader for comments and
• If you’re prospecting for a job, try to identify the job title
suggestions before revising and sending the letter.
used by the organization.
• If a specific position title isn’t available or if you wish to Sample Letter
apply for a line of work that may come under several titles, 311 Nestor Street
you may decide to adapt the professional objective stated in West Lafayette, IN 47902
your resume. June 6, 1998
Additionally, in your first paragraph you should provide a Ms. Christine Rennick
preview of the rest of your letter. This tells your reader what to Engineer
look for and lets him or her know immediately how your Aerosol Monitoring and Analysis, Inc.
qualifications fit the requirements of the job. In the example P.O. Box 233
letter, the last sentence of the first paragraph refers to specific Gulltown, MD 21038
work experience that is detailed in the following paragraph.
Dear Ms. Rennick:
Dr. Saul Wilder, a consultant to your firm and my Organizational
Management professor, has informed me that Aerosol Monitoring and
First Lastname
Enclosure: resume
If there are, it’s not the end of the world. Are those gaps legiti- experience, but should also give the reader a good indication of
mate? What were you doing during that time? Can you turn your the type of person you are. It needs to have personality.
absence from the workplace into a positive virtue? For example, if Following are some helpful hints on getting started, Definition
you were travelling during a gap of three months or so, what did it of a Resume and Types of CV’s.
teach you. Try to sell it as a gain, rather than as a loss.
Getting Started
Reasons For Leaving Each Position? Let’s start at the beginning, what exactly is a CV and what is it’s
Figure out the best way to explain why you left each position. purpose.
The idea is to present your move in the best light possible.
The sole purpose of a CV is to show the reader what you are
Above all, be honest. Getting caught in a lie is far worse than
capable of.
having to admit that you didn’t like a particular job. Remember,
at some point your potential employer will contact your past The CV is your selling document. It needs to be able to show
employer to get their side of the story. your prospective employer that you are the person that they are
looking for. This goes beyond experience, training and skills. It
Resume Do’s & Don’ts needs to demonstrate your personal strengths, capabilities and
Do the type of person you are.
• Keep to one or two pages depending on experience It also needs to be a concise document. Most employers will
• Describe your main functions, not what you did incidentally skim through all the CVs and put aside only 5-10 that might be
worth reading. On average an employer will only spend around
• Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your
1-3 minutes on each CV. In other words your CV has to stand
present application
out from the others.
• Include any special recognition, accomplishments or projects
This does not mean that the CV should be full of graphics,
you were involved with
colours or printed on coloured paper. Employers feel that if
• Describe your former/current employer, including size of you have to use gimmicks to impress them, then you probably
company, type of industry, etc. don’t have anything to offer. The CV needs to have a clean,
• Write about yourself in a positive light professional look about it. It needs to be easy to read and
• Strive to be concise and target your information to the should look balanced.
employer The format or style you choose depends on the type of CV that
you require, but no matter which one, the resume should
Don’t
always be easy to follow and read.
• Try to fit too much on the page. (Leave some space on the
page) Types of CV’s
The type of CV you decide on will depend entirely on the type
• List personal information such as marital status, race, age, etc.
of position you are applying for. The key is to analyze what the
• Leave suspicious gaps in your Work History employer will be looking for and ensuring your CV will sell you
• Include salary requirements (leave that until an interview or in the best possible way.
later) For example if you are applying for a Project Manager position,
• Put a photograph on your resume (even if you do have a then the projects that you have handled in the past will be
scanner) important. Your CV needs to list the type of projects, your
• Use negative expressions or comments about previous responsibilities and any achievements. It is important to show
employers the relevance of what you have done in the past as it relates to
the position you are applying for.
• Include any health information
On the other hand, if the position you are applying for is more
• Include references (separate sheet please)
a “hands-on” type of job, and then your CV needs to demon-
• Include reasons for leaving a previous job (save your reasons strate your “hands-on” experience in these areas. Again
for the interview) highlighting the relevance to the position.
Preparing the CV The Chronological CV is the easiest to write. It should always
Resume writing seems to be the part that gives people the most be written with your current or most recent position first.
trouble. It isn’t that hard if you follow some guidelines. Showing your responsibilities and achievements that would be
At some stage or another during your life, you will need to relevant to this position.
prepare a CV. If you are like most people, you will have many If the job is more of a technical nature, then you need to prepare
attempts at preparing your resume before you actually get a “technical style” resume. There are other types of resumes,
anything decent together. The problem is generally due to a lack Graduates need to use a different approach. A different approach
in planning. would be used for someone seeking a career change.
The key to resume writing excellence is in presenting it the right The style that you choose will depend on which one will serve
way. Most people make the error of just listing their experience you best.
and qualifications, this ends up being a rather boring document.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
To successfully sell yourself to a prospective employer, as a handle those tricky questions, preparation, what to take with
graduate, you need to show him your strengths and minimize you, what to discuss and what not to discuss.
your weaker points. The way to do this successfully is to The job interview is a time for them to get to know you better.
emphasize on your studies and the relevant experience you have. They have already decided that you have the experience and
At this stage of your career, it is probable that your recent knowledge that they require, that is why they want to meet you
graduate studies are your biggest selling point and therefore in person. What they really want to see at the interview is who
they need to be at the forefront of the CV, The CV should be you are. Your attitude and personality are going to be the most
formatted in a way so that straight after your personal details important factors in the decision making process.
and the career statement, your education is listed.
Preparing For Job Interviews
The order in which you list your subjects is very important. Preparing for job interviews is probably the most important
Subjects that are relevant to the position you are applying for aspect. Do this right and you will breeze through it, go
should be listed first, highlight any special marks or achieve- unprepared and you will fail miserably. Preparing for a job
ments in each subject. Thesis and papers written should also be interview means getting your mind right and feeling confident.
mentioned just as you would with any achievements. Remember you are the best person for the job, you just have to
If you have failed or not completed any subjects, do not show them that.
mention these, if need be they can be mentioned at the Firstly do some research on the company and its products,
interview. know who their customers are and what the company’s
The CV should also mention any work experience (paid or not objective is. Once you have this information, then make a list
paid) that you have. Start by listing the most relevant work first of what skills or knowledge you have that would be valuable to
and work your way through others. them. You cannot sell yourself to them if you don’t know
Employers like to know what you are capable of, and even if what it is you are selling.
you were paying your way through College by cooking at the Next thing to prepare is your physical appearance. You have to
local diner, the fact that you held a responsible position and dress right for job interviews, don’t wear anything too flashy,
have some skills becomes relevant. The key here is to try and neat and clean are more important than the latest fashion. The
turn your skills around and demonstrate how they are valuable aim is to look professional without overdoing it. If you are not
to the new job. Don’t expect the employer to see the relevance comfortable with a shirt and tie, it might be best not to wear
here, it is up to you to highlight them. one, unless the job will require you to dress this way. It is
For example let’s say you worked at the local video store, not important that you feel comfortable, the last thing you want is to
very relevant to Engineering right? Wrong, it is how you present be worried about your appearance during the interview. It will
the information that makes all the difference. only make you nervous and you will quickly lose confidence.
Mentioning things like “customer service”, “inventory control”, Work out what you need to take with you. A copy of your CV,
“working under stressful conditions” or even “maintaining originals (and copies) of your qualification papers, copies of
accurate records” can take on a new meaning when applied to references, samples of your work (if applicable) and anything
the Engineering profession. else that they may want to see. Again make sure everything is
well organised and neatly presented. Don’t take a pile of
What you want to achieve with this graduate CV style, is to
paperwork that you have to sift through for ten minutes to find
demonstrate that you have the qualifications, some relevant
something, that will give them the impression that your are
experience and most importantly the right attitude.
disorganised.
Throughout the CV you should be displaying an eagerness to
learn and a high degree of motivation. This is what a prospec-
Interviewing Methods
As the job market becomes more competitive, so do screening
tive employer will be looking for. Someone that is willing to
methods. Employing a new person is an expensive exercise and
learn, study further and adapt easily.
companies want to ensure they do it right. When the job
When applying for a position, ensure you have a good applica- market becomes more competitive, new interviewing methods
tion letter, written specifically for the position and highlighting are introduced. It is not uncommon these days to be put
your qualification and most importantly the right attitude. The through a series of tests and interviews before a company
same applies with the interview, you need to demonstrate these makes the final decision.
skills and an enthusiastic attitude, that will get you the job! Some of the processes that you might experience include:
Guide to Successful Job Interviews Aptitude tests: These tests are designed to find your personal-
Handling job interviews is probably the most critical part of the ity traits. They would be looking for a particular type of person
whole job searching process. There are numerous books on the and this test will show them if you fit their profile. You can’t
subject and just about everyone has something to say on the cheat in these tests, if you attempt to “formulate” your
matter. Mention job interviews and most people will have a answers, the results of the test will show. Be honest here, you
horror story to tell you about some experience they had. can’t hide who you are.
This section has been written to give you some practical advice
on handling job interviews successfully. We’ll discuss various
your analytical and logical thinking patterns. To some extent job interview. Don’t panic, there is a reason why these ques-
general knowledge would be useful, however they are really tions are asked and that is to see how you handle a difficult
geared towards finding out how you analyse data and find situation. Being prepared is always the best policy.
solutions to problems. Again it is impossible to cheat on these Following are some samples of questions and some advice on
tests, but a little preparation would go a long way. Prepare for how to handle them efficiently.
this test by doing some logical thinking puzzles. There are lots
How would you handle a difficult customer?: Be careful here,
out there in the bookshops.
don’t say that you have never had a difficult customer as anyone
General knowledge : Tests in this section include mathemati- who has dealt with customers knows that is impossible. Use a
cal, grammar, spelling and general knowledge. Preparing to take sample to demonstrate how you handle a difficult customer.
some of these will include doing a revision of you school work. Talk about an incident at a previous job (where, when), explain
Forget the calculator and go back to pencil and paper. If you are the situation, how you handled it, and what the outcome was.
a wiz at maths, then you should have no problem, but if you
Why should we choose you? : Ask yourself why you applied,
are like the rest of us that reaches out for the calculator, then get
what makes you prefect for this position, what can the company
some practice prior to attending.
gain from hiring you, what have you got to offer, how would
Panel Job Interviews : These can be nerve wracking types of you handle this job. This is what they want to know, so go
interviews, however, most job interviews these days include a ahead and tell them.
panel. The panel might just 2 people or it can be as many as 10.
Tell me about yourself: Split your answer into two, the
To handle this interview well, you must appear to be confident,
professional and the personal level. Both are just as important,
don’t hesitate too long before you give an answer. Watch your
how you move from one to the other depends on what you
posture and try not to fidget too much. When answering a
have to say. The best way to answer this job interview question
question make eye contact with one or two of the people. Find
is to give a brief summary of your life, professional and
a friendly face and use that person for most of your eye contact,
personal, less emphasis on the early past, more emphasis on the
it will help in making you feel more relaxed.
present and the future.
One on one job interviews : These type of interviews are
What are your weaknesses?: Don’t say ‘I don’t have any”.
easier to handle, they are generally more informal. The best way
Everyone has weaknesses and it takes strength to recognize
to handle these type of interviews is to relate to them as a form
them. Say something relevant but not hugely important to the
of conversation. You should ask questions and exchange
specific position, and always add a positive. Something like “I
information as you would during a normal conversation. Offer
haven’t had a lot of exposure to on-site maintenance, however
your own information as needed without waiting to be asked.
I am looking forward to being more involved in dealing with
Handling job interview questions: customers directly and learning their needs”.
There are various types of questions asked at a job interview. What are your strengths?: Customize your answer to meet the
Most job interviews start with chit-chat type of questions, these position requirements, remember the things they asked for in
are designed to break the ice and get the conversation flowing. the advertisement? Tell them your strengths but also demon-
Questions like “did it take you long to get here”, “did you find strate them and show them how they would apply to this job.
the place alright”, “were you able to find parking”. Most of Use samples of how your strengths were valuable, use the
these just require a “yes, no problem” type of response, you can “why, where, when, how” demonstrate and prove your
elaborate more if you wish, however ensure that you don’t strengths.
provide information that will give them a bad impression.
Job interviews are not that bad, so long as you are prepared.
Saying something like “It took me ages to get here, traffic was
Maintain good eye contact and ensure that you have some
so bad, I hate travelling to this side of town..” would not
questions to ask. job interviews are a two way process, a
make a good impression. If this is the place where you would
conversation where they want to get to know you better and
be working, they would automatically be worried that you will
you want to find out more about the position.
be late to work everyday.
Above all, try and keep calm, smile and show professionalism.
Most questions will be geared towards finding out a bit more
about you. They might be historical questions regarding your E-mailing Resumes
previous employment or education, or they may be hypothetical Submitting a resume to an employer via e-mail requires a little
questions “what if...”. These are geared to finding out how thought if you are going to avoid some of the more common
you would handle a situation or to find out your personal pitfalls. Do you send your resume in the body of an e-mail or
views to certain areas. as an attachment? If you are sending an attachment, what
Whenever answering a job interview question, give as much format should it be in? Perhaps you want to take advantage of
information as you can. Tell them why, where, when and how. the web and demonstrate your online savvy by serving your
In other words use samples to prove what you are saying. Make resume straight off the Internet?
a statement, then qualify it by giving a sample of a situation and
how you handled it.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
E-mail properly formatted version for later use if the employer wishes
You may have spent hours on Word or WordPerfect nicely to pursue you as a potential employee.
formatting your resume, but when you send it in the body of Some advice on creating attachments might also be useful here.
an e-mail, guess what? All your hard work gets turned into crazy Try to create your attachment in a format you know a large
ampersands, dollar signs and *@*&**$. number of people will be able to access. Word is good for most
How Do You Avoid This? businesses, while WordPerfect is ideal only if you are sending
Prepare a special copy of your resume for inclusion in the body your resume to a legal firm. Try to avoid creating and attaching
of an e-mail. Create your resume in a plain text (ASCII) format your resume as MS Works files or Wordstar, etc. You may use
with an application like Windows’ WordPad or Notepad. If these programs to create basic .txt or .doc files though, which
you prefer to use your favorite Word Processor (Word, Works, anyone should be able to view.
WordPerfect), they’ll also allow you to save your resume to plain Some people attach their resumes as HTML files. This has the
text. No matter what operating system or e-mail client applica- advantage of being almost as universal as a text or document
tion the employer is using, they’ll be able to read your resume if file because most businesses have a browser on their worksta-
it’s in text form. tions. HTML files are restricted in their formatting though and
While including your resume in the body of an e-mail gives it do not always copy nicely to other text based programs,
near guaranteed accessibility, there is the problem of formatting. especially those used as resume databases by companies.
Somehow or other, e-mails invariably look worse once they’ve Serving Your Resume off the Web
gone through the wringer known as the Internet. A perfectly You want to show employers you are web savvy so you take
justified e-mail message with bolding and italics becomes a your resume and turn it into a website. Now you send prospec-
series of jagged text edges and lost formatting. tive employers an e-mail, directing them to your site, “If you
Appearance is very important in a resume and although want to see my resume, click here.”
potential employers realize the nature of e-mail is disorganized Big mistake. What busy employer is going to take the time to
when it comes to style, they still like to see a nice looking connect to the Internet to download the resume of a person
resume. It’s the nature of employers. they know nearly nothing about?
How do you achieve both goals - universal readability and Do not expect an employer to do your hard work for you. If
presentability? First, keep the resume simple. Align all the text you send an employer an e-mail directing them to your resume,
to the left of the page. Don’t make it more complicated than you are committing a gross breach of business etiquette (not to
that. Forget tab spaces. Forget bolding and italicizing. Use be confused with netiquette).
upper-case letters and line breaks to create headings rather than
What you are doing is the offline equivalent of mailing an
differing sizes of fonts.
employer a letter which says, “If you want to see my resume,
Choose a basic font that exists on everyone’s machine: Times send a stamped addressed envelope to such and such address
Roman, Arial or Courier are common examples. Make sure no and I’ll mail it back to you.”
line exceeds 72 characters; after that it may break awkwardly and
Not all employers have easy access to the web. Many companies
create an odd pattern of sentences on down to the bottom of
prohibit internal use of the web owing to productivity issues.
the resume.
Other times, your vaunted webpage will come back “Not
Finally, e-mail yourself a copy of your resume and proof-read it. Found” or your page may take forever to load. Perhaps your
Does it make sense? Good, start sending it out to companies. resume is linked to other pages on your site with less than
E-mailing Your Resume as an Attachment savory material. Even if the potential employer does visit your
What about sending your resume as an attachment and site, copying your resume as HTML can be a pain (forget about
avoiding the trouble of converting your resume to a text file? formatting, it’s every word for itself).
Here are some of the disadvantages associated with e-mailing In most cases, the employer will probably not bother with your
your resume as an attachment: resume at all.
i. Opening an attachment can be time-consuming if you are an It is, however, acceptable to include a link to your online resume
employer answering hundreds of applications a day. as long as you also send a text copy with the e-mail. Indeed,
ii Attachments are sometimes corrupted by the time an your web resume might well contain more information or
employer tries opening the file. samples of your work than it would be possible or desirable to
include in a normal resume.
iii. Attachments are sometimes created in formats the employer
cannot open (i.e. Works, Wordstar).
Ever wonder how many employers never got back to you
because they couldn’t/wouldn’t open your resume? Scary
thought, isn’t it? All those missed opportunities.
So, should you resist sending your beautifully formatted Word
document altogether? The answer is no. Include your resume in
LESSON 19:
OFFER OF EMPLOYMENT
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
in the company an necessary. It is useful to ask previous employers for testimonials, as there
8 To carry out any other tasks as requested by your supervisor. will be useful when applying for future posts.
LD/ST Calcutta Technical College
20 June 2000 16 Gandhi Nagar
Think Calcutta
Discuss the difference between a job description and a job specification Telephone: 5 876789
Letter of acceptance Fax: 5876889
Letter of acceptance as the word says it all, is given to the HB/GB
company accepting the job offer as well as the terms and 28 June 2000
conditions. It is writing a formal letter to the company accepting
the post. Keep it simple. To Whom It May Concern
26 Gandhi Nagar Miss Anita Gupta has been part-time Administration Assistant
in our General Office from 24 May 1999 to 28 June 2000. We
Calcutta asked her to join us on a permanent part-time basis after she
25 June 2000 had been with us for several short periods of work experience
Ankita Sharma during her Business Administration course.
Human Relations Manager Miss Gupta carried out a wide range of general office duties
Moonlit Holding plc including opening and distributing mail, photocopying, filing,
dealing with general telephone and walk-in enquiries and
Temple Street entering data into out computer systems.
Delhi A conscientious, hard-working and reliable employee, Miss
Dear Mrs. Sharma Gupta set herself very high standards in her work. She had a
Telephone Executive (Marketing) pleasant telephone manner and was always courteous when
dealing with her colleagues and external contacts. She was a
Thank you for your letter of 20 June 2000.
good timekeeper and had a good attendance record.
I am please to confirm my acceptance of this post as detailed in
Miss Gupta has a friendly, outgoing personality, a good sense
the job Description and Contract of Employment.
of humor and she works well as part of a team.
I shall look forward to joining the staff of Aurora Holdings plc.
I feel sure that Miss Gupta will be an asset of any organization.
Yours sincerely
Helen Bradley (Mrs.)
Administration Manager
Anita Gupta (Miss)
Writing a Letter of Resignation
Letter of Resignation Keep Your Letter of Resignation Simple
When you have been in employment and want to leave for Writing a letter of resignation may be an unpleasant task, but
whatever reason. It is usual to write a formal letter resigning there’s really not that much to it. In its simplest form, you just
from your post. date your letter of resignation, say when and what you’re
25 June 2000 resigning, sign it, hand it over, and that’s it. Five minutes, and
Mrs. Ruby Bhatia you’re done.
Administration Manager Unless you possess the judgment of an attorney and style of a
Moonlit Holdings plc professional writer, don’t write much more in your letter of
resignation, if you wish to use your soon-to-be ex-employer as
Temple Street, Delhi ll a reference. There’s really no need to explain your reasons for
Dear Mrs. Bhatia resigning anyway. For one thing, it’s really nobody’s business
Further to our discussion today I regret to inform you that I but your own. For another, however honorable your reasons
wish to give one month’s notice of my resignation from the may be, it’s very hard to strike just the right tone in writing.
company. My last day of work will be Friday 30 July. For example, if you write in your letter of resignation that
I have been very happy working here and found my work very you’ve found a more challenging career opportunity, it implies
varied and enjoyable. I have gained a lot of experience in many that you’re bored with your current job. If you write that you’re
areas which I am sure I shall find useful in future employment. having family or health problems, you just documented that
Thank you for your help and guidance. you might be a risky hire. Your words may haunt you down the
road, when a potential employer contacts your former employ-
Yours sincerely ers as references.
Anita Gupta (Miss)
n Purpose n
n Statement of Acceptance
Acceptance
n What to Include
n Specifics
Specifics n
n Brief Reaffirmation of Employment Conditions
n Format
Format
n
n Any Instructions Based
Based on
on Employment
Employment or
or
n Tone Notices
What to Include:
The Purpose
1. Appreciation for the Offer
•• Placement: First Paragraph
n Accepts a job offer
•• Be appreciative and sincere
n Briefly reaffirms the offer to complete the
•• Reaffirm Offer: Clearly restate the job offer
legal contract between you
you and
and the
the firm
firm you received.
received.
n May request clarification For Example:
“Thank you for offering
offering me
me aa Sales
Sales Associate
Associate
Position at Denmark Inc.”
n
n Placement:
Within the body of the letter, in
in the
the paragraphs
paragraphs following
following n
n Placement: Place after the “Reaffirmation
“Reaffirmation of
the first paragraph
paragraph Employment Conditions” and before
before closing
closing
n
n Restate the conditions ofof your
your employment:
employment: These should n
n Possible information to request:
be pre
pre--determined and accepted by bothboth parties.
parties. u Starting date of employment
employment
n
n This is not the time to include
include critical
critical items or concerns
concerns u Where to go?
you have. It isis recommended
recommended to address
address any questions
questions or
u Who to contact?
issues you may have, prior to accepting a position.
n The applicant should never use language or n The text and message in the letter should
convey a message that discriminates against match the readability and knowledge level
any group or individual. of the reader
n It is unprofessional to exhibit prejudicial
For
For Example:
Example:
behavior or to stereotype individuals. An
An acceptance
acceptance letter for an internship position in Aviation Admi
Administration:
nistration:
NOT
NOT “I look forward to learning about airplanes.”
airplanes.”
INSTEAD
INSTEAD “I look forward to learning about the manufacturing of a ircraft
and engines and working with marketing
marketing divisions
divisions of
of various
various
airlines.”
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
behind you. If you have any concerns about getting a good
reference (your new job may depend on it), maintaining good
relations with friends who are also colleagues or keeping your
good reputation intact, think about what you commit to paper.
Resignation Letter It’s simple: keep your criticism constructive, don’t get too
personal and if you must express your criticism of an indi-
Begin with main idea: confirming your resignation.
vidual or department use only civil, businesslike language.
If appropriate, provide a brief explanation for your
decision including resignation date and other details. Compare these two extracts from a pair of letters sent to us in
Maintain goodwill by restating your appreciation for
the last few months. The first is from someone who has
your work experience at the company. decided, reluctantly, to leave his job in the telecommunications
industry:
The very fact that we have let our infrastructure erode to such a
Effective Communication for Colleges, 10 th ed., by Brantley & Miller, 2005©
level that many systems have become redundant or severely
Chapter 9 – Slide 21
downgraded through lack of investment and or maintenance
has always perplexed me. This apparent philosophy will always
ensure that we come second best to companies that concentrate
on the fabric and foundations of their business first, thus
ensuring that they have a solid platform to go forward into the
market place.
I hope the company is able to find a formula for success and
move out of this cycle of melancholy and become the brand
leader, which all other companies will use as yardstick within the
industry and so I wish you all the success in the future.
Fair enough - this employee has given his company’s predica-
ment a lot of thought and seems to be leaving out of sheer
frustration. He can see how the company should be doing
better. If things improve, he might even be persuaded to
Your Resignation Letter: How To Have return. Conversely, can you detect a hint, the merest hint of
The Last Word bitterness in the following extract?
By T.J. Snaith It was bad enough that our 28 year old director has an ego the
In most cases, we recommend that you keep your letter of size of the corporate debt, but it was completely impossible to
resignation concise, formal and polite. Your name, date, the sit through any more of his lectures on “sacrificing for the
person it is addressed to, a notice of termination of employ- company” as he sat there drawing in over 65k a year doing
ment, when this is effective from and finally, your signature will nothing but giving “wise” lectures to more experiences people.
suffice. The resignation letter is a formality first and last - you Note to self - it’s who you know, not WHAT you know.
can expect your boss to read it quickly, acknowledge it and then
This second extract doesn’t reflect well on the writer - it’s
file it away with all the other quitters. However, there may be an
personal, anecdotal, smacks of jealousy, bad blood and ill-
occasion when you really, really want to tell your boss some-
temper. The manager in question is probably glad to see this
thing else.
employee go. It would have been possible to raise the same
People leave jobs for a many different reasons: they decide to
concerns with more diplomacy and tact. Yes, the inexperience of
continue their career elsewhere, they need more money, they’re
the director and inequity of the pay structure would be fair
bored of their work, personalities have clashed too often, and
game, but bringing up his age is probably unnecessary. The
so on. Your own reason for leaving can usually be expressed in
message is lost amid the bile. That last extract is relatively mild
a few sentences, if at all. What we’re going to deal with here is
in its personal attack compared to others we have received.
how to handle the urge to get something off your chest. How
Sometimes an employee goes nuclear and disses everyone they
should your boss be made aware of a problem that he or she
have ever worked with one by one:
would otherwise fail to notice or refuse to face up to? We’ve
seen hundreds of letters that set out with this intention but Sally, though not a particularly pleasant human being was a
which get bogged down in unpleasantries. It’s unfortunate that good manager, but then I supposed she had to take up the
in these cases the final correspondence with an employer is used slack for that total dickhead Larry (did you know he’s been
as an opportunity to issue personal abuse, whinge and score falsifying records?) And how those arseholes in human
points - a letter of revenge rather than resignation. We never, resources can sleep at night I’ll never know...
ever advocate resorting to this in your own letter. It can only do This is the sort of thing we get sent all the time. We only hope
you harm. that they’re beefed up versions of the letter they actually sent.
We also receive letters where the advice ‘if you’ve nothing good It’s becoming more common to hand in one’s notice by email
to say, keep quiet’ is abandoned with some style. It is possible (we recently heard from someone who had been sacked by
Learning Outcomes
Hone your skills on preparing curriculum vitae, job application
Resume Goals:
letter, job offer letter and resignation letter. Ø To convince an employer to interview you in under
30 seconds.
Students , business communication is a subject which de-
Ø To summarize your skills, abilities, and interests in
mands a lot of practice classes. Just learning about CVs , job a clear/concise manner.
application letters , offer letters in theory will not help you in
anyway until and unless you put it into practice. Ø To write a resume that is targeted to a certain field
or position.
Lets us do 3 small exercises in this lesson.
Ø To target the skills/experience listed in the position
In an advertisement dated 14th May 2004 in Times of India, that is being advertised.
Success Industries has advertised for the post of a management
trainee in the area of HR, Write a letter applying for the job.
Exercise 1: Prepare you curriculum vitae and a job application
letter
Exercise 2: Write a fifteen-word career objective for a job in this
company if the vacancy had been in the area of:
a. Marketing
b. Finance.
c. Operations
Exercise 3: Prepare a job offer letter the company will provide
you if selected.
v Research: Female Eating Disorders and the Media, Attention Deficit Disorder in Elementary
School Students
v Relevant Course Work: Research Methods I&II, Introduction to Counseling, Child and
Adolescent Disorders, behavioral Approaches to Human Problems, Social Psychology, Drugs
and Human Behavior, Health Psychology, Human Cognition
Skills/Strengths…Highlights
v Titles can be: Skills Summary, Highlight of Qualifications,
Strengths, Abilities.
v Skill sections that can be used: organizational, interpersonal,
managerial, communication, leadership, creative, and computer.
Examples:
Computer Skills:
- Systems: DOS, Windows, NT
- Software: Microsoft Suite, Netscape
- Database Management: Access, Excel, FoxPro.
Skills Summary:
-Able to utilize communicative abilities to coordinate efforts in a team environment.
- Efficient in organizing and creating group activities to promote cohesiveness and
productivity.
- Act as leader to communicate delegation of group tasks in order to accomplish
goals established by company.
Resume Checklist
v Length: (Depends on Industry)
- One page for recent graduates
- Two for experienced candidates
v Layout/Appearance: (Professional)
- Neat, concise, easy to read,
- Balance of text and white space
- Use of bolds, underlines, different fonts
(standard)
- Absolutely NO spelling/grammar errors
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
solved: Many times significant issues will be
• Explain the purpose of memos, circulars and notes implicit rather than explicit and are linked to
• Understand the structure of memos, circulars and notes. larger policy and management issues. Part of
your task is to point out the significance of the
• Tips on preparation of memos, circulars and notes.
larger issues.
Identify relevant alternative courses of
Students , today we will learn about the importance of memo- action: There are always at least two options
randums, circulars and preparing notes. Along with this now a (taking no action is always an alternative). Limit
days organizations are more comfortable using emails as the the number of options but be sure to cover the
primary tool of communication (refer to lesson 4 ). Lets start by full range of choices;
memos: Evaluate the alternatives: Be sure to critique
the relative strengths and weaknesses of the
Why Memos? options and make a balanced presentation to the
Affectionately called a ‘memo’ this is a written communication decision maker (remember that he/she may
from one person to another (or a group of people) within the prefer an alternative course of action); and,
same organization. Memos serve a variety of purposes: Recommend a specific course of action: Be
• To inform of decisions sure to clearly state the recommended course of
• To request decisions, actions, etc
actions and the consequences you expect to flow
from the selected course of action.
• To provide information of any kind
• To remind someone of action required.
+ refer to previous communication As you most likely know your recipients fairly well, memos are
usually written in an information style. You should aim to put
+ who? What? Where? When?
over your message as concisely as possible while still being
Details Facts and Figures courteous , clear, concise and correct. The major consideration in
+ logical sequence composing memos should be the status of the sender and
+ separate into paragraphs - each recipient in the organization, and of course the topic of the
one dealing with a separate aspects memo. Try to adopt a tone which reflects these factors.
of the main theme Tips
Response An action statement: • Avoid being abrupt or impolite (add ‘Please…..’)
+ action you want the reader to take • Avoid over- politeness (do not say ‘I should be very grateful
+ action you will take ….’)
+ deadline ? • Avoid unnecessary expressions (do not say ‘ Thank you’ or
On outgoing letters the Chief Executive prefers his name and title in lower
case with initial capitals, ie
Peter Nunn
Chief Executive
NUMBERED ITEMS
3
When items need to be numbered they should be typed alone with no full
stop or bracket. Subsequent enumeration should be decimal, eg 3.1, 3.2, etc.
No complimentary
close is necessary I hope that these guidelines will be useful but if you have any questions please
speak to me.
Leave a space here for
the sender to sign or
initial the memo
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
A circular letter is one which is sent out to many people at the The tone of the circular is always in the form of a request
same time. The letter may be prepared once only and then instead of a command. It needs to have a heading, date, and
duplicated . With modern technology , however , it is more circular no and signed by the authorized person.
likely that each letter could be personalized to look like an
When writing a circular letter remember these important
original . Circular letters may be sent for many reasons:
guidelines:
• Introduce a new product /service
• Keep it brief, otherwise it may not be read
• Open a new branch
• Ensure the letter is informative and direct
• Change of address
• Use individual terms, e.g. ‘you’ and not you
• Seasonal discounts
MM/et
Reference and date
(month and year only) November 2000
Dear Student
Use singular expressions
here (not students) I thought you might like to keep this example showing the correct layout of a
circular letter.
1. a move of premises
2. introduction of new goods/services
3. a forthcoming sale or special event
Internally a senior executive may send out a circular letter to all employees. This
is sometimes called an Open Letter.
Use individual Although a circular letter will be sent to many people, the term you is used in the
expressions body of the letter. Never use the wording all of you or all customers. Remember
in the body, i.e. you that only one person will read each letter so it must be worded in a personal
NOT style.
‘all of you’ or ‘you all’
Not that as many copies are required it may take a while to print out all the
letters, so only the month and year are shown in the date.
Yours sincerely
Yours sincerely
may be used
Manish Malhotra
Training Consultant
Company
Use double spacing for …………………………………………………………………………………..
the section to be
completed Telephone ……………………………………… Fax
…………………………………….
per Board’s approval via note…..” And marked the file to legal
Notes
department for completing other legal formalities.
Writing Notes Office notes are written remarks recorded on a ‘paper under consider-
Sandeep applied to a housing finance company for a house loan ation’ to facilitate its disposal In fact ‘noting’ is the way by which
of Rs. 5,00,000. He deposited the relevant application form, his the concerned officer gives his suggestion or decision on the
income-tax returns for last three year, proof of his residence, given problem/project. This is widely used in public sector
and estimated cost of the house, which he was going to buy. enterprises.
Sudhakar, the loan officer reviewed all these papers. He found A note may consist of precis of all relevant papers (like
that as per the Sandeep’s income scale he is entitled to the Sudhakar’s note put up before the Board contain summary of
maximum of Rs. 4 lac loan. He noted on the file that “intimate Sandeep’s case), a statement or analysis of the question
Sandeep that he is entitled to Rs. 4 lac loan only”, and marked regarding the given case, suggestion, or order (like Sudhakar
this note in the name of his junior for action. This note was an ordered his assistant to send an intimation of the relevant
order of Sudhakar for his junior. He intimated the same to decision to Sandeep).
Sandeep. Sandeep met Sudhakar and convinced him that his
salary is going to increase in one month time, which would Characteristics of a Good Note
make him entitled to Rs. 5 lac loan. Sudhakar agreed in principle 1. A note should be concise and to the point.
but he had no power to sanction this amount. Sudhakar 2. It should be deterministic, conveying decision of the note
prepared a note detailing all the relevant matter about Sandeep’s maker clearly.
case, and recommended Rs. 5 Lac loan in the note. He put up
3. It is to be assumed that the officer to whom the case is
this note in the Board meeting. The Board approved the note.
submitted will read the ‘paper under consideration’ and the
This approval note became part of the file papers. Now
previous notes, if any. The reproduction of verbatim (copy)
Sudhakar again wrote a note, “Rs. 5 lac loan may be sanctioned as
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
references. • Review your reading assignment
4. It Should be written in a courteous language free from • Reading should be done BEFORE class
personal remarks.
• Think through what has happened in the class to date
5. If any information to be included in the note a very lengthy,
• Generate enthusiasm and interest
it should be incorporated in a separate statement, and can be
referred to as appendix to the note. • Increased knowledge results in increased interest
6. The note must be signed by its maker with his name and • A clear sense of purpose on your part will make the
designation below it. course content more relevant
It must be clearly marked to another person or department for • Acting as if you are interested can help
further action. • Don’t let the personality or mannerisms of a speaker put
you off
Effective Note Taking
• What, not how, is important
Note Taking is a Skill
• Be ready to understand and remember
• This takes understanding of what you’re doing
• Anticipate what is to come, and evaluate how well you were
• It takes practice, which involves effort
able to do this
Note Taking is Difficult Because • We learn from failure
• Spoken language is more diffuse than written
Decide How Much You are Going to Do
• Speaker’s organisation is not immediately apparent
• Are notes necessary?
• Immediate feedback seldom occurs
• Don’t be lulled into a sense of security by an effective
• Spoken language is quick, and does not ‘exist’ for long presentation
• This makes analysis difficult • Hearing a thing once is not enough. Memory requires Review
Four Purposes For Note Taking and Understanding
• Provides a written record for review While Taking Notes
• Forces the listener to pay attention • Don’t try for a verbatim transcript
• Requires organisation, which involves active effort on the • Get all of the main ideas
part of the listener • Record some details, illustrations, implications, etc.
• Listener must condense and rephrase, which aids • Paraphrase
understanding • But remember that the speaker may serve as a model
Physical Factors • Integrate with other knowledge you already have
• Seating • But don’t allow preconceived notions to distort what you
• Near the front and centre are hearing
• Vision is better • Use form to indicate relative importance of items
• Hearing is better • Underscore or star major points
• Avoid distractions • Leave plenty of white space for later additions
• Doorways, window glare, etc. • Note speaker’s organisation of material
• Peers • Organisation aids memory
• Materials •Organisation indicates gaps when they occur
• Two pens • Be accurate
• Ink easier to read • Listen carefully to what is being said
• You have a reserve • Pay attention to qualifying words like sometimes, usually,
• Wide-lined, easy-eye paper rarely, etc.
• Conference/Meeting date, and topic clearly labelled • Notice signals that a change of direction is coming but,
however, on the other hand
• May use dividers
• Be an aggressive, not a passive, listener
• Plenty of blank paper in back
• Ask questions and discuss if it’s permitted
Before Taking Notes
• If not, jot questions in your notes
• Prepare yourself mentally
• Seek out meanings. Look for implications beyond
• Be sure of your purpose and the speaker’s purpose what is being said
• They may not be the same
• Jot down words or phrases, not entire sentences • Be alert for speaker emphasis through
• Develop some system of shorthand and be consistent • Tone or gesture
in its use (e.g. Hr s sntnc wth vwls lft t - Here is a • Repetition
sentence with vowels left out!)
• Use of cue words such as remember, most important,
• Leave out small service words etc.
• Use contractions and abbreviations • Illustration on board
• Use symbols +, =, &, @ • Reference to text
• Try to get the hang of listening and writing at the same • Note especially new words and ideas
time. It can be done.
• Note especially those ideas which conflict with your own
• You may practice listening to the news on TV and picture of the world
taking notes
• “Odd” ideas are difficult to understand initially and
After Taking Notes require extra effort
• Review and reword them as soon as possible • You remember things which support your existing
• You should consider this in scheduling your work load concepts, and forget those things which disagree
• Don’t just recopy or type without thought Question
• “ Reminiscing “ may provide forgotten material later • Nothing will generate interest so much as an appropriate
• Rewrite incomplete or skimpy parts in greater detail question
• Fill in gaps as you remember points heard but not • Unusual or different ideas will be difficult to understand
recorded initially and will require extra effort since you have a tendency
to remember what you accept and forget what you disagree
• Arrange with another colleague to compare notes or
with.
debrief if appropriate
• Find answers to any questions remaining unanswered Review
• Write a brief summary of the event • Glance back over material from time to time to see if a
pattern is emerging, if consistency is being maintained, etc.
• We forget 50% of what we hear immediately; two
months later, another 25% is gone. Relearning is rapid if • If possible, clarify points during or after the meeting/talk
regular review is used • Give the speaker a reasonable chance to make the point
• Compare the information in your notes with your own clear
experience • Avoid sidetracking the speaker. You are the loser when
• Don’t swallow everything uncritically this occurs
• Don’t reject what seems strange or incorrect. Check it out. Some Specimen Notes
• Be willing to hold some seeming inconsistencies in your Consider the, case of Sandeep taken up by Sudhakar. The note
mind over a period of time put up by him before the Board is as follows:
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
-Sudhakar Sinha mvmt movement
prblm problem
Finance officer
• Form the plural of a symbol or abbreviated word by adding
16-08-2002
‘s.’ Examples:
Chairman, Board
custs customers
Hints of Creating Your Own fs frequencies
Abbreviations and Symbols /s ratios
Abbreviation involves using shortened versions of words to • Use ‘g’ to represent ‘ing’ endings. Examples:
represent the complete form of the word. Symbols, such as our
decrg decreasing
alphabet, are abstract representations of some word or idea.
ckg checking
Shorthand makes use of both abbreviations and symbols. The
estblg establishing
gleaning strategy involves representing the main ideas of a book
(or meeting) in shorthand version. With gleaning, vowels are • Spell out, rather than abbreviate short words. Examples:
omitted, words are shortened, and symbols are used to in
represent the main ideas of the text. but
These strategies are useful in note taking because they allow one as
to write more quickly, once symbols and shorthand systems key
have been internalised. • Leave out unimportant verbs. Examples:
Directions for using abbreviations, symbols, and shorthand is
when taking notes are summarised below. was
• Use standard maths, accounting, and science symbols. were
Examples: • Leave out unnecessary articles. Examples:
+ plus a
// parallel an
• Use standard abbreviations and leave out full stops. the
Examples: • If a term, phrase, or name is initially written out in full
eg example during the talk or meeting, initials can be substituted
IT dept Information Technology department whenever the term, phrase, or name is used again. Example:
UK United Kingdom January Advertising Campaign Budget JACB
• Use only the first syllable of a word. Examples: • Use symbols for common connective or transition words.
mar marketing Examples:
cus customer @ at
cli client 2 to
• Use the entire first syllable and the first letter of the second 4 for
syllable. Examples: & and
w/ with
subj subject
w/o without
budg budget
vs against
ind individual
• Create your own set of abbreviations and symbols. You may
• To distinguish among various forms of the same word, use
wish to develop separate sets of symbols and abbreviations
the first syllable of the word, an apostrophe, and the ending
for different courses or subjects.
of the word. Examples:
tech’gy technology Other Symbols and Abbreviations
gen’ion generalisation • as a result of / consequences of <—>
del’y delivery • resulting in —>
• Use just enough of the beginning of a word to form a • and / also +
recognisable abbreviation. Examples:
• equal to / same as =
assoc associated
• following ff
ach achievement
info information • most importantly *
• Omit vowels from the middle of words, retaining only • less than <
enough consonants to provide a recognisable skeleton of the • greater than >
word. Examples: • especially esp
When Should I write a memo? Organize the sections of your message into these
parts:
How should I do it?
Upon completion of this lesson you will be able to: and time of the problem before reaching any conclusion. This
would entail tracing in brief the downward curve of the sales
• Discuss the role and importance of reports in business environment.
graph. It may be asked: When am I going to write the report?
• Understand the role of report planning. The time factor is very important. Chalking out or revision of
• Implement the tips given the lesson while preparing reports. strategies should be done prior to the marketing season or
entrance of new players in the market.
Students, reports are an integral part in a written communica- Where would the reader be at the time when he receives the
tion. You need to know what are reports, its types and to report? Would the reader read the report in a meeting so as to
understand the need of report planning. Let’s start by knowing provide information on the causes for decrease in sales or read it
what does the term report mean? within the confines of his room? There would definitely be a
difference in the manner of approach. Finally, how would the
Introduction
report be written? What information is to be included and what
A report is a presentation and summation of facts and figures
is to be excluded Which graphs and charts would be used/
either collated or derived. It is a logical and coherent structuring
avoided? All these queries need to be satisfied before
of information, ideas and concepts. As a neatly structured piece
of work, the report, for greater ease in comprehension, is beginning a report. They give the report a particular direction
segregated into various sections. Understanding the important and help the writer to concentrate on the acceptability of the
of these sections, coupled with logical conjoining of the various report by the audience to which it is aimed.
parts, results in a well written and presented report. Let us take a look at a project report to be prepared by a financial
Five W’s and One H institution. In a report such as this, queries of the following
Prior to commencing work on a report, a few queries should be nature could be raised:
raised by the report-writer and satisfactorily answered. This Why - Why should project A be supported?
enables the writer to produce a highly focused report. The What - What is the justification of a loan for project A?
queries centre on the five W’s and the one H. Who - Who would read the report? Would it act as precedence
What is the problem? What is it that needs to be ascertained? for further similar loans to be sanctioned? Or would it remain
Clarity along these lines helps in eliminating any redundancies just one of the usual reports written within a standard format?
that might crop up. Identification of the genesis of the Answers to these queries would also bring about a change in
problem helps in streamlining the approach. The problem the writing style.
could, for instance, be one that has to determine the cause for When - When would the loan be sanctioned? Is the report
the decrease in sales. being written close to the time of sanctioning of the loan, or is
Why is the issue important? What is its relevance and signifi- it merely an informative one, providing information on the
cance to the department in specific, and organization in general? various factors leading to the sanctioning of the loan?
The issue is important because a decrease in sales is a cause for Where - Where would the report be read? The degree of
concern to the entire organization. Strategies need to be chalked formality or provision of details would vary in response to
out for redemption of the situation. these queries.
Why (purpose) should the problem be analyzed? What are the How-If the sanctioning of the loan is important, persuasive
benefits that will accrue as a result of this particular report-to the language can be used to get the ideas and message across. All
department, the organization, and the self? The report would details should be provided and meticulous care should be taken
probably lead to a suggestion of various strategies that could be to ensure that nothing unwarranted is included.
implemented. This, in turn, would, as suggested in the report,
lead to increase in sales. Report Planning
The planning stage is the most crucial one. Spend as much time
Who is involved in the situation? This could take into account
as possible in collecting material, synchronizing details, and
both the reader(s) and the writer. In case there is a third party
ensuring that nothing has been left out. If the planning’ is
involved, it would also account for that. Who is going to be my
done in a detailed manner, there are very few chances of missing
reader? With a change in the reader, a change is visible in the
out errors at the final stage. In fact, planning for a report is as
manner of approach in the report. The marketing and the
important as the process of writing itself. The various steps
production department people would probably be the readers
involved in report planning are as follows:
in this particular case.
1. Define the problem,and the purpose.
Further, when did the trouble start? In case it is an analytical
report, one would also need to address oneself to the source The problem and purpose had already been identified at the
stage when the answers to the question what and why were
Subsequent to the stage of interpretation of data, certain • What do you want them to know?
conclusions need to be drawn and recommendations or • Facts
suggestions made. This comprises the last stage of the • Conclusions (recommendations)
report and the tone of it is determined by the position held
Design Issues
by the report writer. For instance, if it is a report being
written by a subordinate, he can only make suggestions. Coherence
However, if it is one being written by superiors, it would • Each fact is in its logical place
definitely have in the terminal section a rather well developed • Relationship of each fact to other facts and to overall report
part comprising recommendations. is clear
Types of Reports Organization
Basically there are two types of reports:
• Inductive order - moving from known to unknown
1. Informational
• Orientation (introduction)
2. Analytical
• Facts (perhaps including their analysis)
Broadly speaking, both types of reports contain similar
components in terms of, • Summary or conclusion
Headings
Same-level headings must be written consistently!
(For example)
Level 1: CENTERED UPPER-CASE
Level 2: Centered Upper-case and Lower-case
Level 3: Centered, Underlined, Upper-case and Lower-case
Level 4: Flush left, Underlined, Upper-case
and Lower-case
Level 5: Indented, underlined, lower-case paragraph
heading ending with a period.
Syllogism 3 ....................................................
Syllogism n, .………………………………..
Conclusion Therefore, all men are mortal
One could formulate umpteen number of syllogisms to reach a
final conclusion, which is always based on the number of
experiments conducted, or factors observed. Certain disciplines,
in which experiments have to be done and surveys conducted ,
naturally follow this pattern. Here the progression is always in
the nature of working on the known elements to arrive at an
unknown conclusion.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Incorrect Formulation 1. Minimize benefit to self
1. Piling inventory 2. Maximize benefit to other
2. Promotional aspects DIVISIONS
3. Distribution networks In order to carry on with divisions the writer needs at least two
parts that he can divide. There cannot be a 1 without a 2, an ‘a’
The above formulation is incorrect, as it does not place items of
without a ‘b’ and so on and so forth. Care should be exercised
the same specificity in the same category. While in the first the
at the time of dividing the headings into sub-sections as the
writer talks about the piling up of the inventory because of
basis of division should be similar.
disuse, in the second a number of promotional strategies are
hinted which could be in the nature of advertisements, Correct Division
hoardings etc. The third category again presupposes a number A. Opening section
of networks through which distribution is done.
1. Introduction
Correction 2. Greeting
1. Promotional Aspects 3. Action-related exchange
• Advertisements B. Concluding section
• Hoardings 1. Summary
2. Distribution Networks. 2. Justification
• Institutional markets 3. Contact-termination
• Shelf display
Incorrect Division
Logical Sequencing of Points A. Opening section
Finally, the arrangement or the connection between the sub-
1. Introduction
sections and the main section should follow a logical sequence.
The relationship between the main heading and its sub-sections 2. Greeting
should be the same. The progression should, as far as possible, 3. Main topic and sub-topic repetitions
be from the abstract to the concrete and from the general to the 4. Action-related exchange leading to digressions
specific.
B. Concluding section
Correct Arrangement 1. Summary of main topic and sub-topics
A. Tact maxim 2. Justification
1. Minimize cost to other 3. Repetitions in leave-taking and well-wishing
2. Maximize benefit to other 4. Contact-termination
B. Generosity maxim The incorrect division on many occasions takes more than one
1. Minimize benefit to self category into account, for example, main-topic and sub-topic
2. Maximize cost to self repetitions. Similarly for B. In two headings we have a sub-
division within a sub-section: Summary of main topics and
Incorrect Arrangement sub-topics and repetition in leave-taking and well-wishing.
A. Tact maxim
Correction
1. Minimize cost to other
A. Opening section
2. Strategies
1. Introduction
3. Usefulness
2. Greetings
The problem with a formulation of this kind is that the
example uses the alphabet A without a B. Further, 1,2 and 3 are 3. Repetitions
not of the same specificity. The first falls in the nature of a. Main topic
issuing a directive, the second is a noun and the third is a quality b. Sub-topics
that may be applicable or non-applicable according to the
4. Digressions
prevailing conditions.
a. Action-related exchange
Correction
b. Anecdote narrations
A. Cost strategy
B. Closing section
1. Minimize cost to other
1. Summary
2. Maximize cost to self
a Main topic
b. Sub-topics
3. Repetitions and what he would like to use in the form of charts and tables.
a. Leave-taking The raw material or data that the individual possesses has to be
given a structured ordering. The steps that enable the writer to
b. Well-wishing
proceed at an easy pace are
4. Contact termination
1. Confirm reader’s needs and thought pattern. This is the
Numbering first stage, which should be adhered to before
The report can follow anyone of the numbering systems: the conceptualizing the use of visual aids. The reader may be
Roman numerals and letters system or the Arabic numerals and looking for the entire report either as a visual presentation or
the decimal system. a verbal one or maybe a combination of the two. Depending
Roman Numeral and letters upon the requirement the report with its verbal and visual
I support can be balanced.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
5. Line Graphs
6. Pictograms/Pictorial graph
7. Flow Charts and organization charts
8. Drawings, diagrams and maps
Tables
These are the simplest of the visual
presentations and require a form in
which there are both horizontal rows as
well as vertical columns. These tables are
mostly numerical but word tables are
also used. In a survey concerning TV
viewing habits of men, women and
children the following results can be
presented as follows
Exhibit IV.3 Table: TV
Viewing Habits
Category Percentage Percentage
of viewers of non-
viewers
Men 44 56
Women 70 30
Children 80 20
occasions when the difference is very minor and it might get These are more in the nature of bar charts with figures or small
blurred, for example, a segment depicting 0.5% may become pictures plotted instead of lines. The pictures are chosen in
too small to notice. Further, if the patterning of the segments accordance with, the topic or the -subject matter. This chart is
has not been done imaginatively they might merge into one self-explanatory, e.g. if a chart were to be prepared indicating the
another and may become too small to notice. population boom in the last five years, human figures could be
used thus exemplifying the point being made by the report
Exhibit IV.7 Pie-chart with a Floating
writer. In this example a cluster of the figures or pictures would
Wedge
indicate an excessive number at that period. This chart is not
Relative Customer Value of Facilities and Ambience
used extensively for business reports.
Exhibit IV.9 Pictorial Graph Showing
European Population From 1000 AD to
1990 AD
Line Graph
This graph is usually used to depict time and the variations in
time over a period. Time is normally plotted on the x-axis or
the horizontal axis and the variable on the y-axis. Both the
scales begin at zero and proceed in equal increments. However,
occasionally on the y-axis there might be a small break immedi-
ately after the zero point. This is normally done when there is a = 100 millions of Population
large difference between zero and the first quantity to indicate
that some data has no bearing on the current study and has The advantage of a chart of this kind is that large numbers can
therefore been left out. However, care should be exercised to be presented by a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort
indicate the points of omission. goes into the designing of this chart so as to make it truly
representative of the problem that it seeks to address. However,
Exhibit IV.8 Line Graph it is not very useful for business reports as they are more
concrete and not based on pictorial depiction of the problem.
Flow Charts and Organization Charts
Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish.
They are normally used when we wish to illustrate processes,
procedures and relationships. The various elements in the chart
can also be depicted either with figures or geometrical designs.
Organization charts illustrate the various positions or functions
of the organization. Most of the communication channels in
an organization are described with the usage of these kinds of
charts.
Drawings, Diagrams and Maps
Various drawings and diagrams can be used in business reports,
though their usage is definitely limited. Most of these are added
Sales of Nilgiris shopping complex
to make the report colorful and decorative. However, they
A lot of trends over a specific period can be depicted by the line should be used sparingly so that the reader does not get swayed
graph. A little caution should however, be exercised if the lines and lose track of the import of the message.
cross each other at points as this might create confusion in- the
Maps are rather appropriate at the time when we wish to discuss
mind of the reader. Preferably if there are crisis-crossing lines
or present statistical data through geographical indicators or so
only three variable should be plotted as more than these might
wish to express location relationships.
lead to erroneous conclusions.
Several variables can be plotted indicating trends over time
allowing easy comparisons. However, problems could arise if
too many variables are plotted preventing fine distinctions from
being evidenced or noticed.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Hospital
LESSON 25:
ELEMENTS OF REPORT WRITING
On completion of this lesson you will understand the · The topics covered - giving a broad outline of content and
different elements of a report and its role in effective report scope and indicating any limitations of the project.
writing. 5. Body of the Report
This is where information is presented, explanations
Students, we have already learnt about reports its types and provided and questions answered. It deals with what, how,
structure in the previoue lessons. In this lesson we will where and why?
understand what constitutes a report and and what role does The findings of the report are broken down into discrete
each element play in a report. You must have made atleast two sections and sub-sections. Each section and sub-section
reports during the last two semesters. What were the compo- should have a title/heading, and be numbered.
nents in your project report?
Include in The Body of the Report
Reports have a standardized format. The structure will be based
on the following model: • A literature review
Not all reports include all elements shown and you should • Method - what you did and why you did it.
always check exact requirements with your Department or • What you found - quantitative data - outcomes, what was
Course Organiser. observed, outcome of questionnaires and results of
• Title Page experiments. Case studies and any qualitative information.
• Table of Contents • Discussion - what has been deduced from the findings and
how these relate to previous research or other studies.
• Executive Summary
Findings should be discussed in relation to a theoretical
• Introduction framework and opinions presented based on reasoning and
• Body critical thinking. All sources should be referenced.
• Conclusion 6. Conclusion
• Recommendations The conclusion sums up the main points raised in the report
• Bibliography and arrives at conclusions, which clearly relate to the
objective(s) of the report. This is the place to draw together
• Appendices
key points made in the report . However, nothing new
1. Title Page should appear here.
This shows the title or subject of the report, who the report 7. Recommendations
is for, the name of the writer and date of submission.
These should provide practical and viable proposal(s)and
2. Table of Contents may offer solutions to problems investigated in the report.
This details all sections and sub-sections of the report with (You will not always be asked to include recommendations).
page numbers. Each recommendation should be listed and discussed
3. Executive Summary or Abstract separately.
This summarizes the main points and findings. (This is not 8. Bibliography
always required, particularly if it is a short report). This should detail all: books, articles, journals, websites, and
4. An Introduction any other sources consulted when writing the report.
This includes the scope and background to the work 9. Appendices
including: These should be placed at the end of the report. They detail
• The aims and objectives and the terms of reference. The relevant information, which is too lengthy or detailed to
context of the report and its purpose. Sometimes included include in the body of the report. Each appendix should
are details of the organization requesting the report and the contain different information. These should referred to
question(s) they are hoping will be answered. within the Report (Appendix 1) and so on.
• The Methodology - how the information presented in the Preparing a Report is a Skilful Process
report will be obtained and what procedures will be used, for Involving
example: interviews or postal questionnaires. Sometimes an • Research skills
explanation is included explaining why a particular
• Skills in analysing and evaluating information
investigative approach / methodology was chosen.
• Writing skills
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
This will determine: what research is required, what research • Use straightforward language and take care with grammar
methods should be used and also how the report might be and sentence construction. Avoid using a note-style of
written and structured. writing.
2. When the topic has been researched material should be • Try not to use pompous language.
collated and information grouped under sub headings. For example: use “find out” rather than “endeavour to
3. Data needs to be analysed and then the report constructed. ascertain” - try not to use jargon or clichés
Structure, format and layout are of great importance; a • Provide definitions.Include explanations of technical or
considerable body of detailed material has to be carefully unusual terms, unless you can reasonably expect your reader
presented in a coherent, logical and non-repetitive manner. to know them.
4. Intellectual skills have to be applied in interpreting and • Use impersonal language.The report should be written in
evaluating findings. Valid conclusions have to be drawn and the third person singular. Avoid personal terms such as ‘I’ or
appropriate recommendations made. ‘We’; the word ‘It’ should be used instead:
The report should look professional and information should For example:
be easy to extract. ”I decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer...”
• Use plenty of white space with wide margins and generous should read
spacing. When text is too dense and the page is too cluttered ”It was decided to interview the Tourism Planning Officer...”
it becomes very daunting for the reader. (1.5 line spacing is • Be precise.
often recommended but particular specifications may be Avoid using terms that lack a precise meaning such as ‘nice’,
given). ‘good’ or ‘excellent’. One person’s idea of what is meant by
• Conventionally a serif font (e.g.Times) that is clear and ‘good’ is not necessarily another’s.
comfortable to read is used for the main text and a sans serif • Remember that the report needs to be concise and to the
(e.g. Helvetica) for headings. Choose fonts that convey a point.
formal style. For example:
• Do not use fonts at less than 12 point. Headings and sub- Use ‘Now’ or “Currently’ instead of phrases like ‘At the time
headings can be larger, and in bold. of writing’ or ‘At this point in time’.
• When using diagrams, graphs or tables number these • Try not to make generalizations
sequentially and place them at the point at which they are first For example:
referred to. Sources should be included - this can be in a ”Everyone agrees that cold calling does not produce results”.
smaller font 9 or 10.
While this may be true you can only make such statements if
• Use consistent and suitable formatting and numbering. For
supported with evidence. Instead you should write:
example:
1. Heading ”According to the Mori Report(2000), cold calling does not
a. Sub-heading one. produce results”.
b. Sub- heading two • Use cautious language so that statements cannot easily be
or challenged:
A. Heading ”Cold calling may not produce results”.
i. Sub-heading one • Use appropriate verb tenses
Reports often use the present tense in the Introduction and
ii. Sub-heading two
the past tense when discussing findings.
• Bullet points can also be used Example:
• Headings should be consistent and convey a clear meaning. Introduction: ‘This report examines..’
They will also be used in the Table of Contents to direct the Findings: ‘Results showed that..’
reader to the information they are seeking. Avoid writing • Be careful when using Acronyms
headings in the form of questions - in academic writing you The use of acronyms is allowed provided that the first time
are not expected to directly address the reader. you write the letters you also write the words out in full.
• Ensure that the length of a report adheres to guidelines or For example:
restrictions imposed. Curriculum Vitae (C.V.)
• Proof read and carefully check grammar, punctuation and • When using a lead sentence make sure that the points that
spelling follow on link to this
The emphasis in report writing is on facts and interpretation of Incorrect Example
the facts. These should be presented in a logical way using an This style of CV creates the opportunity to:
academic writing style. Can highlight skills and achievements
Identifies personal attributes
This style of CV creates the opportunity to: reports, might be required because they are a part of established
Highlight skills and achievements procedures. The managers receiving the reports will not have
Identify personal attributes commissioned them specifically, but they will be expected to act
on anything out of the ordinary that the report tells them.
Other Writing Pitfalls to Avoid
Some reports arise out of a particular event, on which regula-
• Do not address the reader directly or use questions tions prescribe the writing of a report. For example, a leaving or
“Does this mean that some strategies are better than others?” exit interview report must be written following an employee’s
• Be careful not to use redundant phrases resignation; any accident in the workplace must be reported.
For example: “various differences” Individual responsibilities often include the requirement to
Various implies different so both words are not required. write reports — a representative on a committee, or the secretary
• Do not start sentences with linking words
at a meeting, will have to report to members, or other commit-
such as: but, and, or yet. tees, the procedures and decisions taken.
Someone who is instructed to do so by a superior usually writes vocabulary should I use to help them understand?
a report. A manager, who will then expect to make a decision on • Do I have a clear introduction to ‘ease’ the readers in to the
the basis of what the report tells him, may commission a subject, and a clear conclusion that will draw everything
special ‘one-off’ report. For example, the board of directors of together for them?
a company might call for a report on the financial viability of a You could use the above questions as a checklist for planning
new product or investment, and they will expect to decide your report. If you can then jot down a ‘skeleton’ of the
whether or not to undertake the product development or the headings and sub-headings you have decided to use (with notes
investment on the basis of the report’s findings of any particular points that occur to you as you go along) you
will be ready to write. The formal headings of standard
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
thoughts — but may not be necessary, or even advisable, if they Effective Report Writing
simply act as a constraint on what you actually want to say, and The purpose of reports and their subject matter vary widely, but
how you want to ‘shape’ it. There are certain stylistic require- there are certain generally accepted principles of report writing
ments to bear in mind, whether writing formal or informal that can be applied to most types of report. Bear in mind that
reports. In a report designed to persuade as well as inform, all these principles may not strictly apply to all reports but can be
subjective value judgments and emotions should be kept out used as necessary. They will help you further develop your
of the content a and style as far as possible. Any bias, if report writing skills.
recognized, can undermine the credibility of the report and its
Title
recommendations.
The report should have a title, and the title should be explicit
• Emotional or otherwise loaded words should be avoided. and brief. In other words, it should indicate clearly what the
In more formal reports, impersonal constructions should be report is about and should be as short as possible.
used rather than ‘I’, ‘we’ etc., which carry personal and possibly Identification of Report Writer, Report
subjective associations. In other words, first person subjects User and Date
should be replaced with third person. For example, avoid saying Reports should indicate in a clear place, possibly before the title
“I/We found that….” Instead the sentence can be framed as “It itself, whom they are directed at, who has written them and the
became clear that…” or “Mr. X found that…” or even “Investi- date of their preparation.
gation revealed that…”
Confidentiality
• Colloquialisms and abbreviated forms should be avoided in
If the report is confidential or ‘secret’ this fact must be printed
formal written English. Colloquial (informal) words such as
at the top of the report and possibly on every page.
‘I’ve’, ‘don’t’ and so on should be replaced by ‘I have’ and
‘do not’. You should not use expressions like ‘blew his top’, Contents Page
instead formal phrases should be used, such as ‘showed If the report is extensive, it should open with a list of contents.
considerable irritation’. Terms of Reference
• Make the report easy to understand by avoiding technical The introductory section of the report should explain why the
language and complex sentence structures for non-technical report has been written and the terms of reference. The terms
users. The material will have to be logically organized, of reference will explain not only the purpose of the report but
especially if it is leading up to a conclusion or also any restrictions on its scope. For example, an internal
recommendation. Relevant themes should be signaled by auditing report might state that its terms of reference have been
appropriate headings or highlighted for easy scanning. to investigate procedures in the credit control section of the
• The layout of the report should display data clearly and accounts department, with a view to establishing whether the
attractively. Figures and diagrams should be used with existing internal checks are adequate.
discretion, and it might be helpful to highlight key figures Similarly, the terms of reference of a management accounting
that appear within large tables of numbers. report might be to investigate the short-term profit prospects
• Various display techniques may be used to make the content for a particular product, with a view to recommending either the
of a report easy to identify and digest. For example, the closure of the product line or its continued production. These
relative importance of points should be signalled, each point terms of reference would exclude considerations of long-term
may be referenced, and the body of text should be broken up prospects for the product, and so place a limitation on the scope
to be easy on the eye. These aims may be achieved as follows. of the report.
Headings — Spaced out or enlarged CAPITALS may be used for When timescale is important, this should be specified in the
the main title. Important headings, e.g. of sections of the report, terms of reference. For example, the board of directors might
may be in CAPITALS. Underlining or Italics may be used for call for a report so that they can take a decision by a certain cut-
subheadings. References — Each section or point in a formal off date, e.g., whether to put in a tender for a major contract
report should have a code for easy identification and reference. and if so at what price, in a situation where a customer has
You can use different labelling for each type of heading or invited tenders which must be submitted by a certain date.
alternatively a decimal system may be used as shown below. Sources of Information
Main Section Headings If the report draws on other sources for its information, these
sources should be acknowledged in the report. Alternatively, if
I, II, III, IV, V etc. 1 Heading 1 A, B, C, D, E etc. 1.1 Sub- the report is based on primary research, the nature of the fact-
heading 1 finding should be explained, perhaps in an appendix to the
Subsections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. 1.1.1 Sub-heading 1, Point 1 1.1.2 report.
Sub-heading 1, Point 2 1.2 Sub-heading 2 If there is an extensive series of documents referring to one
Points and subpoints (a), (b), (c) or (i), (ii), (iii) etc. 1.2.1 (a) matter, a summary of the history may be provided in the
Sub-heading 2, Point 1, Sub-point (a), 2 Heading 2 appendix. If the literature includes a lot of correspondence, a
Spacing — Intelligent use of spacing separates headings from uniform code should be used to refer to letters in the summary.
the body of the text for easy scanning, and also makes a large
block more attractive and ‘digestible’.
Companies Registry might be referenced as CS/Reg [date]. implications for staff recruitment, training or redundancies and
so on).
Sections
The main body of the report should be divided into sections. Completeness
The sections should have a logical sequence, and each section A report should be logically complete and should not overlook
should ideally have a clear heading. These headings or sub- any item or consideration so that its recommendations are called
headings should, if possible, be standardized when reports are into question.
produced regularly e.g., audit reports. Paragraphs should be Types of Report
numbered for ease of reference. Each paragraph should be Having discussed the generally accepted principles applicable to
concerned with just one basic idea. most types of reports, let us go through the three main types
Appendices of report you might have to deal with.
To keep the main body of the report short enough to hold the • The short formal report
reader’s interest, detailed explanations, calculations, charts and
• The short informal report
tables of figures should be put into appendices. The main body
of the report should make cross-references to the appendices in • The memorandum report
appropriate places. The short formal report is used in formal contexts such as
where middle management is reporting to senior management.
Summary of Recommendations It should be laid out according to certain basic guidelines. It will
A report will usually contain conclusions or recommendations be split into logical sections, each referenced and headed
about the course of action to be taken by the report user. These appropriately.
conclusions or recommendations could perhaps be stated at the
beginning of the report (after the introduction and statement Title
of terms of reference). The main body of the report can then i. Terms of Reference (or Introduction)
follow, in its logically progressive sections, and should lead the ii. Procedure (or Method)
report user through the considerations that led the report writer
iii. Findings
to these conclusions.
The conclusions or recommendations could then be re-stated at 1. Section heading
the end of the main body of the report. For example, a 2. Section heading if required
management accounting report into the performance of an • Relevance;
operating division might summarise its findings at the
• Accuracy;
beginning, as follows.
• Reliability;
Plan Actual • Timeliness;
Sales turnover X X • Appropriateness; and
Profit X X • Cost-effectiveness.
Cash movement X X
Capital employed X X Steps in Writing a Routine Business
Return on capital Report
X X Your assignment will be to write a memo report to help solve a
employed
business-related problem.
The following sections of the report would then go on to look
Think of a job you currently have (or have had in the past). Is
at each of these items in more detail, concluding with an
there something you would change? Have you noticed a
assessment of the division’s performance and perhaps recom-
procedure or on-going situation that could be improved?
mendations as to how it needs to be improved.
Perhaps new equipment is needed or the physical layout is
Any assumptions, forecasts or conjectures should be signalled
inefficient. Perhaps the work flow needs to be revised or
as such, and not passed off as fact.
company policy needs to be reevaluated. I’m sure there is
Prominence of Important Items something you would like to see improved.
The most significant items in a report should be given promi- Once you have a topic, you’re then ready to start thinking in terms
nence. of a report. Don’t decide on a solution right now. I want you to
Report Summaries go through some steps to come to the RIGHT solution.
Long reports should be summarised in brief. However, as In creating your report, follow these steps:
suggested already it is often better to keep the main report itself 1. Determine the Scope of the Report
brief, with the detail in appendices; a report summary would pr 2. Consider Your Audience
obably not then be necessary.
3. Gather Your Information
Implications For Management 4. Analyze Your Information
Reference should be made where appropriate to costs, savings
and other benefits that might accrue, and to any other implica- 5. Determine the Solution
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
organization, and personal traits; and determine how and when
Determine the Scope of the Report
the reader might use the report. Audiences are basically of three
A common fault of many reports is making the scope of a
kinds:
report too general or too vague. When you choose a subject for
a report, one of the first steps is to narrow the scope to a report
Primary People who have to act
length
or make decisions on the
The scope of the report is defined by determining the factors basis of the report
which you will study. You need to limit the amount of
information you will gather to the most needed and most Secondary People affected by
important factors. actions of the primary
For example, factors to be studied to determine ways to audiences would take in
improve employee morale might include: response to the report
Salaries
Fringe benefits Immediate People responsible for
Work assignments evaluating the report and
Work hours getting it to the right
people
Evaluation procedures
You could study many other factors relative to improving
employee morale. Some may be important, and you may want Additional questions to ask regarding your audience are:
to consider them later. For any one report, however, a reason- 1. How much background will the audience need?
able scope must be clearly defined by determining what factors 2. Do you need to define any terms you are using?
will be included.
3. What language level will be most appropriate for your
Consider Your Audience readers?
Always consider your reader or readers. Unlike letters and 4. How many and what kind of visual aids should you use?
memos, reports usually have a far wider distribution. Many
people may be involved in a decision-making process and have 5. What will the audience expect from your report?
need to read the information in the report 6. Does the reader prefer everything given in detail or merely a
Your job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to make brief presentation that touches upon the highlights?
reading your report easier, think in terms of the reader. Gather Your Information
Each audience has unique needs. Some audience consideration Now that you have a clear understanding of the purpose and
include: scope of your report and who you are writing to, you’re now
ready to gather your information.
• Need (from your report)
Information you gather can be of two types: Secondary and
• Education level Primary. Secondary is information gathered and recorded by
• Position in the organization others. Primary is information you gather and record yourself.
• Knowledge of your topic or area
• Responsibility to act Sources Caution
• Age
• Biases Secondary Books, internet, Information
reports, may be
• Preferences
newspapers, inaccurate, out
• Attitudes magazines, of date, or
Some false assumptions commonly made regarding audiences pamphlets, and biased
are: journals
1. That the person who will first read or edit the report is the
audience Primary Questionnaires, Information
surveys, must be
2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field
observation, gathered
3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of the report experiments, carefully to
4. That the audience has time to read the entire report historical ensure it is
5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject of the information, and accurate and
raw data bias free.
report
6. That the author will always be available to discuss the report
To avoid making these false assumptions, writers should
identify everyone who might read the report; characterize those
Poor:
Better:
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Design Methodology 11. Editing the data and coding open-ended questions
________ ________
Determine Feasibility 12. Data entry and verification ________ ________
13. Analyzing the data ________ ________
14. Preparing the report ________ ________
Develop Instruments
15. Printing & distribution of the report
________ ________
Select Sample
Cost Considerations
Both beginning and experienced researchers often underesti-
Conduct Pilot Test mate the cost of doing questionnaire research. Some of the
most common costs are:
This checklist contains two time estimates for each task. The Advantages of Written Questionnaires
first one (Hours) is your best estimate of the actual number of Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-
hours required to complete the task. The second one (Duration) face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large
is the amount of time that will pass until the task is completed. sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires
Sometimes these are the same and sometimes they are different. become even more cost effective as the number of research
Most researchers and business-people have to divide their time questions increases.
among many projects. They simply cannot give all their time to Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for
any one project. For example, my estimate of goal clarification nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer
may be four hours, but other commitments allow me to spend software packages.
only two hours a day on this study. My “hours” estimate is four Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has
hours, and my “duration” estimate is two days. had some experience completing questionnaires and they
To arrive at your final time estimates, add the individual generally do not make people apprehensive.
estimates. The hours estimate is used for budget planning and Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presenta-
the duration estimate is used to develop a project time line. tion and no middle-man bias. The researcher’s own opinions
Hours Duration will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a
1. Goal clarification ________ ________ certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence
2. Overall study design ________ ________ the respondent.
3. Selecting the sample ________ ________ Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face
4. Designing the questionnaire surveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail,
he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table.
and cover letter ________ ________ Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not inter-
5. Conduct pilot test ________ ________ rupted by the research instrument.
6. Revise questionnaire (if necessary) ________ ________ Disadvantages of Written Questionnaires
7. Printing time ________ ________ One major disadvantage of written questionnaires is the
8. Locating the sample (if necessary) ________ ________ possibility of low response rates. Low response is the curse of
statistical analysis. It can dramatically lower our confidence in the
9. Time in the mail & response time ________ ________
another (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies consis- be devastating to a study. Therefore, you must do everything
tently produce high response rates. possible to maximize the response rate. One of the most
Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to probe effective methods of maximizing response is to shorten the
responses. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They questionnaire.
allow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to response If your survey is over a few pages, try to eliminate questions.
format. In essence, they often lose the “flavor of the response” Many people have difficulty knowing which questions could be
(i.e., respondents often want to qualify their answers). By eliminated. For the elimination round, read each question and
allowing frequent space for comments, the researcher can ask, “How am I going to use this information?” If the
partially overcome this disadvantage. Comments are among the information will be used in a decision-making process, then
most helpful of all the information on the questionnaire, and keep the question... it’s important. If not, throw it out.
they usually provide insightful information that would have One important way to assure a successful survey is to include
otherwise been lost. other experts and relevant decision-makers in the questionnaire
Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gestures design process. Their suggestions will improve the question-
and other visual cues are not available with written question- naire and they will subsequently have more confidence in the
naires. The lack of personal contact will have different effects results.
depending on the type of information being requested. A Formulate a plan for doing the statistical analysis during the
questionnaire requesting factual information will probably not design stage of the project. Know how every question will be
be affected by the lack of personal contact. A questionnaire analyzed and be prepared to handle missing data. If you cannot
probing sensitive issues or attitudes may be severely affected. specify how you intend to analyze a question or use the
When returned questionnaires arrive in the mail, it’s natural to information, do not use it in the survey.
assume that the respondent is the same person you sent the Make the envelope unique. We all know how important first
questionnaire to. This may not actually be the case. Many times impressions are. The same holds true for questionnaires. The
business questionnaires get handed to other employees for respondent’s first impression of the study usually comes from
completion. Housewives sometimes respond for their hus- the envelope containing the survey. The best envelopes (i.e., the
bands. Kids respond as a prank. For a variety of reasons, the ones that make you want to see what’s inside) are colored,
respondent may not be who you think it is. It is a confounding hand-addressed and use a commemorative postage stamp.
error inherent in questionnaires. Envelopes with bulk mail permits or gummed labels are
Finally, questionnaires are simply not suited for some people. perceived as unimportant. This will generally be reflected in a
For example, a written survey to a group of poorly educated lower response rate.
people might not work because of reading skill problems. More Provide a well-written cover letter. The respondent’s next
frequently, people are turned off by written questionnaires impression comes from the cover letter. The importance of the
because of misuse. cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides your best
Questionnaire Design - General chance to persuade the respondent to complete the survey.
Considerations Give your questionnaire a title that is short and meaningful to
Most problems with questionnaire analysis can be traced back to the respondent. A questionnaire with a title is generally
the design phase of the project. Well-defined goals are the best perceived to be more credible than one without.
way to assure a good questionnaire design. When the goals of a Include clear and concise instructions on how to complete the
study can be expressed in a few clear and concise sentences, the questionnaire. These must be very easy to understand, so use
design of the questionnaire becomes considerably easier. The short sentences and basic vocabulary. Be sure to print the return
questionnaire is developed to directly address the goals of the address on the questionnaire itself (since questionnaires often
study. get separated from the reply envelopes).
One of the best ways to clarify your study goals is to decide Begin with a few non-threatening and interesting items. If the
how you intend to use the information. Do this before you first items are too threatening or “boring”, there is little chance
begin designing the study. This sounds obvious, but many that the person will complete the questionnaire. People generally
researchers neglect this task. Why do research if the results will look at the first few questions before deciding whether or not to
not be used? complete the questionnaire. Make them want to continue by
Be sure to commit the study goals to writing. Whenever you are putting interesting questions first.
unsure of a question, refer to the study goals and a solution Use simple and direct language. The questions must be clearly
will become clear. Ask only questions that directly address the understood by the respondent. The wording of a question
study goals. Avoid the temptation to ask questions because it should be simple and to the point. Do not use uncommon
would be “interesting to know”. words or long sentences. Make items as brief as possible. This
As a general rule, with only a few exceptions, long question- will reduce misunderstandings and make the questionnaire
naires get less response than short questionnaires. Keep your appear easier to complete. One way to eliminate misunderstand-
questionnaire short. In fact, the shorter the better. Response ings is to emphasize crucial words in each item by using bold,
rate is the single most important indicator of how much italics or underlining.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
criticism of questionnaires is their inability to retain the “flavor” information are more likely to produce honest responses
of a response. Leaving space for comments will provide than those identifying the respondent. If your
valuable information not captured by the response categories. questionnaire does contain sensitive items, be sure to
Leaving white space also makes the questionnaire look easier clearly state your policy on confidentiality.
and this increases response. 2. Asks for an answer on only one dimension. The purpose
Place the most important items in the first half of the ques- of a survey is to find out information. A question that
tionnaire. Respondents often send back partially completed asks for a response on more than one dimension will not
questionnaires. By putting the most important items near the provide the information you are seeking. For example, a
beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still researcher investigating a new food snack asks “Do you like
contain important information. the texture and flavor of the snack?” If a respondent
Hold the respondent’s interest. We want the respondent to answers “no”, then the researcher will not know if the
complete our questionnaire. One way to keep a questionnaire respondent dislikes the texture or the flavor, or both.
interesting is to provide variety in the type of items used. Another questionnaire asks, “Were you satisfied with the
Varying the questioning format will also prevent respondents quality of our food and service?” Again, if the respondent
from falling into “response sets”. At the same time, it is answers “no”, there is no way to know whether the quality
important to group items into coherent categories. All items of the food, service, or both were unsatisfactory. A good
should flow smoothly from one to the next. question asks for only one “bit” of information.
If a questionnaire is more than a few pages and is held together 3. Can accommodate all possible answers. Multiple choice
by a staple, include some identifying data on each page (such as items are the most popular type of survey questions
a respondent ID number). Pages often accidentally separate. because they are generally the easiest for a respondent to
answer and the easiest to analyze. Asking a question that
Provide incentives as a motivation for a properly completed
does not accommodate all possible responses can confuse
questionnaire. What does the respondent get for completing
and frustrate the respondent. For example, consider the
your questionnaire? Altruism is rarely an effective motivator.
question:
Attaching a dollar bill to the questionnaire works well. If the
information you are collecting is of interest to the respondent, What brand of computer do you own? __
offering a free summary report is also an excellent motivator. A. IBM PC
Whatever you choose, it must make the respondent want to B. Apple
complete the questionnaire.
Clearly, there are many problems with this question. What
Use professional production methods for the questionnaire— if the respondent doesn’t own a microcomputer? What if
either desktop publishing or typesetting and keylining. Be he owns a different brand of computer? What if he owns
creative. Try different colored inks and paper. The object is to both an IBM PC and an Apple? There are two ways to
make your questionnaire stand out from all the others the correct this kind of problem.
respondent receives.
The first way is to make each response a separate
Make it convenient. The easier it is for the respondent to dichotomous item on the questionnaire. For example:
complete the questionnaire the better. Always include a self-
Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No)
addressed postage-paid envelope. Envelopes with postage
stamps get better response than business reply envelopes Do you own an Apple computer? (circle: Yes or No)
(although they are more expensive since you also pay for the Another way to correct the problem is to add the necessary
non-respondents). response categories and allow multiple responses. This is
The final test of a questionnaire is to try it on representatives of the preferable method because it provides more
the target audience. If there are problems with the question- information than the previous method.
naire, they almost always show up here. If possible, be present What brand of computer do you own?
while a respondent is completing the questionnaire and tell her (Check all that apply)
that it is okay to ask you for clarification of any item. The __ Do not own a computer
questions she asks are indicative of problems in the question-
naire (i.e., the questions on the questionnaire must be without __ IBM PC
any ambiguity because there will be no chance to clarify a __ Apple
question when the survey is mailed). __ Other
Qualities of a Good Question 4. Has mutually exclusive options. A good question leaves no
There are good and bad questions. The qualities of a good ambiguity in the mind of the respondent. There should be
question are as follows: only one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent to
1. Evokes the truth. Questions must be non-threatening. make. An obvious example is:
When a respondent is concerned about the consequences Where did you grow up? _
of answering a question in a particular manner, there is a A. Country
good possibility that the answer will not be truthful.
C. City Very few people would know the answer to this question
A person who grew up on a farm in the country would not without looking it up, and very few respondents will take
know whether to select choice A or B. This question would the time and effort to look it up. If you ask a question
not provide meaningful information. Worse than that, it similar to this, it is important to understand that the
could frustrate the respondent and the questionnaire might responses are rough estimates and there is a strong
find its way to the trash. likelihood of error.
5. Produces variability of responses. When a question It is important to look at each question and decide if all
produces no variability in responses, we are left with respondents will be able to answer it. Be careful not to
considerable uncertainty about why we asked the question assume anything. For example, the following question
and what we learned from the information. If a question assumes the respondent knows what Proposition 13 is
does not produce variability in responses, it will not be about.
possible to perform any statistical analyses on the item. For Are you in favor of Proposition 13 ?
example: ___ Yes
What do you think about this report? __ ___ No
A. It’s the worst report I’ve read ___ Undecided
B. It’s somewhere between the worst and best If there is any possibility that the respondent may not
C. It’s the best report I’ve read know the answer to your question, include a “don’t know”
Since almost all responses would be choice B, very little response category.
information is learned. Design your questions so they are 8. Does not imply a desired answer. The wording of a
sensitive to differences between respondents. As another question is extremely important. We are striving for
example: objectivity in our surveys and, therefore, must be careful
Are you against drug abuse? (circle: Yes or No) not to lead the respondent into giving the answer we
would like to receive. Leading questions are usually easily
Again, there would be very little variability in responses and
spotted because they use negative phraseology. As
we’d be left wondering why we asked the question in the
examples:
first place.
Wouldn’t you like to receive our free brochure?
6. Follows comfortably from the previous question. Writing a
questionnaire is similar to writing anything else. Don’t you think the Congress is spending too much
Transitions between questions should be smooth. money?
Grouping questions that are similar will make the 9. Does not use emotionally loaded or vaguely defined
questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will words. This is one of the areas overlooked by both
feel more comfortable. Questionnaires that jump from one beginners and experienced researchers. Quantifying
unrelated topic to another feel disjointed and are not likely adjectives (e.g., most, least, majority) are frequently used in
to produce high response rates. questions. It is important to understand that these
7. Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs. Among the adjectives mean different things to different people.
most subtle mistakes in questionnaire design are questions 10. Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations.
that make an unwarranted assumption. An example of Remember who your audience is and write your
this type of mistake is: questionnaire for them. Do not use uncommon words or
Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or compound sentences. Write short sentences. Abbreviations
No) are okay if you are absolutely certain that every single
respondent will understand their meanings. If there is any
This question will present a problem for someone who
doubt at all, do not use the abbreviation. The following
does not currently have auto insurance. Write your
question might be okay if all the respondents are
questions so they apply to everyone. This often means
accountants, but it would not be a good question for the
simply adding an additional response category.
general public.
Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance?
What was your AGI last year? ______
_ Yes
11. Is not dependent on responses to previous questions.
_ No Branching in written questionnaires should be avoided.
_ Don’t have auto insurance While branching can be used as an effective probing
One of the most common mistaken assumptions is that technique in telephone and face-to-face interviews, it
the respondent knows the correct answer to the question. should not be used in written questionnaires because it
Industry surveys often contain very specific questions that sometimes confuses respondents. An example of
the respondent may not know the answer to. For example: branching is:
What percent of your budget do you spend on
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
(Yes or No) If survey. If the questionnaire can be completed in less than five
no, go to question 3 minutes, the response rate can be increased by mentioning this
in the cover letter.
2. How much is your annual life insurance
premium ? _________ Flattering the respondent in the cover letter does not seem to
affect response. Altruism or an appeal to the social utility of a
These questions could easily be rewritten as one question
study has occasionally been found to increase response, but
that applies to everyone:
more often, it is not an effective motivator.
1. How much did you spend last year for life
There are no definitive answers whether or not to personalize
insurance ? ______
cover letters (i.e., the respondents name appears on the cover
12. Does not ask the respondent to order or rank a series of letter). Some researchers have found that personalized cover
more than five items. Questions asking respondents to letters can be detrimental to response when anonymity or
rank items by importance should be avoided. This confidentiality are important to the respondent.
becomes increasingly difficult as the number of items
The literature regarding personalization are mixed. Some
increases, and the answers become less reliable. This
researchers have found that personalized cover letters with
becomes especially problematic when asking respondents
hand-written signatures helped response rates. Other investiga-
to assign a percentage to a series of items. In order to
tors, however, have reported that personalization has no effect
successfully complete this task, the respondent must
on response.
mentally continue to re-adjust his answers until they total
one hundred percent. Limiting the number of items to five The signature of the person signing the cover letter has been
will make it easier for the respondent to answer. investigated by several researchers. Ethnic sounding names and
the status of the researcher (professor or graduate student) do
Pre-notification Letters not affect response. One investigator found that a cover letter
Many researchers have studied pre-notification letters to signed by the owner of a marina produced better response than
determine if they increase response rate. A meta-analysis of one signed by the sales manager. The literature is mixed
these studies revealed an aggregate increase in response rate regarding whether a hand-written signature works better than
of 7.7 percent. Pre-notification letters might help to establish one that is mimeographed. Two researchers reported that
the legitimacy of a survey, thereby contributing to a mimeographed signatures worked as well as a hand-written
respondent’s trust. Another possibility is that a pre- one, while another reported that hand-written signatures
notification letter builds expectation and reduces the produced better response. Another investigator found that
possibility that a potential respondent might disregard the cover letters signed with green ink increased response by over 10
survey when it arrives. percent.
Pre-letters are seldom used in marketing research surveys. It is commonly believed that a handwritten postscript (P.S.) in
They are an excellent (but expensive) way to increase the cover letter might increase response. One older study did
response. The researcher needs to weigh the additional cost find an increase in response, however, more recent studies
of sending out a pre-letter against the probability of a lower found no significant difference.
response rate. When sample sizes are small, every response 1. Describe why the study is being done (briefly) and identify
really counts and a pre-letter is highly recommended. the sponsors.
1. Briefly describe why the study is being done and identify the 2. Mention the incentive. (A good incentive is a copy of the
sponsors. This is impressive and lends credibility to the results).
study.
3. Mention inclusion of a stamped, self-addressed return
2. Explain why the person receiving the pre-letter was chosen to
envelope.
receive the questionnaire.
4. Encourage prompt response without using deadlines.
3. Justify why the respondent should complete the
questionnaire. The justification must be something that will 5. Describe your “confidentiality/anonymity” policy.
benefit the respondent. For most people, altruism is not 6. Give the name and phone number of someone they can call
sufficient justification. If an incentive will be included with with questions.
the questionnaire, mention the inclusion of a free gift Response Rate and Following up on
without specifically telling what it will be. Nonrespondents
4. Explain how the results will be used. Response rate is the single most important indicator of how
Cover Letters much confidence can be placed in the results of a survey. A low
response rate can be devastating to the reliability of a study.
The cover letter is an essential part of the survey. To a large
degree, the cover letter will affect whether or not the respondent One of the most powerful tool for increasing response is to use
completes the questionnaire. It is important to maintain a follow-ups or reminders. Traditionally, between 10 and 60
friendly tone and keep it as short as possible. The importance percent of those sent questionnaires respond without follow-
of the cover letter should not be underestimated. It provides an up reminders. These rates are too low to yield confident results,
so the need to follow up on nonrespondents is clear.
by including another copy of the questionnaire. When design- reported that when specific questions were asked before general
ing the follow-up procedure, it is important for the researcher to questions, respondents tended to exhibit greater interest in the
keep in mind the unique characteristics of the people in the general questions.
sample. The most successful follow-ups have been achieved by It is not clear whether or not question-order affects response. A
phone calls. few researchers have reported that question-order does not
Many researchers have examined whether postcard follow-ups effect responses, while others have reported that it does.
are effective in increasing response. The vast majority of these Generally, it is believed that question-order effects exist in
studies show that a follow-up postcard slightly increases interviews, but not in written surveys.
response rate, and a meta-analysis revealed an aggregate gain of
Anonymity and Confidentiality
3.5 percent. The postcard serves as a reminder for subjects who
An anonymous study is one in which nobody (not even the
have forgotten to complete the survey.
researcher) can identify who provided data. It is difficult to
Nonresponse Bias conduct an anonymous questionnaire through the mail because
Many studies have attempted to determine if there is a differ- of the need to follow-up on nonresponders. The only way to
ence between respondents and nonrespondents. Some do a follow-up is to mail another survey or reminder postcard
researchers have reported that people who respond to surveys to the entire sample. However, it is possible to guarantee
answer questions differently than those who do not. Others confidentiality, where those conducting the study promise not
have found that late responders answer differently than early to reveal the information to anyone. For the purpose of follow-
responders, and that the differences may be due to the different up, identifying numbers on questionnaires are generally
levels of interest in the subject matter. One researcher, who preferred to using respondents’ names. It is important,
examined a volunteer organization, reported that those more however, to explain why the number is there and what it will be
actively involved in the organization were more likely to used for.
respond. Some studies have shown that response rate is affected by the
Demographic characteristics of nonrespondents have been anonymity/confidentiality policy of a study. Others have
investigated by many researchers. Most studies have found that reported that responses became more distorted when subjects
nonresponse is associated with low education. However, one felt threatened that their identities would become known.
researcher reported that demographic characteristics such as age, Others have found that anonymity and confidentiality issues do
education, and employment status were the same for respon- not affect response rates or responses.
dents and nonrespondents. Another study found that The Length of a Questionnaire
nonrespondents were more often single males. As a general rule, long questionnaires get less response than
Most researchers view nonresponse bias as a continuum, short questionnaires. However, some studies have shown that
ranging from fast responders to slow responders (with the length of a questionnaire does not necessarily affect
nonresponders defining the end of the continuum). In fact, response. More important than length is question content. A
one study used extrapolation to estimate the magnitude of bias subject is more likely to respond if they are involved and
created by nonresponse. Another group of researchers argue interested in the research topic. Questions should be meaning-
that nonresponse should not be viewed as a continuum, and ful and interesting to the respondent.
that late respondents do not provide a suitable basis for
estimating the characteristics of nonrespondents.
Incentives
Many researchers have examined the effect of providing a variety
The Order of the Questions of nonmonetary incentives to subjects. These include token
Items on a questionnaire should be grouped into logically gifts such as small packages of coffee, ball-point pens, postage
coherent sections. Grouping questions that are similar will make stamps, key rings, trading stamps, participation in a raffle or
the questionnaire easier to complete, and the respondent will lottery, or a donation to a charity in the respondent’s name.
feel more comfortable. Questions that use the same response Generally (although not consistently), nonmonetary incentives
formats, or those that cover a specific topic, should appear have resulted in an increased response. A meta-analysis of 38
together. studies that used some form of an incentive revealed that
Each question should follow comfortably from the previous monetary and nonmonetary incentives were effective only when
question. Writing a questionnaire is similar to writing anything enclosed with the survey. The promise of an incentive for a
else. Transitions between questions should be smooth. returned questionnaire was not effective in increasing response.
Questionnaires that jump from one unrelated topic to another The average increase in response rate for monetary and non-
feel disjointed and are not likely to produce high response rates. monetary incentives was 19.1 percent and 7.9 percent,
Most investigators have found that the order in which ques- respectively.
tions are presented can affect the way that people respond. One Most researchers have found that higher monetary incentives
study reported that questions in the latter half of a question- generally work better than smaller ones. One researcher pro-
naire were more likely to be omitted, and contained fewer posed a diminishing return model, where increasing the
extreme responses. Some researchers have suggested that it may amount of the incentive would have a decreasing effect on
be necessary to present general questions before specific ones in response rate. A meta-analysis of fifteen studies showed that an
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
percent, and $1 increased the response by 31 percent. the color of the envelope affects response rate. First impres-
sions are important, and the respondent’s first impression of
Notification of a Cutoff Date
the study usually comes from the envelope containing the
Several researchers have examined the effect of giving subjects a
survey. Therefore, we might predict that color would have a
deadline for responding. While a deadline will usually reduce the
positive impact on response because of its uniqueness.
time from the mailing until the returns begin arriving, it appears
that it does not increase response, and may even reduce the The “Don’t Know”, “Undecided”, and
response. One possible explanation is that a cutoff date might “Neutral” Response Options
dissuade procrastinators from completing the questionnaire Response categories are developed for questions in order to
after the deadline has past. facilitate the process of coding and analysis. Many studies have
Reply Envelopes and Postage looked at the effects of presenting a “don’t know” option in
A good questionnaire makes it convenient for the respondent attitudinal questions. The “don’t know” option allows
to reply. Mail surveys that include a self-addressed stamped respondents to state that they have no opinion or have not
reply envelope get better response than business reply enve- thought about a particular issue.
lopes. Some investigators have suggested that people might feel The physical placement of the “undecided” category (at the
obligated to complete the questionnaire because of the guilt midpoint of the scale, or separated from the scale) can change
associated with throwing away money—that is, the postage response patterns. Respondents are more likely to choose the
stamp. Others have pointed out that using a business reply “undecided” category when it was off to the side of the scale.
permit might suggest advertising to some people. Another There are also different response patterns depending on
possibility is that a business reply envelope might be perceived whether the midpoint is labeled “undecided” or “neutral”.
as less personal. Several researchers have found that the physical location of the
A meta-analysis on 34 studies comparing stamped versus middle alternative can make a difference in responses, and that
business reply postage showed that stamped reply envelopes placing the middle option at the last position in the question
had a 9 percent greater aggregate effect than business reply increases the percentage of respondents who select it by over 9
envelopes. In another meta-analysis on nine studies, an percent. Frequently, offering respondents a middle alternative in
aggregate effect of 6.2 percent was found. a survey question will make a difference in the conclusions that
would be drawn from the data. The middle option of an
The Outgoing Envelope and Postage attitudinal scale attracts a substantial number of respondents
There have been several researchers that examined whether there
who might be unsure of their opinion.
is a difference in response between first class postage versus
bulk rate. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed a small, but Researcher have also studied the “don’t know” option for
significant, aggregate difference of 1.8 percent. Envelopes with factual questions. Unlike attitude questions, respondents might
bulk mail permits might be perceived as “junk mail”, unimpor- legitimately not know the answer to a factual question. Surpris-
tant, or less personal, and thus will be reflected in a lower ingly, the research suggests that the “don’t know” option
response rates. should not be included in factual questions. Questions that
exclude the “don’t know” option produce a greater volume of
A few researchers have also examined whether metered mail or
accurate data. Furthermore, there is generally no difference in
stamps work better on the outgoing envelope. The results of
response rate depending on the inclusion or exclusion of the
these studies suggest a small increase in response favoring a
“don’t know” option. There is still a controversy surrounding
stamped envelope. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed
the “don’t know” response category. Many researchers advocate
that the aggregate difference was slightly less than one percent.
including a “don’t know” response category when there is any
Many researchers have reported increased response rates by possibility that the respondent may not know the answer to a
using registered, certified, or special delivery mail to send the question. The best advice is probably to use a “don’t know”
questionnaire. The wisdom of using these techniques must be option for factual questions, but not for attitude questions.
weighed against the consequences of angering respondents that
make a special trip to the post office, only to find a question-
Question Wording
The wording of a question is extremely important. Researchers
naire.
strive for objectivity in surveys and, therefore, must be careful
It is not clear whether a typed or hand-addressed envelope not to lead the respondent into giving a desired answer.
affects response. One study, conducted at the University of Unfortunately, the effects of question wording are one of the
Minnesota, reported that students responded better to hand- least understood areas of questionnaire research.
addressed postcards, while professors responded better to
Many investigators have confirmed that slight changes in the
typed addresses.
way questions are worded can have a significant impact on how
This writer could find no studies that examined whether people respond. Several authors have reported that minor
gummed labels would have a deleterious effect on response changes in question wording can produce more than a 25
rate, although we might predict that response rate would be less percent difference in people’s opinions.
for gummed labels because they have the appearance of less
Several investigators have looked at the effects of modifying
personalization.
adjectives and adverbs. Words like usually, often, sometimes,
questionnaires, although it is clear that they do not mean the It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the
same thing to all people. Some adjectives have high variability required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is
and others have low variability. The following adjectives have selected from a list of population members. As long as the list
highly variable meanings and should be avoided in surveys: a does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as
clear mandate, most, numerous, a substantial majority, a good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over
minority of, a large proportion of, a significant number of, the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic
many, a considerable number of, and several. Other adjectives sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of
produce less variability and generally have more shared meaning. records from a computer file.
These are: lots, almost all, virtually all, nearly all, a majority of, a Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that
consensus of, a small number of, not very many of, almost is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling
none, hardly any, a couple, and a few. error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least
Sponsorship one common characteristic. The researcher first identifies the
There have been several studies to determine if the sponsor of relevant stratums and their actual representation in the popula-
a survey might affect response rate. The overwhelming majority tion. Random sampling is then used to select subjects from
of these studies have clearly demonstrated that university each stratum until the number of subjects in that stratum is
sponsorship is the most effective. A meta-analysis of these proportional to its frequency in the population. Stratified
studies revealed an aggregate increase in response rate of 8.9 sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in
percent. This may be due to the past benefits that the respon- the population have a low incidence relative to the other
dent has received from the university. Another possibility is that stratums.
a business sponsor implies advertising or sales to potential Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the
respondents. researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation
Sampling of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is
population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the re- often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross
searcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time
defined in keeping with the objectives of the study. required to select a random sample.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The
the researcher can include the entire population in the study. researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually
This type of research is called a census study because data is and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a
gathered on every member of the population. researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one
“representative” city, even though the population includes all
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt
cities. When using this method, the researcher must be
to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen
confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the
sample can be used to represent the population. The sample
entire population.
reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn. Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified
sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or
the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in
nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the
the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is
population has a known non-zero probability of being selected.
used to select the required number of subjects from each
Probability methods include random sampling, systematic
stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the
sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling,
stratums are filled by random sampling.
members are selected from the population in some nonrandom
manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used
sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be ex-
advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be tremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in
calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from
differ from the population. When inferring to the population, initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this
results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces
from the population remains unknown. the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross
section from the population.
Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling.
Each member of the population has an equal and known chance
of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is
often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the
population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.
LESSON 28:
MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION
Annual General Meeting (AGM) A recent study conducted by the American management consultants, Booz,
AGM’s are held once a year to assess the trading of the organi- Allen and Hamilton, as reported in the press, concluded that 299
zation over the year . All shareholders are invited to intend the managers, at an average salary of$50,000 a year, spent half of their
GM but they must be given 21 days notice. time in meetings. And that a large proportion of this time was wasted on
useless discussions, politi-cal maneuvering
Statutory Meetings
Statutory meetings are called so that the directors and share- and personal conflicts. Based on their study, the consult-ants
holders ca communicate and consider special reports. advised organizations not to call a meeting that costs $10,000
Companies are required by law to hold these statutory meetings for a deci-sion that is worth $1000.
Board Meetings Like their Western counterparts, Indian executives too, in many
Board meetings are held as often as individual organizations organizations spend a large part of their working day in company
require. They are attended by all directors and chaired by the meetings. In the United States, it is to be noted, decisions are
Chairman of the board. made by groups of managers or executives rather than by
Informal Meetings individual top management functionaries. Similarly, in India too,
Informal meetings are not restricted by the same rules and we have various committees in organizations like the Credit
regulation as formal meetings. Such meetings may take the Committee, Recovery Committee, Man-agement Committee,
form of brainstorming or discussion sessions where strict Audit Committee, Promotions Committee, Systems Committee,
agendas may not be necessary and minutes may not be kept. and Legal Committee which take decisions and that is why it
However, it is usually considered good business practice for an becomes necessary to organize many meetings.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
While meetings, which are effective, contribute to decision-
making and positive outcome, illconceived and indifferently invariably invited. At the same time, in the ab-sence of a formal
conducted meetings entail enormous waste of time, efforts and list, it would be essential to identify people whose presence
other resources. They may even lead to chaos and confusion. It would be of significance when subjects are taken up for
would therefore be imperative to give attention to certain details deliberation. In some cases, senior functionaries will have to -
while convening meetings. The preparation for an effective be necessarily invited to lend authority to the decision making
meeting starts well in advance and there is a lot that needs to be process whereas some junior level functionaries and subject
attended to on the day of the meeting, during the meeting and matter specialists may have to be present to provide technical
thereafter till the minutes are drawn up and sent. details and other relevant backpapers. Persons to be invited for
the meeting, wherever not specifically stated, are best decided in
Hope Not
consultation with the chairperson and other senior functionaries
“Meetings keep minutes, but waste hours”. on whose behalf the meeting is called.
“Meetings are indispensable when you don’t want to do anything”. Invitation for the meeting is to be clearly drawn up indicating
J K Galbraith the day, date, time and venue of the meeting. Invitations have
to be sent well in advance to ensure that outstation participants
Agenda have sufficient time to make appropriate travel plans. Meeting
Agenda is the list of items to be taken up for discussion during notices will have to clearly indicate who should attend the
the meeting. It provides the reason for calling a meeting. It meeting. Sometimes, people in organizations receive notices,
should be ensured that there are ad-equate numbers of worth- which do not clearly indicate whether they are sent as an
while issues, which need deliberation at the meeting. All topics invitation or just as intimation. The addressee in this case is
and issues that will be taken for discussion during the meeting likely to be confused and will have to start making further
call for advance efforts. The items stated in the agenda should be enquiries. The meeting notice should also state whether the
relevant and appropriate, keeping in view the purpose of the addressee, if not in a position to attend, can depute someone
meeting and the expertise of members who will be participat-ing else on his behalf. Though most of these are-simple neces-
in it. If the agenda is not properly drawn up, the meeting may saries, they are often overlooked.
not serve any useful purpose. The agenda should be such that
adequate numbers of issues that merit the attention of members
are drawn up and listed for deliberation so that the duration of
the meeting is gainfully spent. Calling a meeting for the sake of it
or just to ensure that the pre-determined periodicity is met
entails waste of time and resources.
Before the Meeting
Background Papers
Every meeting of some importance will have a set of back-ground
papers, which are sent in advance to the members who, will
participate in the meeting. These background papers relate to the
items listed in the agenda and provide glimpses of the issues
involved. Background papers are normally prepared by the
concerned functionaries or functional departments who are seeking
a decision on the issue. Background papers cover all relevant details
that are germane to effective de-liberation and would normally
include facts, figures, different views, expert opinion, latest
position, and so on. Minutes of the previous meeting are also sent
along with the first lot of background papers since it is always the
first item on the agenda . They are also taken up for confirmation
before proceeding to the other items. Background pa-pers ensure
that deliberations are focused and cover all relevant dimensions of
the subject under discussion.
Background papers should state clearly what is expected of the
meeting. Board notes, office notes, etc. put up for important
meetings should state clearly whether the note is submitted for
“consideration and orders” or submitted for “information”. It
is also a common practice to state the “Resolution” covering the
type of orders sought to ensure abundant clarity.
Whom to Invite
To be effective, deliberations at the meetings should involve all
the concerned functionaries and persons. Regular members of
AGENDA
These three items of
ordinary business are
included on every agenda
(some committees will also • Apologies for absence
include ‘Correspondence’) • Minutes of last meeting
• Matters arising
Special business is listed
• Chairman’s Report
separately (any official
reports come first) • Football Results and Matches (Frank Jones)
• New Keep-Fit Classes (Carol Chen)
Finish all agendas with these • Purchase of Tennis Equipment (Aileen Forster)
final two items of ordinary
business • Annual Dinner and Dance
• Any other business
• Date of next meeting
7 May 2000
Timing and Venue earlier will have to be necessarily followed up with subsequent
Care should be taken in fixing up meetings in a manner that is reminders.
generally convenient to most of the members or participants. A The venue of the meeting should be fixed up obviously well
notice in advance will ensure that participants get adequate before the meeting notices are dispatched. With so many
opportunity to schedule or reschedule their en-gagements. The meetings taking place there is bound to be considerable demand
date and time should be fixed taking into account holidays, for meeting halls and conference rooms. The meeting room
other important evel1ts and functions that may clash with should lave all the physical facilities-fans, air conditioners,
meeting timings and make it difficult for the members to microphones, projectors, etc. that ensure minimum comfort for
choose between one or the other. While it may not be possible the members and facilitate uninterrupted deliberations. As we
to totally avoid overlapping in all cases, some advance planning have seen in the earlier chapters, physical barriers such as non--
and enqui-ries will certainly help better attendance at meetings. availability of sound systems, extraneous sounds, cramped
Indication of the duration of the meeting will also be helpful seating, etc. hinders effective communication. It is not uncom-
so that the participants would know how much time is to be mon in organizations to come across instances where the
allocated for it. Also, details such as arrangements for breakfast, availability of venue is not confirmed or there is some misun-
lunch, etc. need to be mentioned. derstanding in the date or time as a result of which either
While reasonable advance intimation for any meeting facilitates meeting are delayed or participants are made to move from one
better atten-dance, any notice sent months in advance or much
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
rassment at the time of meeting. issues to be taken up in the meeting
There are occasions when the chief executive or other senior • Entrustment of responsibility concerning the recording of
functionary may decide to convene impromptu or emergent minutes or proceedings
meetings with very short notice in which case the availability of • Preparation of minutes on time, obtaining approval for the
venue, physical facilities and other arrangements for refresh- same and their dispatch
ments, etc. will have to be attended to on priority: A situation
• Timely intimation of postponement, cancellation, change of
where the deliberations have concluded and yet refreshments or
venue, etc.
lunch is not ready speaks of poor prepara-tions and has to be
scrupulously avoided. Also the participants’ time is important • Changes to be effected in the composition of the members
and cannot be taken for granted. or participants, special invitees, etc.
• This kind of attention to all details by the convenor or the
Punctuality
secretariat brings in the much-needed professional approach
Starting the meeting on time is an area that calls for conscious
in conducting meetings.
efforts. Keeping the venue open, reminding the Chairman and
other members, ensuring that all papers have reached the Role of the Chairperson
participants, and table items are placed, and ensuring that the The Chairperson, the convenor or the secretary and senior
convenors and organizers are at the venue well before the members have a vital role to play in conducting the meetings
scheduled time are all a must in making meetings time bound effectively. He or she has to ensure punctuality and effective time
and purposeful. A situation where the convenor is still in management. While providing the freedom for expressing
consultation with the chairman of the meeting, well past the views on items taken up for deliberation, the chairperson
scheduled start-ing time, while the participants’ are waiting in ensures that discussions do not stray. The Chairperson ensures
the venue not knowing when and if at all the meeting would that as far as possible, all the agenda items slated for discus-sion
take place is the kind of situation that speaks of the indifferent are duly taken up for deliberation. The chairperson may also
attitude towards the meeting and must be avoided. have to make appro-priate opening remarks and concluding
remarks in the interest of directing delibera-tions and arriving at
Time Management
clear decisions. Through his experience, wit and wisdom, he
Time management is of essence in ensuring the effectiveness of
brings in authority and decisiveness to the deliberations. If,
meetings. Meetings, which start on time, end on time and
during the course of delibera-tions, members get into a war of
provide adequate time for proper deliberation of all listed
words, or personal clash, the chairperson will have to use his or
items, ensure cost effectiveness. On the contrary, meet-ings that
her skill in resolving such conflicts without hurting the people
start with undue delay, take up items not on priority and run
concerned. When meetings are either long or very frequent,
out of focus entail waste of efforts and time and prove to be
some time may have to be spent in warming up 9r refreshing
costly to the organization. On_ tan “assess the efficiency level of
the participants or what may be called unwinding. Partici-pants
an organization in terms of effectiveness of the meetings
in all the meetings are the people and people management will
conducted at various levels.
have to be done smoothly. It is common fact that sometimes
Checklist For Meetings discussions in meetings tend to revolve too much on insignifi-
The convenor or the secretariat for the meetings will have to take cant or irrelevant topics, leaving much less time for deliberating
responsibility for the success of the meetings. They have to on the most important topics. The chairperson or the convenor
invariably give attention to details and ensure that everything is in who should play a complementary role in conducting the
order. It would be desirable to maintain a checklist of items to be meetings, should intervene and bring in the much needed sense
checked at various stages Le., before, during and after the meeting. of proportion.
The checklist should include, among others, the following items: To conclude, it should be reiterated that meetings, when
• Venue arrangements such as ensuring that the meeting hall is conducted effectively, could bring in substantial benefits in
ready and open well in time, checking whether all equipments resolving even sensitive matters through collective wisdom.
such as mikes, air conditioners, fans, projectors are They can be very cost effective means of intensive interaction.
functioning, providing pens and pads, etc. When participants learn to talk, listen and interact in a respon-
• Refreshments and catering as are appropriate to the meeting
sible manner, meetings can be really result-oriented. At the same
time, it should be borne in mind that although the people
• Checking flight arrivals, room bookings, conveyance, etc for
participating are knowledgeable, they mayor may not speak out
chairper-son and others wherever required freely and contribute to the deliberations. Sometimes, some of
• Reminding the local members about the time and venue of the participants may tend to dominate the deliberations, not
the meeting giving an opportunity to others to express themselves. In other
• Ensuring that all relevant background papers have reached words, it takes conscious efforts and attention to details in
the members as intended’ ensuring that meetings are effective.
• Ascertaining the participation of members and the
availability of quorum Ensuring that table items required for
the day’s meeting are put up
Meeting members
For success of the problem-solving meeting, the leader’s a. The quiet, nonparticipating member -First ask this person
attitude and efficiency-from the beginning statement through question he can answer by a simple “yes” or “no”. Then,
the entire discussion-are critically important. The leader should whenever possible, ask this member to give some
be well prepared, be able to think and act quickly, get along with information that he is sure to know because of job, training,
others, respect their opinions, know objectives of discussion or experience. Thank and praise the person as much as you
and the reasoning process, be patient, and have a sincere interest can; he may then be more likely to enter the discussion
in the values of cooperative group action. This section lists confidently.
procedures the leader should follow in conducting the meeting:
b. The “know-it-all- ‘: This person may be asked to justify every
1. Begin with appropriate opening statement- statement he or she makes. Whenever possible, ask other
Obviously, you should prepare your introductory statement members for their opinions of these statements.
before the meeting but neither memorize nor read it. Present Sometimes, it necessary and you feel the majority are
it informally and naturally-in one or more of these annoyed by this person’s arrogance, you may tactfully quiet
suggested ways: the person by asking for a show of hands from the group,
Good morning/ afternoon, everyone. which strongly outvotes the know-it-all’s suggestions.
If we are all here, let’s.:. If the negative member still insists on knowing all the
answers, a private, outside-the-meeting session can bring the
. . . .get started
group’s concern to the person. This one-on-one meeting in a
. . . .start the meeting. non-threatening atmosphere may produce more positive
.. . .start. results.
Other possibilities are open to you as chairperson, but the c. The long -winded speaker - You may thank this excessive
above are some of the most common. talker when he is at the end of a sentence, and then recognize
2. Stimulate discussion for solution discovery someone else. Or you might move the discussion to another
highly important point, perhaps with a statement like “Well,
In general, try to encourage all member’s to participate, and
we have two more points, perhaps with a statement like
do keep the discussion moving forward. To help spark
“Well, we have two more points to consider before we wind
discussion on each topic, ask questions and keep participants
up this meeting, so let’s move along to the next topic.
from wandering onto irrelevant paths. Sometimes if the
original contributor of an idea cannot add to it, another d The erroneous member - If the other members-out of
member may be able to carry it further. If a participant’s respect-are reluctant to correct this person, an especially tactful
statement is vague, rephrase it clearly. Maintain an comment by you, the leader, may be required. As with any
atmosphere of goodwill and cooperation throughout the bad-news message, avoid direct criticism, sarcasm, or ridicule.
meeting. If a situation becomes tense or some members are Shield the person’s pride. When praising people, single them
reluctant to speak or are annoying or antagonistic, try to calm out; when criticizing them, put them in a group. Perhaps
down the situation. Even taking a recess diffuses tensions. analyze a similar case, without referring to the speaker
Try to be tactful, considerate, and understanding and show a person-ally.
sense of humor. e. The member who shows personal animosity -Though rare,
3. Understand roles of participants sometimes an angry member shouts hateful, tactless
comments towards another mem-ber or members. You can
In a meeting, different participants (including the
show an attitude of calm understanding and turn him or her
chairperson) tend to acquire some roles. These roles may be
of by directing a question to another member.
categorized as task roles - roles facilitating the achievement of
the task assigned to the meeting, and group building and 5. Sort, select, interpret data for solution evaluation - After you
maintenance roles - roles facilitating the harmony in the have listed members’ suggestions on the board, encourage
meeting so that meeting goes undisturbed. While participants to consider advan-tages and disadvantages of
performing a task role, an individual may playas coordinator, each suggested course of action. List them sepa-rately. As
or information seeker, or opinion seeker, or information leader, be careful not to impose your own opinions on the
giver, or opinion giver, or recorder. While playing the group group, or if you wish to participate, ask another member to
building and maintenance role, an individual may perform as chair the meeting. Encourage each group member to feel a
encourager, compromiser, follower, and likewise. sense of responsibility for the success of the analysis. Good
listening by everyone. to what others offer is extremely
Knowing the various roles being played by group members
impor-tant.
assists the leader in knowing how to react, how to handle
role statements made during a meeting. 6. State the conclusion and plan of action – As with a written
analytical report, the terminal section is of major importance.
4. Particularly important, however, is handling a problem
Before you dismiss the meeting, review what the group has
participant
accomplished. Summarize what parts of the problem
members have solved or partially solved. State the decision
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
statement of the conclusion by saying “You have agreed..
..”or “You have suggested.. ...” or It’s my interpre-tation
that we have approved” rather than. “I think this is what
should be done.” If the group arrived at several conclusions,
list them, preferably in order to importance.
Make some statement about how the solution the group
decided on will be carried out. Appointments may be made
then or announced later in a memo regarding the action.
7. Follow-up after the meeting - Two functions after the
meeting are distribu-tion of the minutes and-most
important-seeing that
responsible committees,
departments, or individuals
AURORA HOLDINGS plc
are appointed to carry out the
Same main headings as the
chosen action. In some Agenda SOCIAL CLUB
situations the meeting leader
may have to confer with other A meeting of the Sports and Social Club will be held in the Conference
Suite A on Friday 14 May 2000 at 1800
executives of higher authority
before appointments are Leave right side blank and
AGENDA NOTES
use the heading NOTES
made regarding policy Chairman will write notes in
decisions. 1 APOLOGIES FOR ABSENCE 1
this section during the
Copies of the minutes your meeting
None received
secretary or assistant prepared 2 MINUTES OF LAST MEETING 2
should be sent to the meeting
Circulated on 16 May. Point out error
participants soon after the
in 4.1 - £1,200 should read £ 12,000
meeting.
They usually should include: 3 MATTERS ARISING 3
• Name of the organization, 4 CHAIRMAN’S REPORT 4
department, or group
Separate notes attached
• Date, time, place of the
meeting 5 FOOTBALL RESULTS AND MATCHES 5
• Names of members present
Frank Jones to report on 3 matches held
• Names of any others present during April. Also future match schedule.
as invited visitors
6 NEW KEEP-FIT CLASSES 6
• Name of chairperson and (at
the end) recording secretary Carol Chen to propose the introduction of
Mention any details which
• Brief summary of reports, if Keep Fit classes for staff.
will help the Chairman to
any, by those listed on the conduct the meeting
7 PURCHASE OF TENNIS EQUIPMENT 7
agenda
• Highlights of solutions Aileen Forster to report on new tennis
equipment needed for July tournament.
presented and decisions made
• Time of adjournment and (if 8 ANNUAL DINNER AND DANCE 8
announced) date or next
meeting. Discuss date and venue, ideas for
programme and appoint person in charge.
CE/ST
12 May 2000
Reference and date
2. If the agenda item has been addressed under the Try introducing each agenda item with a humorous quote
allocated time, the speaker should finish. The time or a comic strip. It will trigger the audience’s interest in
that's left over can be used to address any items what you have to say.
that couldn't be covered earlier in the discussion. If your meeting objective is to introduce new information,
let the group know that there will be a quiz on the content
3. It's up to the group, with the help of the facilitator, you're going to present. At the end of your presentation,
to decide to keep on the issue or move on. For ask the group questions about the content you've just
example, the group may want to get through the presented. Whoever provides the correct answer first
rest of the agenda and then revisit the extended receives a prize. Not only will this generate some
issue at the end of the meeting. In some groups, excitement, but you can guarantee that fewer people will be
the leader may make this decision. If it's important daydreaming during your presentation!
enough, a separate meeting may be scheduled to
discuss an issue in more detail, which would also During a discussion or brainstorming session, try this
give people time to prepare better for meaning simple game involving a soft, small ball. Begin by throwing
discussion. the ball to a participant. That person must comment on the
subject at hand and then throw it to another participant.
4. It's the timekeeper's role to let the group know Each time the ball is thrown around the room, another
comment or suggestion is made. This encourages every
when a speaker's time is up. When one-minute
participant to contribute to the meeting discussion.
remains, signal the group non-verbally (raise your
hand, ring a small bell). This gesture should be Mixing up the meeting’s format should help keep participants
determined before the discussion begins. When the on their toes. But if you sense that interest is waning, schedule
speaker's time is up, make the gesture again. Using a ten-minute break, or suggest you wrap up and continue the
a non-verbal gesture is comfortable for the session later in the week. It should be pretty easy to gauge if the
timekeeper since he doesn't have to interrupt and audience is losing interest – stifled yawns, wandering gazes and
encourages the speaker to be concise and stay on random chatter are all good clues. Remember – most people
time. need a ten-minute break every 50 minutes, so try to incorporate
that into your meeting. If you have a lot of detailed informa-
5. The timekeeper should also alert the facilitator and tion to wade through, try to insert stories, analogies and guest
group members to breaks. You could say, for speakers into your presentation. Any change of pace will help
example, "I just wanted to let everyone know there revive the audience’s interest.
are only 10 minutes before our break". You could If you want people to fully participate in meetings, it’s worth
also write reminders on cards and hold them up as putting some extra time and effort into your planning. Partici-
a reminder. pants who daydream or doze off during meetings make the
entire session unproductive. As the wise philosopher Confucius
As follow-up, e-mail an attachment of the meeting notes to said “Being fond of courage while detesting poverty will lead
each of the participants. Or save them to the company’s men to unruly behavior. Excessive detestation of men who are
network in a meetings folder. This way, all the meeting partici- not benevolent will provoke them to unruly behavior.” So
pants have access to the meeting notes if there’s an idea or make sure your meeting “troops” are kept happy or you may be
discussion they’d like to revisit. In the e-mail, also summarize stuck with an uprising on your hands!
the action items assigned during the meeting. Outline what was
Using Meeting to Help Rebuild Team
assigned, to whom it was assigned, the priority level and the
Confidence.
due date. When a meeting’s adjourned, it’s not always clear
Layoffs can spark hard feelings and fear in an office. It’s difficult
who’s responsible for what, which means action items aren’t
to feel like a team player when you’re wondering if you’re next
always carried through. By summarizing the action items in an
in line for a pink slip.
e-mail, you can be certain all participants understand who’s
responsible for what. First, ask your boss to attend the meeting and give the team a
pep talk, reassuring them that their positions are secure. Having
How to Keep People Interested in a this message delivered in person, rather than in a memo or e-
Meeting? mail, will have a more positive effect. You can then explain the
With the number of meetings that most of us attend, keeping rationale behind the layoffs. If people understand why the
participants interested in what you have to say can be a major
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
addressed, they will begin to feel secure again. follow through with your decisions. Otherwise, you’ll have
To help bring the group back together, ask everyone to brain- succeeded in nothing more than wasting people’s time.
storm some teambuilding activities. If they’re having trouble How to Become a Better Audience
getting inspired, throw a few ideas into the ring: a lunchtime Member?
potluck, a Friday afternoon scavenger hunt or a mini-golf game It takes great courage to recognize one’s shortcomings. Since
throughout the office. Organizing and participating in fun time you’ve already come this far, I’m confident you will be able to
together will help re-establish some of your department’s lost change your negative meeting behavior. Here are some ideas for
enthusiasm. Also use the meeting to recognize the team’s breaking your bad meeting habits
efforts and accomplishments. A simple acknowledgment of
• Avoid side conversations by writing down questions or
their achievements and a word of thanks will go a long way. If
comments as you think of them. If the comments are related
you’re able, consider giving the team a more tangible reward as
to the topic of the meeting, wait for an opening and share
well, such as a Friday afternoon off.
your ideas with everyone. If they’re not, address them after the
By addressing the remaining employees’ status and showing meeting. Then start being an active listener – pay attention,
them how appreciated they are, you’ll be on the way to rebuild- make eye contact and respond positively to the presenter.
ing their trust and, with it, their effectiveness and enthusiasm. • Also, figure out why you’re nitpicking and making unwanted
As the wise philosopher Confucius once said, “To put the comments, and take action. If the topics are boring or the
world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the presenters longwinded, come up with some fresh ideas, such
nation in order, we must put the family in order; to put the as new ways to meet or new rules for talking out of turn.
family in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and to • Most importantly, determine what’s behind your negative
cultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right.” In behavior. Are you unhappy with the way meetings are run? Is
other words, before you can expect your department to be as there not enough time for attendee feedback? Are you
effective and enthusiastic as it was, you must first help each attending too many meetings? If these things are making you
individual realize that she is a valued member of the company. resentful, speak up – before the meeting – and suggest some
What is an Effective Decision Making changes to make your meetings more interesting and effective.
Process in a Meeting? Minutes of a Meeting
Achieving a decision can be a rare occurrence in some meeting During the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in the
rooms. Here are some tips for ensuring decisions are made in Agenda are discussed serially one by one. All the participants
your meetings and helping the process run more smoothly. express their views/ opinions and discuss amongst themselves
Determine the meeting’s goal and state it clearly before, the pros and cons of each item of Agenda. Finally they arrive at
and several times during, the meeting. For example, some conclusions or decisions, which are always kept on official
“The purpose of this meeting is to decide on the record. We call them as minutes of a meeting.
publications in which we will advertise this year.” Thus minutes are the formal records of proceedings of a
meeting. In other words these are the brief of discussions held
Help attendees be better prepared by sending them all
and decisions taken at the meeting. It is the duty of a Secretary
relevant information for their review prior to the
to retain all such discussions, deliberations and decisions in
meeting.
writing specifically.
Brainstorm possible courses of action on a whiteboard The purpose of writing minutes is
so attendees can refer to them throughout the decision-
making process. • To serve as the formal record of discussion and
• To serve as a background for future discussions.
Explore the potential outcomes of each option
including both the benefits and difficulties. Minutes comprises of
Define and prioritize the criteria for judging the options. a. Date and number of meeting.
For example, is cost the most important factor, b. A list of those names of those who attended the meeting
followed by past results? Having these criteria will help c. A list of those members who did not attended the meeting
the process move more quickly. and from whom apologies were received.
Determine how the decisions will be made – will you d. The record of confirmation of the previous minutes and any
need full consensus or will the majority win? amendments agreed to by the committee.
Make your final decisions, record them and send them e. The essential, relevant background to the topic under
to all attendees and other colleagues who are affected. discussion
Follow through with your decisions. f. A succinct summary of the discussion
g. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/
As Peter F. Drucker, author of The Effective Executive , said, “No
resolution and if appropriate, of those individuals/bodies
decision has been made unless carrying it out in specific steps
responsible for talking subsequent action.
has become someone’s work assignment and responsibility.” In
is important that a separate minute be written on the policy meeting is and when I don’t see a clearly laid out agenda that’s
issue(even if this item did not appear on the agenda) going to accomplish that objective.” Hagerty’s first pet peeve
Remember about meetings is lateness: “Don’t come in late. It’s disruptive
and it’s too expensive. People should be on time, be prepared
Use the term Chairperson and not Chairman or Chairwoman. Non
and be ready to roll.” But what he thinks would make the
gender specific language must be used in the minutes.
biggest improvement in meetings is for people in geographi-
cally dispersed companies to have more access to technology. “I
Before setting out to write the minute, the following principles just don’t think a phone connection is quite adequate anymore.
should be borne in mind for effective writing: Meeting attendees need to be able to see the information and
• Brevity- A minute is a selective, not verbatim record. the people – especially if they are remote,” explains Hagerty.
• Clarity- Clarity is essential for good communication. Those He feels that in order for people to buy in to the focus of a
who were not present should be able to understand what meeting, they need to be fully engaged in the discussions that
happened at the meeting from reading the minutes. All happen in these meetings. “When people are engaged, they feel
references should be specific, relevant and accurate. better because they know what’s going on, and they can take
better and faster action because it’s direct information they are
• Self -containment - The minute should stand by itself so
getting, not second- or third-hand through some memo that
that additional information is not required if it is required if
came in the mail or through e-mail.”
it is referred to somebody. If readers want more of the
‘background’, they should be able to check references. How to Reach Your CEO’s Meeting
• Decisiveness – Decisions /resolutions should be conveyed Expectations
clearly. The language of actual resolution or decision should So what can you do to make sure you’re measuring up to your
be reproduced. CEO’s meeting expectations? Follow their meeting advice.”The
basics of holding a good meeting actually haven’t changed over
• Immediate recording – Write up the minutes as soon as
the years,” says Knowlton. “It all starts with whether or not
possible after the meeting.
there’s a clearly stated objective for the meeting in the agenda – a
Further Readings meeting without an agenda is a recipe for a waste of time.”
Do Your Meetings Measure Upto Your Knowlton explains that she expects the meeting organizer to
CEO’s Expectation? inform people in advance of the meeting objective and agenda,
If the CEO of your company decided to sit in on a few of your stay on track in the meeting, cover off the action items and
meetings, would she be impressed or distressed? We asked Nancy clearly state what the outcome of the meeting is.
Knowlton, Co-CEO of SMART Technologies Inc. and Bob Hagerty says there are seven main steps to follow if meeting
Hagerty, CEO of Polycom Inc., what they expect from meetings organizers and attendees want to hold a successful meeting: stay
and how important effective meetings are to the success of their focused on the main point; stay in control of the meeting; have
companies. Find out if your meetings are effective enough to an agenda; discuss the important issues; make sure everyone is
measure up to the expectations of these CEO’s. fully engaged; get a decision; get out. “Because action happens
What Your Meeting Means to the CEO outside the meetings.”
Both Knowlton and Hagerty feel strongly that the effectiveness Six Tips for Effective Meetings
of a company’s meetings has an impact on the organization’s 1. Don’t Meet
bottom line. “Meetings are a huge investment of time, and the Avoid a meeting if the same information could be covered in
number-one expense that most companies have is their a memo, e-mail or brief report. One of the keys to having
people,” explains Knowlton. “When people make good use of more effective meetings is differentiating between the need
their time there’s a terrific return on investment. But when for one-way information dissemination and two-way
people don’t make good use of their time in meetings – they information sharing. To disseminate information you can
don’t achieve their objectives, there’s useless chatter or they’re use a variety of other communication media, such as sending
cycling around on the same topic – that’s a prescription for no an e-mail or posting the information on your company’s
return on an investment.” intranet. If you want to be certain you have delivered the
Hagerty agrees, “I think unsuccessful meetings can be a disaster right message, you can schedule a meeting to simply answer
– they’re unpleasant to be in, they’re ineffective, they’re a waste questions about the information you have sent. By
of time, and they create a huge productivity hole. If you look remembering to ask yourself, “Is a meeting the best way to handle
around the room in most corporate meetings, there’s a lot of this?” you’ll cut down on wasted meeting time and restore
money being burned by the minute.” your group’s belief that the meetings they attend are
What Would Your CEO Change About necessary.
Today’s Meetings? 2. Set Objectives for the Meeting
”I think people are generally well prepared for most of the Set objectives before the meeting! Before planning the
meetings I attend,” says Knowlton. “They’ve all read back- agenda for the meeting, write down a phrase or several
ground material and prepared their own materials. But I find it phrases to complete the sentence: By the end of the meeting,
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
meeting, your ending to the sentence might include phrases participants that you value their input as well as their time.
such as: …be able to list the top three features of our newest 6. Examine Your Meeting Process
product, …have generated three ideas for increasing our Assign the last few minutes of every meeting as time to
sales, …understand the way we do business with customers, review the following questions: What worked well in this
…leave with an action plan, …decide on a new widget meeting? What can we do to improve our next meeting?
supplier, or …solve the design problem. Every participant should briefly provide a point-form answer
One benefit of setting objectives for the meeting is to help to these questions. Answers to the second question should
you plan the meeting. The more concrete your meeting be phrased in the form of a suggested action. For example,
objectives, the more focused your agenda will be. A second if a participant’s answer is stated as Jim was too long-
important benefit of having specific objectives for each winded, ask the participant to re-phrase the comment as an
meeting is that you have a concrete measure against which action. The statement We should be more to-the-point when
you can evaluate that meeting. Were you successful in stating our opinions is a more constructive suggestion.
meeting the objectives? Why or why not? Is another meeting Remember – don’t leave the meeting without assessing what
required? Setting meeting objectives allows you to took place and making a plan to improve the next meeting!
continuously improve your effective meeting process.
3. Provide an Agenda Beforehand
Provide all participants with an agenda before the meeting
starts. Your agenda needs to include a brief description of
the meeting objectives, a list of the topics to be covered and
a list stating who will address each topic and for how long.
When you send the agenda, you should include the time,
date and location of the meeting and any background
information participants will need to know to hold an
informed discussion on the meeting topic. What’s the most
important thing you should do with your agenda? Follow it
closely!
4. Assign Meeting Preparation
Give all participants something to prepare for the meeting,
and that meeting will take on a new significance to each
group member. For problem-solving meetings, have the
group read the background information necessary to get
down to business in the meeting. Ask each group member
to think of one possible solution to the problem to get
everyone thinking about the meeting topic. For example, to
start a sales meeting on a positive note, have all participants
recall their biggest success since the last meeting and ask one
person to share his success with the group. For less formal
meetings or brainstorming sessions, ask a trivia question
related to the meeting topic and give the correct answer in the
first few minutes of the meeting. These tips are sure-fire
ways to warm up the group and direct participants’ attention
to the meeting objectives.
5. Assign Action Items
Don’t finish any discussion in the meeting without deciding
how to act on it. Listen for key comments that flag potential
action items and don’t let them pass by without addressing
them during your meeting. Statements such as We should
really… that’s a topic for a different meeting… or I wonder if
we could… are examples of comments that should trigger
action items to get a task done, hold another meeting or
further examine a particular idea. Assigning tasks and projects
as they arise during the meeting means that your follow-
through will be complete. Addressing off-topic statements
during the meeting in this way also allows you to keep the
meeting on track. By immediately addressing these statements
with the suggestion of making an action item to examine the
LESSON 29 :
PRACTICE CLASS ON MEETINGS DOCUMENTATION
Meetings
♦ Topics Discussed:
♦ Effective meetings:
Conduct
Follow-up
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
making requests and composing sales messages. To reach this goal, you Probably you will never write sales messages - real ones, that is.
should be able to: In business, profes-sional writers usually write them. These
professionals achieve their status by practic-ing long and hard,
• Use imagination in writing skillful persuasive requests that begin
and usually they are blessed, with a special talent for writing.
indirectly, develop convincing reasoning and close with goodwill and Why, then, you might ask, should you study sales writing?
action.
The answer is that even an amateurish effort to write sales
• Compose sales messages that gain attention, persuasively present
messages gives you knowledge of selling techniques that will
appeals, and effectively drive for action help you in many of your other activities. Especially will it help
you in writing other business messages, for in a sense most of
Persuasive messages generally are written in the indirect order. them involve selling something-an idea, a line of reasoning,
While they do not necessarily involve bad news, their goals run your company, yourself. Sales techniques are more valuable to
contrary to the reader’s wishes. The mindset of the reader must you than you might think. After you have stud-ied the remain-
be changed before they can be successful. Achieving this change der of this lesson, you should see why.
require indirectness. Requests that are likely to be resisted require
a slow, deliberate approach. You must persuade the reader that Planning the Structure
he or she should grant the request before making the request. As you probably know from experience, most direct-mail sales
Moe specifically, you must present facts and logical reasoning efforts consist of a number of pieces. Typically, brochures,
that supports your case. And you must do it convincingly. Such leaflets, foldouts, a letter, and so on combine to, form a coordi-
a presentation requires that you begin by developing a plan. nated message. But usually a letter is the main piece. It carries the
main message, and the other pieces carry the supporting details.
Sales Messages
Questioning the Acceptability of Sales Messages Sales efforts by email also use support information, usually
enough to give the reader all that is needed to complete a sale.
As we begin our discussion of sales messages, we should note The information may be in the basic mes-sage, perhaps broken
that they are a most controversial area of business communica- down into distinct subtopics in boxes, separate listings, or such.
tion. Probably you know from your own experience that Or it may be in links or attachments skillfully arranged by
direct-mail sales literature is not always received happily. Called ‘ subtopics. With the use of artwork, color, font selection, and
junk’ mail, these mailings often go into the wastebasket such the total email package can be as complete and attractive as
without being read. Even so, they must be successful, for the the comparable direct-mail package.
direct mail business has survived for over a century.
After you have studied the following material, you should have
Sales messages sent by email appear to be creating even more a general idea of how to sell by the written word.
hostility among intended, customers. Angrily referred to as
“spam” unsolicited, email sales messages have generated strong Knowing the Product or Service and the
resistance among email users. Perhaps it is because these mes- Reader
sages clutter up inboxes. Maybe the rage results from the fact Before you can begin writing, you must know about the
that mass mailings place a heavy burden on Internet providers, product or service you are selling. You simply cannot sell most
driving up costs to the users. Or perhaps the fact that they goods and services unless you know them and can tell the
invade the reader’s privacy is to blame. There are the downright prospects what they need to know. Before prospects buy a
uneth-ical practices of some email advertisers who use “mis- product, they may want to know how it is made, how it works,
leading subject lines and invalid email addresses to thwart what it will do, and what it will not do. Clearly, a first step in
filtering attempts and get respondents to open them.” What- sales writing is careful study of your product or service.
ever the explanation, the resistance is real. You will need to In addition, you should know your readers. In particular, you
consider these objections any time you use this sales medium. should know about their needs for the product or service.
As we shall note later, there are steps reputable advertisers can Anything else you know about them can help their economic
take to minimize this resistance. status, age, nationality, education, and culture. The more you
We take no stand on the issue. Our goal in the following know about your readers, the better you will be able to adapt
paragraphs is to show you how to write sales messages. You your sales message.
will have to decide whether and when sales mes-sages should be In large businesses, a marketing research department or agency
written. We can only suggest that you follow your conscience typically gathers in-formation about prospective customers. If
and practice good business ethics in whatever you do. you do not have such help, you will need to gather this
information on your own. If time does not permit you to do
For example, the nature of a prod-uct can tell you something They must gain attention. If they do not , they fail. The reason
about its likely buyers. People with technical backgrounds is apparent. Because sales messages are sent without invitation,
would proba-bly buy industrial equipment. Expensive French they are not likely to be received favorably. Infact , they even may
perfumes and cosmetics would probably be bought by people be unwanted. Unless they gain attention early, the messages are
in high-income brackets. If you are purchasing a mailing, list, nit read.
you usually receive basic demographics such as age, sex, race, With direct mail , the envelope containing the message is the
education, income, and marital status of those on the list. first attention getter. All too often the reader recognizes the
Sometimes you know more-interests, spending range, con- mailing as an uninvited sales message and promptly discards it.
sumption patterns, and such. For this reason many direct mail writers place an attention
Determining the Appeal getter on the envelop. It may be the offer of a gift (‘Free gift
With your product or service and your prospects in mind, you Inside’). It may present a brief sales message (“12 months of
are ready to create the sales message. This involves selecting and Time at 60% off the newsstand price”).
presenting basic appeals. By appeals, we mean the strategies you Holding Attention in Opening
use to present a product or service to the reader. You could, for The first words of your message also have a major need to gain
example, present a product’s beauty or its taste qualities. Or you attention. The reader must be moved to read on. What you do
could present a product through an appeal to profits, savings, here is a part of your creative effort. But the method you use
or durability. should assist in presenting the sales message. That is, it should
For convenience in studying appeals, we can divide them into help set up your strategy. It should not just gain attention for
two broad groups. In one group are emotional efforts to attention’s sake. Attention is easy to gain if nothing else is
persuade. Such efforts affect how we feel, taste, smell, hear, and needed. In a sales letter, a small explosion set off when the
see. They also include strategies that arouse us through love, reader opens the envelope would gain attention. So would an
anger, pride, fear, and enjoyment. In the other, group is rational electric shock or a miniature stink bomb. But the method, you
appeals. These are appeals to reason-to the thinking mind. Such use should assist in presenting the sales message. That is, it
appeals include strategies based on saving money, making should help set up your strategy. It should not just gain
money, doing a job better, and getting better use from a attention for attention’s sake. Attention is easy to gain if
product. nothing else is needed. In a sales letter, a small explosion set
In any given case, many appeals are available to you. You should off when the reader opens the envelope would gain attention.
consider those that fit your product or service and those that fit So would an electric shock or a miniature stink bomb. But
your readers best. Such products as perfume, style merchandise, these methods would not be likely to assist the selling. One of
and candy and fine food lend themselves to emotional appeals. the most effective attention –gaining techniques is a statement
On the other hand, such products as automobile tires, tools or question that introduces a need that the product will satisfy.
and industrial equipment are best sold through rational appeals. For example , a rational –appeal message to a retailer would
Automobile tires, for example are not bought because they are clearly tap his or her stron needs with these opening words:
pretty but because they are durable, because they grip the road Here is a proven best seller – and with a 12percent greater profit
and because they are safe. Sometimes the appeals can be Another rational – appeal attention getter is this beginning of
combined to support each other. an email sales message from eFax.com:
How the buyer will use the product may be major basis for Never type a fax again!
selecting a sales strategy. Cosmetics might well be sold to the
As was mentioned previously, gimmicks are sometimes used to
final user through emotional appeals. Selling cosmetics to a
gain attention in direct-mail sales. But a gimmick is effective
retailer (who’s primarily interested in their emotional qualities is
only if it supports the theme of the message. One Company
only to the extend that these make customers buy. A retailer’s
made effective use of a penny affixed to the top of a letter with
main question about the product is: Will it sell? What turnover
these words;
can I expect? How much money will it make for me?
Most pennies won’t buy much today, but this penny can save
Determining the Mechanics you untold worry and money – and bring you new peace of
After selecting the appeal, you should write the sales message. mind.
At this point , your imagination comes intot he picture. Writing
sales messages is as creative as writing short stories , plays, and Presenting the Sales Message
novels. In addition to imagination , it involves applied With the reader’s attention gained , you proceed with the sales
psychology and skillful word use. There are as many different strategy that you have developed . In general , you establish a need.
ways of handling a sales message as there are ideas. The only Then you present your product or service as fulfilling that need.
sure measure of the effectiveness of each way is the sales that The plan of your sales message will vary with your imagina-
the message brings in. tion. But it is likely to follow certain general patterns determined
by your choice of appeals. If you select an emotional appeal, for
Gaining Attention
example, your opinion has probably established an emotional
atmosphere that you will continue to develop. Thus, you will
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
that your reader will mentally see it, feel – and want it. In wording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action.
general, you will seek to create an emotional need for your 3. Date The Action—If Possible And Appropriate
product.
Name the date whenever you need the reader’s response by a
If you select a rational appeal, your sales description is likely to certain time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then—
be based on factual material. You should describe your product perhaps to meet the deadline for a sale.
based on what it can do for your reader rather than how it
4. Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action
appeals to the senses
Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by
The writing that carries your sales message can be quite different
prompt action. Such a reminder of the desirability of your
from your normal business writing. Sales writing usually is
product or service—some- times called a clincher—comes
highly conversational, fast moving and aggressive.
appropriately at the ending of your letter. It not only
Sales Letters: Four Point Action Closing provides motivation for the reader, but it also has decided
psychological value as well because it emphasizes service
Securing Action
attitude—rather than the greed stressed if you end with
Having convinced your reader that your product or service is
dollars and cents talk or the mechanics of ordering.
worth the price, you want to get action before the reader has a
change of mind , before forgetfulness defeats you, before the You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four
money goes for something else—before any of the things that point action closing when you are writing a letter relating to
could happen do happen. Therefore, a good persuasive closing sales. You should use dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is
is essential. appropriate for your writing situation.
A good action closing—or clincher—should include the Further Readings
following four points: The 10 Laws for Writing Letters that Get Results
1. Clearly state what action you wish the reader to take.
By Joe Vitale
2. Make that action easy through facilitating devices and careful The following is a letter in response to a question about how to
wording. write sales letters. This is something you could model in layout,
3. Date the action—if possible and appropriate. tone, and ideas, to write your own letters. By the way, this is
4. Pprovide a reader benefit as stimulus for action. where your letterhead should go.
1. Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To Dear Fellow Chicago Seminar Attendees,
Take Jerry Jenkins asked me to tell you how to write letters that get
Should the reader order your product or service? Call your read and get results. That’s a tall order! Well, here’s what I think
office to set up an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local the “laws” are:
dealership or store to see a demonstration? Invite the visit 1. Know what’s in it for your reader.
of a sales representative? On finishing your letter, your reader Get out of your ego and into your reader’s ego. Complete
should know just exactly what you want done and how it this sentence: “Get my book so that you can...(fill in the
should be done. blank).” Your book (or whatever you are selling) is the
At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the feature. What people get as a result of having your book is
reader to take one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid the benefit. Focus on benefits. Always! Without this, your
doing so. Some people faced with a choice resolve their letter will bomb.
dilemma by doing nothing. 2. Write a headline that telegraphs the key benefit to your
2. Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices reader.
And Careful Wording ALWAYS use a headline. There is only ONE exception to
Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or this rule. When you personalize your letter, the “Dear
envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage— (whoever)” opening becomes your headline. There are few
remove some of the work in taking action. Also, your phone headlines more powerful than the reader’s own name. The
number (with area code and extension) are useful if you want headline is THE most important part of your letter! Spend
the reader to call you. Finally, state your office hours and nearly all of your time on it.
location if you want the reader to come to see you in person. 3. Be brief.
References to these facilitating devices—preferably directing the
Say what you have to say in terms of the reader’s self interest
reader to use them—reassure the reader that what you are
and shut up. This does NOT necessarily mean a short letter.
asking is simple and requires little time and effort.
If you are trying to make a sale, and the reader has never
Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also heard of you or your item for sell, you may have to write
emphasize that what you are asking the reader to do is simple. four or more pages to get your message across. If all you
“Write and let us know your choice” suggests more work than want is a return call, a one page letter may do. Don’ be afraid
“Check your color choice on the enclosed card.” “Jot down,” of length. People will read any length of copy AS LONG AS
“just check,” “simply initial” are also examples of wording IT’S INTERESTING!
Always. Why do copywriters who charge upwards to though I still won’t renew). It made an emotional case for what
$15,000 to write a sales letter and have weeks to draft it is essentially a business-to-business offer.
always use a PS? They are always read. Always. Many people who write persuasive copy, whether in sales letters
5. Look good. or internal memos, say the rest of us underestimate the power of
emotion in getting the response we want from our messages.
Visual attractiveness accounts for 70% of your letter’s
impact. Use short sentences, short paragraphs, bulleted There’s a sort of rule of thumb that goes like this: Consumers
points, indented paragraphs, subheads, etc. Some people buy on emotion and justify on reason. In other words, we, as
will just skim your letter, so engaging subheads and buyers, think we’re being rational in making a decision to
bulleted points help reach them instantly. purchase, or in choosing among different offers, but in reality
we make the decision with our hearts and then justify that
6. Outline first.
decision with our reasoning powers.
Use a planning tool such as the program Project Kick Start
In the case of the magazine copy, I was about to be dropped —
to help you think through your message. Or talk to a
Imagine! Me being dropped! — from the list of active subscrib-
friend. Or to a tape recorder. Or to yourself. This also helps
ers. I’m not sure what active subscribers are: do they also have
you get comfortable with speaking your letter rather than
passive subscribers? But, the meaning comes through. I’m
writing it.
about to get dropped from an exclusive club unless I act now.
7. Write first, edit last.
Which is where the emotional factor kicks in. Who wants to be
Turn your inner editor off. You can rewrite later. For now, dropped? Isn’t that like being in high school again and not
write spontaneously and quickly to get your ideas on paper. wanting to be excluded from a popular group? Isn’t there an
8. Ask for something. eternal desire to belong?
Why are you writing? You want a call. Or an order. With this appeal to my insecurities and ambitions, the copywrit-
Something. Say so! ers have forced me to think about my decision not to renew. I
9. Get a reader. can’t just make a ‘business as usual’ decision; it must be a
personal as well as business decision. And when a message gets
Find one person to read your letter OUT LOUD in front
‘personal,’ it demands more involvement from the reader or
of you. If he (or she) has trouble reading your letter, if he
listener. More involvement, in turn, means more attention to
wrinkles his brow or stops to reread a sentence, rewrite
the message, making it more persuasive.
those places. Don’t skip this step! It’s the secret of many
professional writers. If you sell, this idea won’t come as much of a surprise. But, if
10. Rewrite your letter again. you try to influence behaviors in other ways, you may wish to
add emotion to your communication toolbox. It’s something
Is it the best you can do? Be honest! If not, throw it away you do by getting ‘personal,’ by tapping into the hopes, fears,
and call the person instead. Or hire a copywriter to write it or aspirations of those with whom you’re communicating.
for you. Why waste your time or your reader’s with
something that doesn’t communicate in a persuasive and Of course, we must use emotion ethically and responsibly. If
interesting way? (I rewrote this letter 24 times!) you plan to use it, step back and ask yourself how you would
respond if someone else directed that kind of a message to
Well, there you have it. Of course, there are more rules, you. That’s always a simple but helpful litmus test.
laws, ideas and suggestions for writing letters that get
results. You should always guarantee whatever you are
selling, for example, and always offer proof for all of your
claims. But the above will get you rolling.
Sincerely,
Using Emotion for Persuasion
By Robert F. Abbott
The other day, I received the last issue of a business magazine
before my subscription runs out. Now, I like this magazine, but
I’m swamped with reading matter so I won’t renew.
Of course, I’ve received many reminders and offers about
renewing; magazines try very hard to keep the subscribers
they’ve got. So when the last issue came with a special promo-
tional wrapper on the cover, I wasn’t surprised.
But, what made this one interesting was a clever piece of copy
that hit an emotional chord: inside the back cover of the special
wrapper were the words, “You’re about to be dropped from
our list of active subscribers. Unless you act now.”
reader to comply.
Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
4 6 6
8 10
8 10
12 12
LESSON 31:
PRESS RELEASE
By the end of this lesson you should be able to When writing your press release, it should be
• Explain the function of the public relations department • Concise - editors receive hundreds of press releases a week
(perhaps more) and appreciate releases that are brief and to
• Explain the purpose of a press release
the point.
• Discuss the special writing skills needed for compiling a press release
• Well-written - a good way to ensure your press release ends
• Explain the appropriate format for presenting press release up in the wastebasket is: bad spelling, poor grammar, and
• Compose press release according to given instruction illogical or unsubstantiated claims.
• Factual - stick to logical and substantiated claims, avoiding
Students, you must have studied about the role of public statements of belief: we’re the best, the cheapest, etc.
relations in marketing. Public relation is a part of the marketing • Honest - avoid the padded quotes by company officers; even
function and press release is a part of the PR activity. A press if they are experts, they come across as biased. If used, stick
release is an announcement, which a company sends to the to the facts.
press and other media about anything, which it considers to be • Timely - if your press release isn’t topical, consider
newsworthy. A press release is not an advertisement but it can incorporating it with a recent news event — but don’t stretch
result in useful publicity for the company issuing the release. it.
Public Relations Questions to Consider Before You Write
The public relations (PR) function in any organization is usually a Press Release
carried out by staff who have specialized in this sector. Public
• Who is the preferred audience of your press release?
relations, as the name suggests, is all about the relationship
between the organization and the general public. On of the • What do you want readers to take away from your press
aims of PR is to influence the general public through the mass release?
media, e.g newspapers, television, radio, information , services , • What does your press release provide: invaluable
exhibitions, sponsorship. The job of the PR person in nay information or just another offer?
organization is to constantly on the lookout for newsworthy • What is the support or justification for the information in
events, products, developments and human interest stories and your press release?
then turn them into any of the following:
• What is the tone of your press release?
• A press release
• Are you aware of possible pitfalls or areas to avoid?
• A press conference
• What do you want to accomplish with your press release:
• A photo opportunity for newspaper coverage
increase business, disseminate information or both?
• Corporate material for direct mailing Does the press release’s lead (opening) address or answer the
• Briefing packs for potential customers basic tenets of journalism
• Briefing packs for special groups of visitors • Who
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
that makes the journalist want to know more and discover that this “Yes, but what IS it?” syndrome. The reader needs to
your story is one they must tell. be able to visualize a new product, or know how a new
Use these 10 tips to write a release that will get noticed. service works. If in doubt, have someone unfamiliar with
your product or service read the release and asks him or her
1. Use an active headline to grab the reporter’s attention
to describe what you trying to publicize. And it’s better to
The headline makes your release stand out. Keep it short, use too many details than too few. So, as Yudkin notes,
active, and descriptive; in other words, use something like “Instead of ‘Shekhar’s new book contains information
“Rajdeep Named Man of the Year” instead of “Rajdeep designed to benefit any stock market investor,’ write,
Gets Award.” ‘Shekhar’s new book contains seven principles of market
2. Put the most important information at the beginning analysis that enable even casual investors to choose
This is a tried and true rule of journalism. The reporter profitable stocks.’ Even better, describe two of the seven
should be able to tell what the release is about from the principles right in the release.”
first two paragraphs. In fact, chances are that’s all they may 10. Proofread
read. So don’t hide good information. And remember the When you’ve finished your press release, remember to
“5 W’s and the H” - make sure your release provides proofread it for typographical errors. If you don’t have a
answers to Who, What, When, Where, Why and How. good eye for spelling or grammar, give the release to a
3. Avoid hype and unsubstantiated claims friend or colleague who does. If your release looks sloppy
A writer can smell a sales pitch a mile away. Instead of and careless, so will you.
making over-inflated statements, provide real, usable Who do I send my press release to?
information. Find legitimate ways to set you and your In order to properly answer your question, I’m going to ask
company apart and stress those points. To promote your you to put on two pairs of shoes. The first pair belongs to the
business, write a release that answers questions about your editor or producer of a particular publication or broadcast. Why
business, rather than one that provides only general walk in these shoes? These are the people responsible for
statements about how great or interesting your business is assembling a publication or broadcast. If your information
without saying why. does not fit the format or purpose of the publication or
4. Be active and to the point broadcast, this editor or producer will ignore and bypass your
Use language that will get the reader as excited about your press release information.
news as you are. If your release is boring or meandering, The second pair of shoes to wear are those of the reader or
they may assume that you will not be a good interview. viewer of a publication or broadcast. What are they interested in
5. Keep your release to two pages or less reading or viewing? Do they want news, entertainment, tips or
techniques? Knowing what readers and viewers want and how
On the rare occasion, you can opt for a third page if it is
editors and producers supply these needs will help you craft and
necessary to provide critical details. Otherwise, if you can’t
target your press release.
state your message in two pages, you’re not getting to the
point. With these two pair of shoes in mind, who do you now send
the press release to? The logical answer is daily or weekly
6. Include a contact
newspapers that serve your target market. You can get a list of
Make sure your release has a person the journalist can these from your library or from search engine research. Once you
contact for more information. This person should be have identified the publication, then you can contact each to find
familiar with all the news in the release, and should be the appropriate contact person for your genre of information.
ready to answer questions. And issue the release on your
company letterhead - it looks professional and gives the Sometimes this will be a reporter, a feature editor, a managing
writer another way to reach your firm. editor or, in rare cases, the actual publisher. For radio and
television, this person is the producer, executive producer, news
7. Keep jargon to the minimum director, program manager, feature editor (sports, food,
If you’re in a technical field, try not to use technical terms. lifestyle) or individual reporter. Again, calling the station or
Many reporters are not as intimate with your company or searching the Internet will help you track down the correct name
your industry as you are. Real English, not jargon, best and contact information.
communicates your story. Once you’ve compiled your lists, it’s time to send your informa-
8. Stress benefits tion. Hopefully in your contact information research, you were
This falls into the category of “don’t say it, show it.” able to obtain an e-mail address and/or fax numbers. There is a
Avoid saying something is “unique” or “the best.” Instead, trend today toward e-mail communication, although faxes do
show how people will benefit - i.e. save time, save money, still work. In some cases, when pictures, graphics or exhibits are
make their life easier, etc. pertinent, snail-mail works best. Knowing which method your
9. Be specific and detailed contact prefers and then delivering accordingly will enhance your
chance of publication or broadcast.
even when you don’t have an actual press release. Remember, media.
though, these people are very busy and usually face tighter • It’s rare, but some magazine editors will take time to visit
deadlines than you and I work with on a daily basis. Respect individual companies, but something in the trip must make
this and work with their schedules, and you’ll be on your way to it worthwhile for them to travel. And if you’ve got a great
hitting your target with PR. story and you’re in the local area, some newspaper editors
What are the preferences of some of the well-known publica- just might be receptive to meeting you.
tions as far as submitting PR-related material? • Newspaper editors try to attend any local ad and media
The advice given here applies to any situation in which you are conferences.
submitting PR materials to the press. This is Part I. What about deadlines?
What do magazines and newspapers look for in a story pitch? • Monthly magazine editors plan ideas all the time, so there’s
• Not all magazines are looking for news stories. Instead, as no magic window of opportunity. It’s best to just take your
one editor put it, “We want leads about people who are shot. But before you do, contact the marketing department.
flying beneath the radar and doing something quite They should have a good sense of what is coming up on the
remarkable. Your best bet is to offer a story very grounded in editorial calendar. The calendar is proprietary, so you’ll need
best practices. Give us a company that no one has really heard to go through them to get it.
about before or a new effort from a fascinating company that • Newspaper editors, on the other hand, are on deadline every
is trying something different.” day of the workweek, but they will do their best to respond
• Some magazines prefer to examine case studies, though their in a timely manner. Frequently, articles will go to print at
writers do them in their own way. Most importantly, know around 6:30 p.m. in the city where the publication is based,
the magazine. Although editors admit it’s not something but days are set by 4 p.m. Unless it really is breaking news, try
that can be easily explained, all too often they receive to reach them early in the day.
irrelevant pitches that don’t relate to the publication. If, for 10 Essential Tips to Ensure Your Press
instance, you wanted to pitch an idea for a technology article, Release Makes the News.
use the press release to tell the editor that you’re pitching a
proven example of something. And get their attention in 1. Make sure the information is newsworthy.
two paragraphs or less. 2. Tell the audience that the information is intended for them
• Magazines love it when a company approaches them with
and why they should continue to read it.
real examples of how it differs from the competition. It’s 3. Start with a brief description of the news, then distinguish
also not a bad idea to give a clear definition of what segment who announced it, and not the other way around.
of the market you are playing into. Keep in mind, though, 4. Ask yourself, “How are people going to relate to this and
editors don’t like companies that come off as boastful in will they be able to connect?”
their press releases. 5. Make sure the first 10 words of your release are effective, as
• Before you pitch a newspaper in a major city, heed this advice: they are the most important.
Read previously published articles. Make sure your story is 6. Avoid excessive use of adjectives and fancy language.
one no one has written about. And if it’s a new campaign, it
has to be different and relevant. 7. Deal with the facts.
• Most editors are too busy to field phone calls. Voice mail is
10. Make it as easy as possible for media representatives to do
unreliable because it tends to clog up really fast. Postal mail is their jobs.
even worse; most of it gets discarded by editors. So use e- Further Readings
mail instead. To make it work for you, don’t say “press
Beyond the Press Release
release” in the subject line. And, most importantly, get to the
point early. Tell editors quickly why your story is so Develop a public-relations plan that will keep your business in
important to their readers. the spotlight.
Business Start-Ups magazine - May 1997
Where can you go to meet the publication staff?
By Catherine A. Reilly
• Magazine editors attend a variety of conferences each year.
If you build it, they will come. This abstract concept worked for
Most tend to shy away from the standard issue trade shows
Kevin Costner in “Field of Dreams.” His character, an Iowa
and instead go to conferences that feature new ideas,
farmer, built his dream baseball field. Eventually, his vision
intriguing case studies and fresh thinking.
turned into reality as the players came, followed by an audience.
Hollywood makes it seem so easy! But if you want to attract
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
publicize your field of dreams. Canada, and author of Marketing Without a Marketing Budget
Trouble is, while you know that you must do more than fire up (Adams Media Corp., $10.95, 800-872-5627), says planning
the old computer and hang out a shingle, you’re not exactly sure should be an ongoing part of your day-to-day business
what you should do. So you place an advertisement in your operations. “When should you plan?” he asks. “All the time.
favorite magazine. Or, in a marketing frenzy, you try to promote You should always be thinking about next steps, just as a
your company on every level possible, which is as futile as trying sports coach or combat commander is constantly evaluating
to boil the ocean. As a result, you spend a lot of money and tactics.”
time, and garner very few results. All good planning begins with research. Consider your road
Owners of thriving ventures know that, just as they must start trip: In planning for this journey, you must first decide on your
with a good business plan to launch their businesses, they must objective (in this case, Las Vegas). You should then consult a
develop a solid public-relations plan to promote their enterprises. map, select the roads you would like to travel and the places you
would like to visit along the way, and determine how long it
If you have a good plan, and devote enough time and energy to
will take to drive there. Once you’ve determined these basics,
carrying out that plan, you will obtain a great deal of positive
you can plan the best method for achieving your goal. You will
publicity for your company—at very little cost.
plan when to leave, when you will stop along the way, and
What is Public Relations? when you will finally reach your destination.
Public relations—or PR—is, literally, the relationship your Similarly, in creating a PR plan, you must first do your research.
company has with its public. Your public includes your current What does your public know about your business, if anything?
customers, your future customers, and even potential custom- Who are your competitors? How do they publicize their
ers. Your employees, if you have any, are a part of your public, businesses? Understanding your competition will help you rival
as are your neighbors and the local press. All these people have them in the marketplace.
an interest in your company—in the prices it sets, and in the
With this information in mind, determine your objectives.
products and services that it provides.
What do you wish to accomplish with your PR plan? Of
The relationship you create with these people will have a course, you want to expand sales volume. However, what other
profound effect on the future of your business. The function things do you want to achieve? Perhaps you want to increase the
of PR is to publicize your company to these people, and to number of repeat customers your company has. Maybe you
create a positive image of your business which will translate into want to introduce a new product or service. If your company is
sales dollars. No one will know that your company exists if you very new, your initial PR plan may include simply getting the
don’t tell them, but you must tell them in a systematic, planned word out about your business. Write down your objectives.
manner. If you don’t plan what you want to say, and how and Look them over. Rearrange them. Put them into a logical
when you will say it, your public will be left to develop their sequence. Naturally, you cannot increase sales volume before
own opinions without any guidance from you. your potential customers know about you. Put your goals into
It is important to remember that PR is not marketing, although an orderly list of achievable objectives.
it can play a key role in marketing your products and services.
Beyond the Press Release
Defined literally, marketing is the use of pricing and distribu-
tion to sell a product. Certain PR practices can aid the marketing How Do I Create a Plan of Action?
process, and as a new business owner, you can learn to use PR Now that you know what you want to accomplish, you must
to enhance your marketing plan. create a plan of action—a way in which you will achieve your
objectives. Let’s begin with a time chart.
Do I Really Need a Plan?
Imagine yourself in a car, beginning a long road trip. You want to Your time chart should be a weekly calendar of things that you
drive from New York City to Las Vegas. So you throw some will do to promote your business. Each promotional effort
clothes together, point your van southwest, and head off. You should be listed, with its start and completion dates indicated.
don’t know how long the trip will take. You don’t know what the It is important to remember that the media, whether print or
weather will be like along the way. You don’t have a road map. broadcast, all have lead times—the time between when they
You don’t have a plan. receive your promotional material and when it appears. For this
reason, your promotional materials must be released well in
You may get there—eventually. But it will be much easier if you
advance. For example, suppose your new company is going to
first research what you want to accomplish, and plan how you
introduce a new product. Obviously, you want people to know
will achieve this feat.
about it. Once you send a press release to a publication,
Planning the publicity for your business is similar to planning a however, it can take from two to four months for that release to
trip. It may require a little extra time, initially, but it will save you be printed. Therefore, your time chart for promoting your new
time—and money—in the long run. You may be successful product should begin four to six months prior to the release
without the plan, but you have a much better chance of arriving date, if you are to realize any benefit from your effort.
in Las Vegas if you have a map in the glove compartment and
If you’re running a one-person show, you must be realistic in
consult it regularly during your journey.
your action planning. It’s best to keep your initial plan simple,
to assist you.
What is a Press Release? Characteristics of News
The press release is the most common communication tool
used in PR efforts. It is an informational letter describing a n Conflict
newsworthy fact about your company. Written correctly, the ¨ Is the subject man vs. man, man vs. nature, etc.?
press release can be very effective in promoting your business. n Novelty
Also, unlike advertising, which can be very expensive, magazines ¨ Is the subject unusual, bizarre? Is it the first, the last
and newspapers do not charge for editorial coverage. That or once in a lifetime? Does it show progress or human
means you pay only for the cost of postage (and photography, interest?
if you choose to include a photograph). n Usefulness
Of course, editors receive many press releases, and there is no ¨ Is the information useful to those reading it?
guarantee that yours will be printed. Therefore, you must try to
make your release stand out from the crowd. How? Be profes-
sional. Remember these tips when issuing a press release:
1. Keep your target audience in mind. The worst thing you
can do is to inundate all publications on your mailing list
with the same press release. Research the publications first.
Make sure you tailor your release to their respective markets.
2. Start with the most important information. Publications
rarely run press releases word for word. Editors usually cut
from the bottom up, so make certain you’ve included all the
necessary facts in the opening paragraphs.
3. Keep it factual. The fastest way to diminish your credibility
is to put gushing, biased copy in your press release. Editors
want the facts, not your opinion.
4. Make sure it’s news. Editors want to create publications
that are interesting to their audiences. Find the angle. Is your
company new, unique or unusual? Tell them how running
your release can benefit their readers. Elements of News
5. Photos help. Editors love photos. Supply a caption,
identifying any individuals pictured, and type it on a separate n What
sheet of paper. (Never write on the back of a photograph.) ¨ Subject
of the story, person, object, action,
phenomenon or area
n Who
¨ People by name, title and description, if
appropriate
n Why
¨ Reasons for action, attitude, event
###
Closing example
n For more information about OSU’s
basketball team, contact Coach Eddie
Sutton at (405) GO-POKES.
the big guns and stress “just a few of” the most important
Upon completion of this lesson you will things the reader will discover. By offering a killer list early in
• Learn the structure of a sales letter your sales letter, you will automatically create a desire in the
• Compose a sales letter reader to continue through your ad copy. After all, if they
are already interested after the first list of benefits, they will
Writing an Effective Sales Letter certainly be open to finding out even more reasons why
(32 easy ways to give a new life into your sales letter...) your product or service will aid them.
1. Write your sales letter with an individual in mind. Go ahead 6. Just let it all flow out. Write down everything that enters
and pick out someone, a real person to write your sales your mind as you are writing your sales letter. You can edit
letter to. Doesn’t matter if it is grandma or your next door it later. If you just sit and start writing everything you know
neighbor or your cat. Write your sales letter just like you are about your product or service and how it will benefit your
writing it to them personally. Why? Because when your customer, you will be amazed at how much information
potential customer reads, it then it will seem personal, floods your mind. Write it ALL down. Then read through it
almost like you wrote it with them in mind. Too often, - you’ll be able to add a lot more detail to many of the
sales letters are written as if they were going to be read to an points. Edit it after you have exhausted all of your ideas.
audience rather than one person. Keep your sales letters 7. Make your sales letter personal. Make sure that the words
personal, because one person at a time is going to read “you” and “your” are at least 4:1 over “I” and “my.” Your
them. ad copy must be written about YOUR CUSTOMER not
2. Use an illustration to get your point across. In my sales yourself. I’m not sure how the old advertising adage goes,
letters I have told stories about my car stalling on the side but it’s something like this, “I don’t care a thing about your
of the road to illustrate the idea that we must constantly lawn mower, I just care about my lawn.” Leads aren’t
add the fuel of advertising to keep our businesses running. interested in you or your products; they are interested in
I have compared the hype of easily making millions online themselves and their wants and needs. When you are
to the chances of me riding bareback across Montana on a finished with your sales letter and have uploaded it to a test
grizzly bear. Leads have read of how getting to the top of web page, run a check at http://www.keywordcount.com
an oak tree relates to aggressively marketing online. People and see what the ratio between “you” and “your” versus
love a good story that pounds home a solid message. Tell references to “I,” “me,” “my,” etc. It’s a free service. Make
stories that illustrate a point you are trying to make. sure it’s at least 4:1 in favor of the customer.
Emphasize a benefit by sharing an account from the “real 8. Write like you speak. Forget all of those rules that your
world.” It effectively creates interest and further establishes grammar teacher taught you. Write your sales letters in
the point. everyday language, just like you would talk in person. Don’t
3. Create an interest in the reader from the very first line. Your be afraid to begin sentences with “And” or “Because.”
first line of the sales letter should immediately create a Don’t worry about ending a sentence with a preposition.
desire in the reader to want to know more. Go back to the Write like you speak. Your sales letter isn’t the great
beginning of this article. The first words were, “It’s true.” I American novel, so don’t write it like you are Ernest
can guarantee you that either consciously or subconsciously Hemingway.
you thought “What’s true?” Immediately, your mind 9. Use short paragraphs consisting of 2-4 sentences each. Long
wanted to know what I was talking about. Before you even copy works...but long paragraphs do not. Use short
knew it you were right here, 8 paragraphs into this article. paragraphs that lead into the next paragraph. Don’t be
Carefully craft your first line. If you can immediately get afraid to use short sentences. Like this one. Or this. See
them wanting to know more, you’ve got a winner. what I mean? Shorter paragraphs keep the interest of the
4. Use bullets. People spend a lot of time reading bulleted reader. Longer paragraphs cause eyestrain and often force the
lists. In fact, they often reread them over and over. Use reader to get distracted.
bulleted lists to stress the benefits of your product or 10. Stress the benefits, not the features. Again, readers want the
service, to spell out exactly what is included in your offer. burning question answered, “What’s in it for me?” What
Use an extra space in between each bullet to really highlight need is it going to meet? What want is it going to fill? How
each line and create a sense of more length to the list. is your product or service going to be of value or benefit to
5. Launch into a bullet list immediately. Shortly after your the reader? Spell it out. Don’t focus on the features of your
opening line, immediately give the reader a bullet list of product or service , but rather how those features will add
benefits to absorb. Hit them with your best shot. Pull out value to the life of your reader. For example: If you are
assortment of tires in the world, but who cares? I don’t care mouse get away.” Use words to create a picture in the
about your selection. But, I do care about keeping my 3- readers’ mind. When you think of Superman, what comes
month-old baby girl safe while we are traveling. So, instead to mind? Immediately, we remember that he is “faster than
of focusing on your selection, you focus on the fact that my a speeding bullet.” “More powerful than a locomotive.”
baby girl can be kept safe because you have a tire that will fit “Able to leap tall buildings in a single bound.” See how
my car. You’re not selling tires, you’re selling safety for my word pictures stick in our minds?
family. Stress the benefits, not the features. 15. Focus on one product or service. Don’t try to sell your
11. Keep the reader interested. Some sales letters read like they customer multiple products at the same time. It only
are a manual trying to explain to me how I can perform confuses the reader. Keep your ad copy directed at one
some complicated surgery on my wife. They are filled with specific product or service. Then, use other products and
words and phrases that I need a dictionary to understand. services as back-end products.
Unless you are writing to a very targeted audience, avoid 16. Make it stand out. Don’t kid yourself. There are hundreds,
using technical language that many readers might not maybe thousands out there on the web doing the same
understand. Keep it simple, using words, language and thing you are doing. How will you stand out among the
information that are easy to understand and follow. crowd? Your sales letter must inject personality. It must
12. Target your sales letter. When you are finished with your breathe of originality. Your product or service is different.
final draft of the sales letter, target it to a specific audience. It’s not like all of the rest. It is unique. Right? Your sales
For example: If you are selling a “work at home” product, letter must separate you from the competition. It must
then rewrite the sales letter by adding words in the headlines create a feeling of “You won’t find this anywhere else.”
and ad copy that are targeted towards women who are 17. Be believable. “Earn $54,000 in the next 24 hours!!!!!”
homemakers. Then, rewrite the same sales letter and target Delete. Good grief, do they think I am an idiot or
it to college students. Write another letter targeting senior something? Get real. Don’t make outrageous claims that are
citizens. Still another could be written to high school obviously not the truth. You’ll ruin your reputation. Let me
teachers wanting to earn extra income during summer tell you a simple universal fact that cannot be reversed. Once
vacation. The possibilities are endless. All you need to do is you have been branded a liar, you will NEVER be anything
add a few words here and there in your ad copy to make it but a liar. It doesn’t matter if you launch the most
appear that your product or service is specifically designed respectable, honest business available anywhere, people will
for a target audience. “Work only 5 hours a week,” would always have doubt because they remember the crazy stuff
become “College Students, work only 5 hours a week.” you’ve said before. Be believable. Don’t exaggerate, mislead,
Your sales letter is now targeted. Upload all of the sales stretch or distort the truth.
letters to separate pages on your website (you could easily
18. Be specific. Don’t generalize your information, but rather be
target 100’s of groups).
EXACT. Instead of “over 100 tips for losing weight” use
Then, simply advertise the targeted pages in targeted “124 tips for losing weight.” By generalizing information, it
mediums. You could advertise the “College Students” page creates doubt and questions in the reader’s mind. “What am
in a campus ezine. The “Senior Citizens” page could be I really getting here? Does he even know?” When you use
advertised at a retirement community message board. specific information, the reader begins to think, “This
By creating these targeted sales letters, you can literally open person must have counted. I know exactly what I can
up dozens of new groups to sell your existing product to. expect.” “Platitudes and generalities roll off the human
And, in their eyes, it looks like the product was a match understanding like water from a duck,” wrote Claude
made for them. Hopkins in his classic book “Scientific Advertising.” “They
13. Make your ad copy easy to follow. Use short sentences and leave no impression whatsoever.”
paragraphs. Break up the sales letter with attention grabbing 19. Be complete. Tell the reader everything they would want to
headlines that lead into the next paragraph. One thing that I know about your product or service. Answer all of their
have always found to work very well in sales letters... questions, anything they would want to consider before
...is to use a pause like this. making a purchase. Think about it from their point of view.
Ask yourself, “Why wouldn’t I buy this?” Then, address
Start the sentence on one line, leaving the reader wanting to
that in your sales letter. Remove anything that would keep
know more, and then finishing up on the next line. Also, if
the reader from making the purchase.
you are going to use a sales letter that continues on several
different pages of your website, use a catchy hook line at the 20. Use testimonials to boost your sales. Share actual excerpts
end of each page to keep them clicking. “Let’s get you from what your current customers are saying about your
started down the road to success, shall we? CLICK HERE product or service. Many websites have an entire section or
to continue.” even a separate page that has endorsements and
compliments listed. Satisfied customers remove some of
14. Use similes and metaphors for effect. When the customer
the doubt in the mind of the reader. “If these people have
purchases your product, they will generate “a flood of traffic
found a lot of value and benefit in the product, then I
that would make Noah start building another ark.” If they
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
respected, well-known “authorities” within your target field. will the order be processed? When will the order be
21. Use headlines over and over throughout the sales letter. A available? Let the customer know exactly what they can
headline isn’t just relegated to the beginning of your ad expect when they place their order. The more specific you
copy. Use them frequently -but don’t overuse. A well-placed can be here, the better. Let them know that you have a
headline re-grabs the reader’s attention, brings them deeper system in place. “Operators are standing by.” Their order
into the letter, and readies them for the next paragraph. You will be handled properly. Tell them.
will want to spend as much time working on your headlines 29. Offer a money back guarantee. Take away their last reason to
as you do the entire sales letter. They are that important. hold back. Offer a “no questions asked” 30 day guarantee.
22 Avoid asking stupid questions. “Wouldn’t you like to make Most people may not realize this, but in most cases, it’s the
$1,000,000 a year?” “Doesn’t that sound great?” “Would law of the land. You are REQUIRED to give them their
you like to be as successful as I am?” Avoid any question money back if they are not satisfied with the product or
that insults the intelligence of your reader or makes them service. Since it’s the law anyway, why not make it a benefit.
feel like they are inferior. Let them know that they are purchasing your product or
service RISK-FREE.
23 Offer a freebie even if the customer doesn’t buy. If the
customer decides he or she isn’t going to make a purchase, 30. Instruct them to respond immediately. Many people just
then you want to follow-up with them later to try to need to read those words, “Act Now!” “Order today!”
influence them to buy in the future. By offering a free item, “Click Here to Instantly Place Your Order.” You’ve got
you can request their email address in order to obtain the them this far, now tell them what you want them to do.
freebie. By doing this, you can now follow-up with the Get them to “Act Fast!” Have you ever heard a mail order
customer for a potential future sale. Additionally, you can commercial on television that didn’t prompt the viewer to
continue the sales process by having your ad copy, banners, order right way?
flyers, etc. within the free item. And, of course, if your free 31. Include a postscript. People will always read the P.S. Always.
item is a high quality, useful product or service which In fact, the P.S. is one of the MOST IMPORTANT parts
impresses the customer, they probably will be back as a of your sales letter. Why? Because in many cases the visitor
customer soon. at your website will scroll immediately down to the end of
24 Use bonuses to overwhelm the reader. One of the things your page to see how much it is going to cost. A P.S. is a
that I have found very effective in writing sales letters is to perfect place to recap your offer, so when they see your price
include bonus items that OUT-VALUE the actual product I tag, they will also see a very detailed description of what
am offering. Ginsu made this one famous. They were they will receive for their money. Use your P.S. to restate
selling a set of steak knives, but before the commercial was your offer in detail.
finished, you had so many bonus items on the table it was 32. Include a second postscript. You better believe if they read
hard to refuse. Make sure you provide quality bonuses and the first P.S., they will read a P.P.S. Use this post script to
not some worthless, outdated junk that damages the remind them of the deadline or offer another bonus or
credibility of your main offer. point out some compelling factor that would make them
25. Use connective phrases like “But wait, there’s more” and want to order. I guarantee you they will read it.
“But that’s not all.” These phrases effectively lead the reader Exercises
from one paragraph to the next, particularly when the next
1. Write a sales message for Memories Forever, a photography
paragraph is a bullet list of benefits, or leads into bonus
group socializing in weddings. The group’s primary service is
items. Again, the idea is MORE and MORE value and
making videos of the complete wedding and the post
benefits to the reader.
wedding festivities. In addition, they can prepare the
26. Always include a deadline. By including a deadline, you conventional individual photographs of the wedding
create a sense of urgency in the mind of the customer. “If I highlights. In fact, they can do just about everything
don’t order within 24 hours, then I won’t get the photographic that the wedding couple desires.
bonuses.” “Oh no, there are only 10 items remaining, I’ve
The group has decided to send sales messages presenting
got to hurry.” Let the customer know what they will be
their services to the brides as their weddings are announced
missing out on if they don’t make the deadline. Remember,
in the society columns of the local newspaper. The message
they won’t miss out on your products or bonuses, they will
will be designed to sell idea of preserving the wedding for all
miss out on all of the benefits of your products. Deadlines
time. It will use whatever appeals and approaches will best
are very effective. Every sales letter should have one.
achieve this goal. As the one who will write this sales
27. Tell them exactly how to order. Be clear as to the order message, you will need to think through this situation
process. Point them towards the order link. Tell them what carefully to determine just what these appeals are. Then you
methods you offer. (I.E. credit cards, checks, etc.) Make this will develop them in a carefully worded message that will
process as simple and clear as can be. If it takes more than 2 create conviction.
steps, most people won’t continue.
In preparing your message, you will use this basic
information plus any additional facts consistent with the
By the end of this unit you will be able to Do they have cars? If so, where do they park them? Will a blitz
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
on the town center car parks reach the people you want to find?
• Explain why leaflets may be produced in business Or will they just get thrown away?
• Describe different designs, which may be used for leaflets. Which public places do they visit? Supermarkets? Libraries?
• Design leaflet according to given instructions. Sports centers? Doctors’ surgeries? Use your imagination.
You’ll need permission to leave your leaflets in these places -
Student’s in this class we will understand what are leaflets, its and some may demand a small fee. Leave a small heap and see
purpose. We will also learn to design leaflets. how quickly they get taken.
Leaflets Which publications are they likely to read? Don’t just think
Leaflets are very powerful tools for promoting your products. about well-known titles. If your product is aimed at a select
The idea is to find potential customers by distributing leaflets group of people then look for specialist publications aimed at
to their homes or workplaces. Alternatively they can be placed that group. Do they insert leaflets? How much does this cost?
where potential customers will see them.
Who is already mailing your target customers? Use your
Although many network marketers achieve great results using imagination. Suppliers of related products? Clubs and special
leaflets it is not without hard work and careful preparation. interest groups? Do they insert leaflets? Look for adverts
This section runs through the key stages in a leaflet campaign - under Business-To-Business headings. There are specialist
and includes suggestions and questions to consider when mailers who charge for their services.
designing your particular approach.
Pick out a few promising candidates and evaluate them a bit
One Step or Two? more. For each one: How many people will see your leaflet?
First you must decide what kind of campaign you want to run - What proportion is likely to be interested? How much will it
one step or two. cost? Don’t forget to include the cost of the leaflets as well as
In a one-step campaign your leaflet asks your customers to buy any charges for distributing them.
your product immediately. So the leaflet has to include all the Finally, work out the Value For Money rating - our transatlantic
information to persuade them to buy - and place their order. cousins charmingly call this the “bang for a buck”. How many
In a two-step campaign the leaflet is only intended to attract the interested people you can contact for each £1 spent? Estimate
customer’s attention - and persuade them to phone or write how many people will see your leaflets - and adjust it by your
requesting more information. You capture their contact details and guess at the percentage interested in your product. Then divide
send them a brochure or information pack. This then contains the this figure by the total cost of the leaflets plus any charges for
material to persuade them to buy, and place their order. distributing them, ie:
The telesales variant of the two-step campaign asks the Value For Money = People Contacted x % Interested ÷
customer to phone for more information. When they phone Leafleting Cost
in, you answer their questions and try to clinch the sale there Obviously, to get the most out of your hard-won cash,
and then. It can work well but requires good telephone distribute your first leaflets via the options offering the best
technique. Value For Money.
Distribution Options Remember: It’s worth taking your time to get your planning
There are several options for distributing your leaflets: right because it’s easy to waste a lot of money and effort on
• Push them through letterboxes in your area. Place them on
unsuccessful leaflets.
car windscreens. Designing Leaflets
Place piles of them in public places insert them into Leaflets vary in size from A6 (a quarter of an A4 page) up to A3
newspapers or magazines. (folded to A4 size). They can include color, photos, drawings
Include them in mail shots. and logos, which make them extremely effective.
• Think about the product you are trying to sell - and more The great advantages of leaflets are
importantly - think about the kind of people who are likely 1. They can be made to stand out so they’re very good for
to buy it. attracting the reader’s attention
• Where do they live? Are you just aiming at people in your 2. They put across your sales message very powerfully
neighborhood? Or do you have wider ambitions? Will
3. With the bigger leaflets you can include a cutout form for
saturation coverage of your area reach the people you want to
enquiries or immediate purchases.
find? Or will your leaflets just get chucked in the bin?
1. They have to look good so you may have to pay someone to speech balloons, etc) can be used to attract the attention and put
design them and produce the “camera-ready copy” across key points. For example, “Sale!”, “Special Offer!”,
“New!”, “Half Price!”.
2. Printing can take time so you have to plan ahead
Use all these special effects sparingly. A few of them will create a
3. Flashy ones can be quite expensive.
strong visual impression. Too many looks fussy - or even a
There are some basic rules for designing leaflets - but there is mess! Leave some “white space” around the content as that
also great scope for artistic inspiration. Like most things, the helps to draw the reader’s eyes.
more you do the better you get. Start by being clear what your
The headline - the first phrase or sentence - is critical. It should
leaflet is intended to achieve.
be written in large bold type, possibly capital letters, and
Many leaflets are part of a two-step campaign - where the object separated from the rest of the text. Use the headline to attract
is to persuade the reader to phone, write, fax or email for more the reader’s attention - and make your leaflet stand out from the
information. If you want them to write, and you can afford the rest. Take some time thinking of alternative headlines and
space, include an information request form for the reader to fill picking out the best. You want people to stop and read your
in and post to you. This makes life easier for them. And you leaflet - not other things around it.
can make sure they fill in all information you need. You can
If you’re inserting in publication with a broad readership, eg. the
also put a code on the form so you know which campaign
local paper, then your headline should probably specify your
produced the response.
product, eg. Rare Books!. This will only attract the attention of
One-step campaigns - where the object of the leaflet is to people who are genuinely interested in rare books. If you’re
persuade the reader to buy your product immediately - are less inserting in a publication with a specialist readership, eg. Bikers
common. You’ll need to describe the product, persuade readers News, then your headline can focus on what makes your
to buy, and tell them where to send their order and payment - product different from the rest. For example, More Studs Than
which takes space and increases the cost. If you can afford the Any Other Jacket.
space, include an order form for the reader to fill in and post to
Another powerful approach, especially suitable for business
you. This makes life easier for them. And you can make sure
opportunities, is to forget the product and lead with the benefit
they fill in all information you need. You can also put a code on
to the customer. Examples include: Be your own boss! Earn
the form so you know which campaign produced the response.
in your spare time! Or you can use blatant attention grabbers
Your customers get bombarded with lots of leaflets. Most get like: Free! Brand New! Only Rs20! Two for the price of one!
thrown straight in the bin. So, if you don’t want your message
The middle wording needs to interest the reader and build up
to end up in landfill, you’ll have to use your artistic ingenuity to
their desire. Where possible, emphasise the benefits for them.
make your leaflet stand out from the crowd.
Give enough information about the product so they under-
All Leaflets Should Follow the Tried and stand what you’re offering. But, if you’re two-stepping, don’t
Tested AIDA Formula attempt to do the job of your brochure or your telephone sales
• Attract the reader’s Attention pitch. Make good use of “power words” - words that make the
• Interest the reader in the product
reader sit up and take notice. These include: avoid, bargain,
bonus, discover, earn, easy, enjoy, exciting, exclusive, extra, fast,
• Excite the reader’s Desire
fortune, free, how to, learn, money, more, mystery, new, now,
• Ask for Action from the reader profit, save, special, win. Don’t force these words into your
The big advantage of leaflets is that you can use photographs, leaflet - but use them rather than weaker alternatives.
drawings and logos to attract the reader’s attention. The tail end of the leaflet must tell the reader what to do next.
If you can’t afford the artwork, or you’re limited for space, For example: Phone 567890 for details. Send 4 x 26p stamps
maybe you can use lines, boxes, large print or special typefaces to to Anita at ... Visit our website at www.mehraonlin.com
achieve the same effect. Some printers offer colors, but these Proof read this bit especially carefully. It would be a crying
usually cost more. Glossy paper looks more professional but shame to excite your customers’ desire and not be able to receive
costs more. Photographs or drawings of people help catch the their responses.
attention. Obviously they need to be happy people. If your If you’re one-stepping, include an order form for the reader to
customers are mostly men then a picture of a woman will be cut out, fill in and post to you. This makes life easier for them.
most effective - and vice versa. (Reverse that if your target And prompts them to fill in all information you need. Put a
market is gay people). code on the form so you know which leaflet and publication
Pictures of the product don’t just catch the attention. They produced the response. Make sure it tells them who to make
also help to arouse the reader’s interest and desire. They’re out their cheque to, and clearly shows your postal address.
especially important if you’re trying to sell “off-the-page”. If Check with your company. They may already have some
you’re selling a service then consider a picture of something effective leaflets you can use or modify. They can probably
related to it. For example, a car for motor insurance, or supply you with “camera ready copy” - which will save a lot of
someone on the phone for cheap calls. Logos also work well, effort. Also they may have restrictions about where or how you
especially if the brand name is well known. distribute leaflets. They may insist on approving your leaflet
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
their trade names, photos and logos. noises - even with your hand over the mouthpiece. For some reason
Make sure you proof read what you send for printing. the television, the kids fighting, and the toilet flushing - all
Spelling errors and nonsense wording make you look an idiot. sound much louder over the phone than they do in the room.
Incorrect contact details will lose you business and annoy your So try to find somewhere quiet for your business calls. Never,
customers. If you’re setting the leaflet yourself, you’ll need to ever, make remarks about the caller! Assume they can hear
send “camera ready copy” to the printers - a good quality original everything.
of your leaflet. It must be clear and sharp enough for them to If you just want to capture the callers details and send them an
photograph or scan into their publishing / printing system. information pack then keep the call short and business-like.
For simple non-glossy leaflets, you can produce acceptable Capture the bare minimum of information: name, address,
camera ready copy using your PC with a good laser or inkjet postcode, phone number, what product they’re interested in,
printer. If you don’t have the expertise or the facilities you may and where they saw the leaflet. Write it all down - there and
have to pay someone else to do this. Some printers will then. Keep a notepad and pen by the phone. Human memory
produce the artwork for you - for a fee! For very small leaflets is notoriously unreliable - so don’t rely on it!
check whether the printer can photo-reduce a larger original. If you want to clinch the sale over the phone then make sure
This may well give a sharper image than you can achieve directly you’re well prepared. Work out the key points of your sales pitch
from your PC’s laser or inkjet. and rehearse how you’re going to say them. Emphasis and
If you’re posting camera ready copy to the printer - don’t fold it! intonation can be quite important here. Prepare counters for
It won’t photograph cleanly with a fold line down the middle. objections they might raise. For example: “It costs more than
And put a stiffener or some padding in the envelope so your brand X”, “Yes, but you use less each time so it lasts longer”.
precious original doesn’t get mangled by the postman. Try to establish a personal relationship with the caller.
For most publications there is no flexibility about their Make sure you get their name early on and use it occasionally. If
deadlines. If you want your leaflet to go into a particular issue, they mention their family, or their job, or where they live - show
get it to the publisher in good time for the deadline. Make sure an interest, or tell them something similar about yourself. But
you tell them (preferably in writing) which issue you want it to don’t overdo this or you’ll spend all the time gossiping rather
go in. If you don’t tell them it’ll be your own fault if it goes than selling. Make a note of key points. They’ll come in handy
wrong. And you won’t be able to claim a refund. the next time you talk to them.
Listen carefully to what the caller is saying. Ask them open
Handling Responses
questions (ones that can’t be answered yes or no) so you’re clear
Telephone Calls what they’re looking / hoping for. This should be a conversa-
Good telephone manner is vitally important. Speak clearly and tion - with them speaking as much as you. Don’t let it
at a comfortable speed - not too fast - not too slow. Try to degenerate into a monologue. Try to tune your comments to
sound keen and interested in what the customer is saying. But fit in with their train of thought. Find ways to agree with
be yourself. If you try to put on airs it will sound false. them. Simply dropping in the occasional “Yes” helps build a
Work out a standard greeting and use it whenever you answer rapport. Even if you have to disagree with them try to say
an incoming call. This should include your trading name - so “Yes, but ...”.
the caller knows they’ve got through to the right number - and When you’ve told them about the product and its benefits, and
your name - so they know who they’re dealing with. For they seem to be interested, you come to the crunch point -
example: “Akash traders – Anil speaking”. asking them to buy. Sales people call this “closing the sale”.
You should also get an answering machine to field your calls Don’t approach this head on. “Do you want to buy one?”
when you’re out, or otherwise unavailable. Murphy’s Law says comes across as aggressive - and allows them to answer “No”.
that the phone only rings when you’re in the toilet. Much better to ask them a question that implies they have
Work out a standard message along the lines of: “Thank you decided to buy. Like “How many would you like”, “Which
for calling Akash Traders. I’m sorry we can’t take your call right color would you like?”, “How would you like this delivering?”,
now. If you’d like to leave your name and number after the or “How would you like to pay?”. Usually they’ll just answer
tone, we’ll get back to you”. Note this doesn’t say you’re out the question and you can move swiftly on to capturing their
(which might give a hint to burglars) and it doesn’t say when order details.
you’ll call back (which might raise false hopes). Even if they baulk at this question all is not lost. They’ll
Your friends and family may think you’re a bit odd - but the probably say “I don’t know” or “I haven’t decided”. You just
only alternative is a separate phone number. Answering with switch back into your sales pitch and try to close the sale when
“Hello?” will make your customers wonder just what kind of they’ve had a bit more time.
business they are dealing with. If you don’t have the enough time to make the sales pitch - eg.
You’ll also have to train the family to answer the phone you have to get the kids out of school - explain the problem,
properly too. Stroppy teenagers often baulk at this - it doesn’t take the caller’s name and phone number, and sort out a
help their street cred. Explaining that new clothes or computer mutually convenient time to call them back. You should call
games depend on business success may tip the balance. them (and pay the call charges) because you’re the one causing
In cases where patients will get better without antibiotics, it makes sense for your doctor not to prescribe them.
Your body’s defence system can often protect against infection without the need for antibiotics.
Harmful side-effects
Potential side-effects are another reason why doctors
are cautious about prescribing antibiotics. Some If you have an infection such as a cold, flu or sore
antibiotic treatment can cause side-effects such as throat
stomach upset and thrush. For women on the pill, (1) Take paracetamol according to the
antibiotics can reduce contraceptive protection. instructions to help reduce fever and relieve
aches and pains.
Antibiotic facts (2) Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration.
• Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections (3) Ask your pharmacist (chemist) for advice.
(eg. Colds, flu and most sore throats). Viral Many infections can be managed effectively
infections are much more common than with over-the-counter medications. The
bacterial infections. pharmacist will refer you to your doctor or
• Inappropriate use of antibiotics can practice nurse if they think it is necessary.
encourage the development of resistant
bacteria. This could mean that the antibiotic When to contact your GP
may not work when you really need it. Call your GP’s surgery for advice if, after taking over-
• Some antibiotics have harmful side-effects the-counter medications as directed, you or your child
such as diarrhoea and allergic reactions. are experiencing any of the following:
• Antibiotics do not just attack the infection • symptoms which are severe or unusually
they are prescribed for they can also kill prolonged.
useful bacteria which normally protect you • extreme shortness of breath.
against other infections such as thrush. • coughing up of blood or large amounts of
yellow or green phlegm.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to of a feather with a carefully cut tip. As one wrote, while holding
the pen in one position, the characters that were formed were
State reasons why invitations are used thin in one direction and broad in the other. For example, a
Compose formal and informal invitations circle or ‘o’ might be thin at the top and bottom and wide on
Reply to formal and informal invitations the sides.
When you couple excellent penmanship with the writing
Student’s I am sure you must received many invitations for instrument of the day, handwriting, by today’s standards, was a
birthday parties, weddings, etc. You must have liked some of work of art.
the invitations you have received. Can you tell me what did you The Wording
like about that invitation? Is it the wordings or is the paper The actual wording was very similar to the ‘socially correct’
quality or the color combinations, what? wordings used today. The major difference was that the
Many companies organize special functions for various reasons: wording, in most cases, included the name of the guest as part
• To publicize a special event of the wording. Everything was spelled out, including the event
date and time.
• The launch of a new product
Once written, each invitation was placed in a protective enclosure
• The opening of a new branch office
(a handmade envelope). That ‘envelope’, what is now called the
• The retirement of a senior executive
inner envelope, would include the invitee’s names (For example,
You may be expected to know how to prepare invitations to “The Duke and Duchess of Windsor”). When finished, a hot
such functions , or how to reply to such invitations, when your wax seal was affixed to the envelope. (Wax seals often indicated
employer gives you an instruction simply to accept or refuse. the crest of the family.)
The History of the Invitation The Postal Service
There is a long history to the evolution of the Invitation, as we Without any form of postal service, these invitations had to be
know it today. How did they arise? Who used them? How was hand delivered. This was the task of one of the servants, on
a wording composed? How were they delivered? What was the horseback, under all weather conditions.
impact of the printing press? Why do current invitations all Thus arose the need for an ‘outer’ envelope. This outer
appear to follow a consistent style? Why is calligraphy so envelope served a dual purpose. It was used to protect the inner
popular? envelope from water and dirt and to also provide directions to
Knowing the history and the traditions behind the social the recipients estate, castle, or farm. In addition, there were no
invitation will help you in your selection. You can then take ‘addresses’. Thus, the ‘inner envelope’ was again wrapped or
exception to current “standards” and still conform to socially placed in an outer envelope. The ‘address’ was often a set of
accepted standards. Or if you wish, you can create a new, unique directions something like, “Go one days travel down the road
invitation that will set you apart from the norm yet still be in to Chelsea. There, cross the stone bridge and proceed past the
good taste. three farms until you see the stone entrance marked “Wesley”.
Only for the Elite . . . There, remove this covering, and give to the doorman. Wait for
The aristocracy in England and France probably beginning in a response and make note of same.”
the 18th century used invitations to social events. It may be The Printing Press
possible to go back another hundred or two hundred years to The printing press appeared in Europe in the mid 13th century.
find the foundations, which began the tradition of the Even so, the printing of wedding or social invitations did not
invitation. begin until the start of the 20th century. Some of the elite,
The Kings, Queens, Lords, Ladies, Dukes, Duchesses, or in fascinated with industrialization, began using ‘mass produced’
today’s vernacular, “High Society” would invite their peers to invitations probably as either a novelty or simply as another
their social events with hand written announcements of the expression of wealth.
event. The wife, butler, or secretary wrote these. Writing was a The real beginning of the commercially printed wedding
mark of education. Even after the printing press, the aristocracy invitation began in the United States probably after World War
hand wrote invitations since “mass production” would be in II. One or the great features of the combination of democracy
bad taste. with industrialization is to give the common man the ability to
Calligraphy mimic the life-styles and materialism of society’s elite. About
In those days, society was not in a hurry, and most who could the same time, Amy Vanderbilt and Emily Post appear on the
read and write had excellent penmanship. Do you recall what the scene to help correct the fumblings of society.
pen was like as an early writing instrument? It was a quill made
© Copy Right: Rai University
11.234 225
The first appearance of the printed invitation was probably for these can be three dimensional with multiple layers of paper,
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
large events hosted by wealthy industrialists wishing to exploit custom or hand-drawn artwork, even with moveable layouts,
‘new technology’. Gradually, these factors coalesce to give you pop-ups, or doors. (Such invitations are often in the region of
and I, an affordable, commercially printed invitation. tens to hundreds of dollars each.)
The Tissue Mimic the Elite and Stick with Tradition
Technological advances in the design of the printing press increased Now you know why there are inner envelopes and why there are
the speed at which paper could be printed. Since printer’s ink took tissues. These are simply the traditional assets from the old
some time to dry, as each invitation was removed from the press, a days. Similarly, envelope seals are the mass produced equivalent
tissue was place over it so that the next invitation laid on top for replacing the hot wax seal.
would not pick up the ink from the one below. What is not so apparent is that raised ink is a cheap alternative
One might ask why it became common place to send invita- to engraving. But consider this, engraving was a less time
tions with this ‘protective’ tissue still in place. One could guess consuming way to mimic true handwriting.
the answer. Was it simply a mark to clearly show that the If you want the finest invitations possible, you must purchase
invitation was printed using a new and fascinating technology . . the finest paper and hire an artist and a calligrapher. The artist
. as opposed to the ‘old fashioned hand written’ invitation? In will personalize your invitation with a hand drawing on each.
any event, the inclusion of the tissue continues to this day. The calligrapher will hand write your wording and address your
Raised Ink Versus Engraving envelopes.
Ordinary printing simply stamps ink rolled on lead type onto Or are there New Technologies
the paper. It is a messy process and does not produce very high What of the truly old fashioned, hand written invitation? You
quality lettering. Lithography, on the other hand, is a method of can see that over the years, technology on has given you the ability
printing which retains a very high quality replica of drawn or to mimic the old traditions. Else why would we stick with inners,
sketched artwork. It produces very sharp and distinctive inking. outers, tissues, envelope seals, raised ink, and engraving?
If you and I could afford ordinary printed invitations, then the Consider this, while adhering to all the ‘old stuff’, the most
socially elite needed to distance themselves from such an important aspect of the invitation has been ignored. Your
abomination. They then elected to have their invitations invitation is mass produced and is not directed to the
“engraved”. This served a second purpose. It permitted the recipient. Their name is MISSING!!!
printed invitation to emulate hand writing since engraved
Today, you can go the full circle. You can print invitations each
copper plates were made by hand.
including the Guest’s name as part of the wording and you can
Engraving, as the name implies, requires an artisan to “hand do this with your computer. Even better, while all the social
write” in reverse into a metal plate using a carving tool. To this experts tell you to hand write those envelope addresses and to
day, the finest invitations are engraved. hand write the Guest’s name on the Respond Card, you can
But today’s engraving plates are made by first producing a print all of these things on your computer.
photographic plate of the wording using a typesetting machine. Is raised ink or engraving important? No, these were just
This plate is then used to expose a sensitized copper plate technological innovations. By printing your own, you are about
which is then acid etched. Movable lead type is replaced by as close to truly following the original intent of the invitation as
computers with a wide variety of lettering styles, called fonts. you will ever be.
Some fonts even mimic calligraphic lettering styles. So if you are
But wait . . . what about emailing those invitations? Sorry,
upper-crust, your invitations are engraved and printed on only
that’s for people with no taste.
the finest paper stock.
Us lesser folk, not to be outdone, again tried to mimic the Contents
quality open only to the very wealthy. Along comes a cheap 1. Names of party hosts or sponsoring organization.
version of engraving called Thermography or ‘raised ink’ 2. Type of event (birthday party, business networking meeting,
printing. Unlike ordinary printing, engraving actually cut the etc.).
surface of the paper. The print quality was beautiful and you
3. Place.
could feel where the ink was deposited because you could feel
the slight cuts in the surface of the paper. The thermography 4. Date.
process, unlike engraving used ordinary lead type washed with 5. Time.
ink. When the printed paper is removed from the press with 6. RSVP date and phone number.
wet ink, a plastic powder is sprayed on the wet ink and then 7. Any special dress requirements from black-tie to bathing suits.
blown off. The plastic powder absorbs the ink color. The paper
is then heated until the plastic powder melts leaving a raised ink 8. Rain date (if any).
which you can feel. 9. Be specific about who is invited, whether addressee only,
with guest, or with spouse and children.
Three Dimensional Hand Made
Invitations
To be complete, there is one more form of the invitation. This
is a custom invitation, hand made and assembled. Typically,
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1. Always send written invitations for formal events such as and addresses where the person can be contacted; and
business gatherings, formal dinners, and special occasions • Finally, articulate your pleasure of having the person speak at
like showers, weddings or events honoring someone. the meeting or conference.
2. If guests are not from your local area, include a map to
location of event.
3. Send anywhere from 8 - 2 weeks in advance depending on
formality of occasion. Weddings require the longest lead-
time; casual dinners and brunches require the least.
Do you have an engagement, wedding, baby shower, or
graduation coming up? Is there a performance, school event, or
meeting to which you want to invite people? Any special
religious ceremonies like Communion or a Bar Mitzvah? Do
you want to invite someone to speak at your meeting or
conference?
Whatever your event is, the following will help you write an
effective invitation.
Guidelines for Writing Invitations
• State the occasion, date, time, and place. Include addresses
and a map if necessary. Mention if refreshments will be
served. List any charges that may apply. Include a telephone
number for RSVPs. If there is a dress code, state the
preferred dress in the lower left-hand corner of the card.
• If you need a response, include a self-addressed, stamped
reply card or envelope with your invitation.
• Express that you are looking forward to seeing the person.
• Do not use abbreviations and do not use contractions
(don’t; we’ll) except for name titles, such as Mr., Mrs., etc.
• If dinner will be served, state two separate times: the time
people can start arriving and the time dinner will be served.
• If you do not want gifts, briefly state that gifts are not
wanted or needed. Explain that their presence is the only gift
you need.
• Make sure you send your invitations out with ample advance
notice.
• If you have guests coming from out of town or from other
countries, you may want to send out your invitation several
months in advance (especially if your event takes place
around a holiday.) This will allow your guests adequate time
to make preparations, reservations, save money, etc.
• For smaller, less formal events that include local guests or
guests from nearby areas, you may only need to provide a
few weeks notice.
• If you are inviting someone to speak at a conference, your
invitation should include the following information:
• Name of the conference and the sponsoring
organization;
• Date, time, place of the conference and speech;
• Type of audience;
• The type of speech, topic, and how long the speech
should be;
• Any accommodations that will be made, including
lodging, meals, and transportation;
Formal Invitation
at six o'clock
Le Meridian
Bangalore
(202) 555-6908
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Longman's Transportation Services
12:00 pm to 8:00 pm
When writing wedding invitations keep these rules close in Addressing the Inner Envelope
mind: Write the guests’ names only. Use “Mr. and Mrs.” for married
• There is no punctuation, except for commas after the day of guests; first names for children under 13 years old (i.e. Mr. and
the week and periods after abbreviations such as Jr., Mr., and Mrs. Matthew and Kate) ; and family names for relatives (i.e.,
Mrs. “Aunt Mehra,” “Grandmother,” etc.).
• All dates and times are spelled out. Addressing the Outer Envelope
• “A.M.” and “P.M.” are never used. Complete times with • Avoid the expression “and family.”
“o’clock.” You may also choose to write “three o’clock in the • If the couple lives together, use their full names and join
afternoon” or “seven o’clock in the evening” etc. them with an “and” (i.e. Mr. Amit Rai and Ms. Eliza
• Avoid the expression “and family.” Tondon)
• Do not include the address of the church or place of • Print the list of names with the appropriate titles: Mr. - Mrs.
worship unless the guests are unfamiliar with it’s location, - Ms. - Miss - Dr. - Reverend - Captain - Lieutenant - Rabbi -
such as the case may be in a large city. Fr. - Messrs. - Honourable - etc.
• Do not mention anything about gifts on your invitations, • Spell out the addressee’s middle name if you are going to
whether you want them or not. If you do not want gifts, include it, otherwise leave it out.
have family and friends spread this message. • Use full addresses with no abbreviations. Always spell out
• No words are capitalized except proper nouns, such as titles, “Street,” “Drive,” “Road,” and “Boulevard.”
people’s names and titles, place names, and names of the day • For a married couple, address the envelope to both parties:
and month. Mr. and Mrs. Allen Johnson
• Print names with the appropriate titles: Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, • If a widow: Mrs. John Smith
Reverend, Captain, Lieutenant, Rabbi, Fr., Messrs., • If divorced: Mrs. Susan Smith (as opposed to using her ex-
Honorable, etc. Doctor is usually written in full unless the husbands first name).
name following is quite long.
• For children over 13 and living at home, they receive their
• When sending invitations to guests invited to the wedding own invitation or are list their individual names separately on
ceremony only, an RSVP is not included. the inside envelope of their parent’s invitation:
Practice Sheet for Wording a Formal Invitation With • Over 13, living at home with parents:
Enclosure Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Shaw
(Names of parents/hosts) Ms. Melissa Shaw
________________________________________________ • Under 13
request the honour of your presence Mr. and Mrs. Bernard Shaw
at the marriage of their daughter Melissa
(given names only)
• If inviting two people sharing a home or living together, or
________________________________________________
to a married couple with different names, use both full names:
(groom's name written in full, Dr. Katrina Ross
including Mr., Doctor, etc.) Mr. Peter Campbell
________________________________________________
(day and date written out)
_______________________________________________
at
(time, written out)
________________________________________________
(place, without street address)
________________________________________________
(city and state)
________________________________________________
(enclosure)
Reception immediately following the ceremony at
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
By the end of this unit you will be able to nurses and health visitors. You have been asked to design a
leaflet to highlight the work of the nursing team.
• Compose invitations
Practice Nurses and Health Visitors = role developed to bridge
• Reply to invitations
the gap between medical and nursing care. They see anyone
• Prepare a leaflet with minor illnesses (some throats, earache, coughs / fever /
asthma, diarrhea and vomiting, minor traumas, sticky eyes)
Student’s this will be a very interesting class where in you need Doctors = more time for more serious consultations.
to use your creativity in designing invitations and leaflets. Nursing Team always works closely with Doctors to ensure
1. Your company will be opening its new branch in a nearby best possible care for all.
town next month and is arranging a cocktail reception to Practice Nurses are available Mon – Fri 8.30-12.15. Mon/
mark the occasion. Wed/Fri 2.00-6.00, Tues/Thurs 4.00-6.00.
Prepare an invitation, which can be printed to send to a Design either a leaflet (either A4 size, or fold A4 into three to
number of special clients. make a six sided leaflet) to issue to patients at the health center.
2. Prepare a reply accepting the invitation from one of the
clients.
3. Prepare a reply from Doctor Anthony Long of Orchard
Medisave Pte Ltd. Unfortunately Dr Long cannot attend the
cocktail reception as he will be overseas on a business trip.
4. Here is an invitation which I received. Follow my
instructions and prepare a reply.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
mailing list Clue?
3. All business documents should be grammatically correct, i.e.
they should contain no errors in grammar, spelling or
7. This is a list of all the duties which the employee may be
punctuation.
required to perform. (2 words).
Reason?
Clue?
8. Some job advertisements require applicants to send a 4. It is becoming popular for large organizations to use a
separate schedule showing their education, qualifications, ‘house style’ for their correspondence in the same,
employment history and other personal details when standardized formats.
applying for jobs. (2 words)
Reason?
Clue?
Retain or Remove? 5. Business letters should be free of slang and other
Summarizing anything requires the ability to find and remove colloquialisms, i.e. expressions used only in conversation.
unimportant details or , more to the point, choose which Reason?
details should be retained. A lot of information which can be Clue?
removed from summarizing exercise can be categorized, e.g.
6. Some circular letters are unsolicited. This means the
example definitions, additions and rephrasing.’ clues’ are often
recipients have no particular interest in the message.
given in such cases, as shown below.
Reason?
Categories Clues
Clue?
1. Examples ‘For example…’
7. It is important to retain grammatical precision when writing
‘…….., e.g……..’
business documents. In other words, all sentences in a
2. Definitions ‘This is ……..’ series should consistently follow the same grammatical
‘This means ……….’ pattern.
3. Rephrasing ‘In other words……’ Reason?
‘That is ……….’ Clue?
‘………, i.e.………’ 8. Many companies, particularly the larger ones, are turning
4. Additions ‘……., especially ……..’ more and more to computerization of their clerical
procedures.
‘…….., particularly ……’
Reason?
Clue?
example : (the information to be removed has been underlined) 9. A quorum must usually be present at formal meetings, e.g.
it has been argued, (1) especially in recent years, that an examina- annual general meetings, meetings of shareholders.
tion summary is not a realistic exercise, (2) i.e. not the type of Reason?
summary one is required to do in the business worls.
Clue?
Number 1 : why should it be removed? (addition)
10. Certain items appear on the agenda of many regular
What was the clue given? (especially) meetings, e.g. any other business and date of next meeting.
Number 2: why should it be removed? (rephrasing) Reason?
What was the clue given? (i.e.) Clue?
The sentences below all contain some information, which
Removing Reasons
should be removed from a summary – examples, definitions,
rephrasing or additions. Highlight the details which should be 1. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table
retained, and state the reason why the rest should be removed, below
together with the clue which was given. In the name of safety, gangways between desks should not
1. An essential part of any documentary evidence, for example be blocked with boxes, files or waste bins as employees may
letters, invoices, orders, is that it should have the names and trip over them causing injury. Filing cabinet drawers should
the addresses of both parties to the correspondence. be closed immediately after use, or the cabinet may become
unbalanced and topple over. Torn of frayed floor covering
Reason?
could cause a person to fall, so it should be repaired or
Clue? replaced. Office doors should be locked and windows
2. References often include departments and file numbers, secured at the end of the day. This will prevent burglars from
especially in correspondence with government departments. breaking in. to avoid a fire hazard electrical appliances should
be unplugged and switched off at eh end of each day.
© Copy Right: Rai University
11.234 233
Safety Precaution Reason If you indicate that you have used the precise number of words
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1. Do not block gangways between instructed (perhaps a white lie?) then the examiner may just
spot that it looks too long or too short, and will double –check.
desks with boxes, files or waste bins.
If you do not indicate the number of words used, you will also
2.
be penalized. The best option is to try to stick within the word
3. limit and always include it at the end in brackets.
4.
A Worked Example of a Short Summary
5. There are many ways in which summaries can be handled, and
many different final versions, which could all able quite
satisfactory. However it may be helpful to take a look at the
(NB: Retain consistency of expression by using verbs at the
various stages involved in just one method of producing an
start of each item in column one.)
effective summary.
2. Read the following passage and use it to complete the table
below: Step 1 Read through the next carefully.
When transcribing recorded dictation assess the size of paper Step 2 Highlight important words and phrases, by using the
can be chosen. To avoid making unnecessary errors and method of circling shown here, by underlining, or by
having to type the document again, always check any using a highlighter pen
doubtful points in the dictation with the dictator. If there is Summaries the following passage using approximately 50
any doubt about spelling, look up unfamiliar words in a words.
dictionary. A lot of personal contact is associated with secretarial work – contact
Letters required urgently by the dictator should be typed and with people inside the company, eg fellow employees, juniors, management,
returned to him first, so that the document can be dealt with other departments, as well as clients and other people outside the company.
quickly. Letters cannot be signed with grammatical errors, so Being able to communicate well with people is therefore a most important
make sure they are grammatically perfect. To avoid having to aspect of the secretary’s role. The nature of a secretary’s job means she is
insert the paper back into the typewriter to correct errors, always in constant communication with many people in her own company, and she
proofread carefully before removing work from your typewriter. is expected to treat all office personnel, form senior management to the
junior mail clerks, with the same amount of respect. Tact, diplomacy, a
Rules for Transcribing pleasant disposition, friendliness and helpfulness are some of the
Reason invaluable qualities a secretary needs when dealing with people outside the
1. Assess the size of each organization. When in contact with such people, either by telephone or in
document before typing it. person, the secretary, as a representative of her company, is expected to
2. reflect a good image of the organization she represents at all times.
3. (148 words)
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1. Read the instructions carefully and determines what is For reference when making a speech, again enumeration would
required in your summary. May be only a certain theme from probably be easier to follow, perhaps also with subheadings for
the passage needs to be picked out, or perhaps it should all different aspects of the main theme.
be summaries. Whatever, many students produce very good NB: There ca be no hard and fast rule to say ‘Oh it’s a handout
summaries, but lose marks because they have not done what – I must do it like this’, or whatever. The instructions will tell
the instructions requested. you for what purpose your summary is to be used. After
2. Read the passage through carefully twice – the importance of reading the passage carefully, and double – checking the
this reading period cannot be over – emphasized. You really instructions, careful thought should be given to using the most
need to ‘think yourself into the theme’ of the passage and suitable format.)
ensure a complete grasp of the topic before continuing. Covering Memo
3. After checking the instructions again, go through the passage When instructed to compose a business summary of the type
highlighting the information, which should be included in discussed, it may be relevant for covering memo to be written
your summary. to the person who requested it. Your memo should be short
4. Re –check what you have highlighted in case you have missed and state the source of the material which has been used.
something or highlighted something incorrectly. Example
5. Make a rough draft from your highlighting, using your own Safety In The Office
words and avoiding the language of the original passage As requested, I have made a summary of the article which appeared in
wherever possible. the May edition of ‘Business Digest’ for its inclusion in the next issue of
6. Check your draft carefully against the original, making sure the staff newsletter.
that you have not left out anything of importance, or added I hope you find this satisfactory.
anything, which is not relevant.
Enc
7. Write out the summary in its final form. Take every possible
opportunity to rephrase in an attempt to cut down on the A Worked Example of a Business
number of words used. Summary
As with any assignment, it must be remembered that no two
8. Count the words used, and if necessary make some more
people will produce identical summaries, yet many could be
amendments ot keep within the limit prescribed.
suitable for the purpose intended. However, this worked
9. Read your summary through carefully to check for example of a business summary is given to illustrate the
grammatical, punctuation or spelling errors. principles and procedures involved in effective summarizing.
Business Summaries Step 1
The summaries we have looked at so far have been ‘continuous
Your employer is giving a talk entitled “Running your own
prose’, i.e. a straightforward paragraph or two. However, the
Business” at a local club. She says to you, “will you please list
recent trend is towards realistic summaries, summaries to suit a
the main points about being your own boss and the miscon-
specific purpose. Virtually any type of presentation could,
ceptions people have about it from this leaflet? It will help me
therefore, be required. It is important that the instructions are
in giving my talk.
studied carefully so that you pick out only the information
required in your summary, and that you display it appropriately. Use approximately 120 words for your summary.
Here are some example of different types of business summa- Read the instructions carefully, marking the important points.
ries which you could be asked to produce: Your employer is giving a talk entitled “Running your own Business” at a
local club. She says to you, “will you please list the main points about
Advertisement / Notice
being your own boss and the misconceptions people have about it from this
Obviously an advertisement or notice should be presented
leaflet? It will help me in giving my talk.
suitably. Items should be centered to attract attention. Perhaps
points can be listed, with subheadings. Use capitals and Use approximately 120 words for your summary.
underscoring to add to effect. Step 2
Checklist Consider a suitable format. Your summary is to be used by
Enumeration is required in any checklist. Perhaps an introduc- your employer as reference when giving a talk about ‘Running
tion is necessary also. Take care with consistency of expression, your Own Business’. Your employer stresses she wants a lists
so that all points on the checklist follow the rule of grammatical of the ‘main points’ as well as ‘misconceptions’. These two
parallelism. (A useful word –saving ploy here is to use verbs at terms give you a clue as to sub – headings, which could be used.
the start of each point.) Also important here is the world ‘list’ – obviously your
employer does not want to read from a script, so continuous
Handout / Information Sheet prose will not be suitable. A list will be easy to refer to, and your
Sub – headings may be appropriate, as well as numbered
employer will be able to expand on each point, thus making her
points. Again, take care with consistency of expression
talk sound very natural.
Read the passage carefully several times, highlighting the Get through your draft/ notes and make marginal notes
important points. regarding amendments / synonyms / rephrasing. Remember
that your summary should be expressed in your own words
There are all kinds of reasons for wanting to be your own boss. Some wherever possible.
people like the idea of there being no – one in authority over them, telling
Main Points
them what to do, saying their work is not up to standard, turning down
their ideas, or insisting on methods that seem pointless. Others are - No – one to give you instructions
attracted by the thought of deciding their own hours, or days, of works. - Choose own hours/ working arrangements
Running your own business gives you the status of being self employed - Self – employed status – directory?
perhaps also of being a company director. There is the general feeling of - Independent, responsible for own income/ life
independence, and that your income – is in your own hands. Some are
- Satisfaction from seeing enterprise grow
attracted to the idea of starting a small gardener tends his plot and makes
a number of creating further growth. - Less interesting work – other people also more difficult work
If your are your own boss, say some people, worked is so much more - Business occupies spare time – earn money too
pleasant. You can get someone else to do the less interesting jobs and you Misconceptions
are not bogged down in annoying details. Work becomes easier, too, Few consider all details – essential first step.
because you can get someone else to do the more difficult tasks.
Being the boss seems glamorous – thinking that life would be better if no
Many others want to set up a little business of their own ot occupy their mundane chores, no annoyances, like employees – wrong!
spare time, and as a pleasant way or earning extra money from work they
Irritations also when you are boss – more often? Effects more upsetting!
like doing.
Conclusion
These are just a few of the reason commonly given. Some have good sense
behind them; others are based on completely false ideas. Most contain Consider drawbacks carefully.
some element of truth which gets magnified out of all proportion and If right for you – immeasurable benefits.
seized upon without it being borne in mind that there are other points to Step 6
consider as well.
Produce your final summary by linking up the notes into full
As with so much else in life, running an enterprise of your own entails sentences. Count the words. If necessary, make further amend-
disadvantages as well as advantages. It is surprising how rarely people ments. Make sure your summary reads smoothly and is correct
stop to consider in real detail just what the drawbacks are, yet this is an in spelling and punctuation. Finally, ask yourself if your
essential first step for anyone thinking about whether it is even practicable summary is a satisfactory condensed version of the original, and
for him to be his own boss. also if your summary could be used for the purpose mentioned
An important reason why there is such glamour about being in charge of in the instructions.
your own business is that when you are working for someone else, many of Step 7
the petty irritations of life, as well as the chore of often having to get sown
to work that you do not feel like doing at that particular time, become Don’t forget to produce a brief covering memo for summa-
associated with being an employee. There is a feeling that, if only you were ries of this nature.
your own boss, life would immediately become infinitely pleasurable and Memorandum
free from irksome details. To Mrs Anita Sharma, Managing Director
This is almost entirely misleading. Many of the little annoyances probably From : Rakesh Singh
have nothing to do with being an employee: being interrupted when you Ref GS / ST
have at last immersed yourself in some disagreeable task, missing the bus
Date 12 july 19 - -
when you are in a hurry, feeling tired or in other ways not really up to
working hard Running Your Own Busines
I have summarized the leaflet you gave to me, listing the main points about
At the moment, and so on. These occur just as much when you are your being your own boss, together with misconceptions. This is attached.
own master. In fact, they tend to happen much more often, while at the I hope this helps you in giving your talk next week.
same time, their effects can be far more upsetting.
Enc
There are very real drawbacks to running your own business, though for
the right kind of person, immeasurable benefits also.
Step 4
Produce a rough draft or notes from the original, referring to
the instructions again to ensure you are picking out what is
required.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Benefits Original
1. You have no one to answer to, and have self-employed may At a typical football match we are likely to see players commit-
be director, standing. ting deliberate fouls, often behind the referee’s back. They might
2. You make your own choices, including working hours. try to take a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect but more
advantageous positions in defiance of the clearly stated rules of
3. You are self reliant, accountable for your own income.
the game. They sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee
4. You obtain pleasure from seeing your company grow. or linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves punish-
5. Delegations is possible – of the simple and the laborious jobs. ment or even sending off. No wonder spectators fight amongst
6. It can fill your spare time and create income formwork you enjoy. themselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their own
hands by invading the pitch in the hope of affecting the
Misconceptions
outcome of the match. [100 words]
1. Some do not consider the drawbacks – a vital preliminary step.
Summary
2. Some feel life would improve without the aggravations often Unsporting behavior by footballers may cause hooliganism
encountered as an employee. among spectators. [9 words]
However, most of such aggravations occur to employers as well
Further Readings
as employees, but with more disagreeable consequences.
Conclusion Purposes of the summary
Before you write the summary, consider why your audience
Consider the disadvantages carefully. If it is for you, the rewards are
(professor, boss, client) wants to read it. Why shouldn’t the
limitless.
reader just read the original? Summaries benefit the reader
(115 words) because they offer a concise, general version of the original
information. For a busy reader, summaries provide quick
Summarizing Tips overviews of material. Summaries also show readers that you
1. A summary is a short version of a longer piece of writing. have understood the general point of a text, and in this way,
teachers can test your knowledge. The process of summarizing
2. It contains all the main parts of the original, but puts
someone else’s material enables you to better understand that
them more briefly.
material. Finally, summaries allow you to introduce knowledge
3. Summarizing is a very useful skill when gathering within a research context: you can summarize someone’s
information or doing research. argument in order to analyze or critique it.
4. The summary should be written in your own words. What and When to Summarize
5. It’s better to re-write, rather than copying out parts of the Many student writers tend to quote when they should summa-
original. rize material. Quote only when the author expresses a point in a
6. You might need to summarize a passage as a particularly telling or interesting language. Otherwise, simply
‘comprehension’ exercise. summarize. Use a summary to restate an entire argument. Use a
7. This proves that you can understand it. summary to present information. Summary is more economical
than quotation because a summary allows the writer more
8. Read the original quickly, and try to understand the main control over the argument.
subject.
9. Then read it again - in more detail.
How to Summarize
1. Read the original passage or text very carefully.
10. Underline or make notes of the main issues. Use a
highlighter if this helps. 2. Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the
main point of the original text, or make notes in the
11. Look up any words or ideas you don’t know.
margins or on another sheet of paper.
12. Make a list of the main topics - or make a diagram.
3. If you’re summarizing an entire essay, outline the writer’s
13. A simple picture of boxes or a spider diagram can often be argument.
helpful.
4. Now tell your audience what the original source argued.
14. Write a sentence, which states the main idea of the original
writing. Summary Conventions
15. Then write a paragraph which combines all the points you 1. Summaries can range in length from two sentences to several
have made. pages. In any case, use complete sentences to describe an
author’s general points to your reader. Don’t quote
16. The final summary should capture the main point of the
extensively. If you quote, use quotation marks and
original.
document the quotation. If you fail to document the
17. Remember that it should be in your own words. quotation, ven one word that the author used, you are
plagiarizing material (presenting another person’s
information as if it were your own).
This is a practice class, which will help you hone your skills on Look at the interviewer directly and don’t avoid eye contact
summarizing. At the end of this lesson you will: or it will not give a good impression. When answering
questions, avoid using ‘yes’ or ‘no’ - they tell an interviewer
• Use summarizing skills effectively
absolutely nothing and result in a very dull interview. Try to
• Produce a business summary from a given passage of English answer as fully as possible, without going off the mark.
Remember that the aim of an interview is to allow the
1 You are secretary to the Principal of a secretarial college and
interviewer(s) and the interviewee to get to know each other
the Principal feels the following article contains useful points
in a short space of time in order to decide quickly if. it would
for students who will be leaving shortly, in preparing them
be possible to work together. it is not intended to be like
for job interviews. Make a suitable summary for the Principal
entering the torture chamber Relax - and try to enjoy it!
to issue to teachers for the_ to use in class discussion. Use
no more than 70 words. 2 All the secretaries in your organization use audio
transcription, as the employers prefer not to use shorthand
Interviews - experiences which some people love, and some
dictation. In informal talks with many secretaries personally,
hate. Whichever category you belong to, a few tips should be
you know there is a considerable amount of fru8tration
borne in mind to ensure interview success. In nearly all
because of poor audio dictation technique by their
meetings, the first impression is that which makes the
employers; You recently came across the following article in a
strongest impact on new acquaintances, be they colleagues,
secretarial magazine, and feel it includes helpful advice for
friends or other associates. If that goes wrong, it may be
employers on effective audio dictation techniques. You
impossible to correct. Secretaries are often seen as status
decide to summarize it as a checklist for employers to follow
symbols, so an employer would prefer a smart and
when dictating, and to send it to the editor of the staff
presentable person to fulfill this role. Not many employers
magazine asking him to consider it for inclusion in the next
would be impressed by a provocative evening-type dress and
issue. (Use approximately 100 words.)
hair tossed seductively, and it certainly would not be everyday
office attire, so plan your wardrobe carefully. Personal Using dictation machines saves considerable time, as the
freshness is also important, particulate when under stress. secretary does not need to be present, thus it leaves the
You must consider the effect you may have on the people secretary free to deal with her other responsibilities while the
around you. If you have ever stood next to someone on a boss dictates his correspondence. But how many secretaries
bus whose personal ‘aura’ makes you rush to get off before out there continually bang your head against the office wall in
your stop, then you know what I mean. Give your teeth a frustration because the boss has coughed loudly in your ear?
good going-over too, to make sure they sparkle and that Does your boss mumble, talk too loudly occasionally and
your breath smells fresh. Long tapering nails also wouldn’t then almost whisper? How many times have you rewound
be able to whizz across a keyboard if you are asked to do a and listened to an unfamiliar word 20 times and just wished
typing test, so give yourself a good manicure and ensure the boss had the sense to spell it out?
your nails are. attractive. Well maybe your boss is an admirable Accountant or a
The evening before the interview, get all your clothes ready so marvellous MD, but good dictation technique requires
as to avoid a panic and not being able to decide what to wear. considerable practice. I hope this advice will be helpful-
Make sure your hair is clean and shining too. A rumbling perhaps you can casually put it on your boss’s desk with his
tummy is a sure sign of nerves, so avoid embarrassment by coffee in the morning, but don’t admit where it came from
having a hearty breakfast. Nerves can often make. Your nose of course!
run too, for no apparent reason, so be sure to carry tissues. Before starting dictation, it is essential to be organised. All
If you are wearing tights, make sure you carry .a spare pair in the necessary papers should be to hand. Otherwise you’ll get
case you damage them on the way to the interview. frustrated and start scrambling about in the mi4st of
Before you walk into the interview room, take a few deep dictation and it will be especially infuriating for your secretary
breaths to calm your nerves - always -a useful calming if you forget to switch off the mike during this process!
technique. And when you walk in, smile! Don’t get carried Interruptions will affect your train of thought during the
away so that your smile looks forced, but be as natural as you dictation so try to time your recording when you know you
can. Be friendly in the interview itself, and it will make it easy have some time free and do it in a room which is free from
for the interviewer to conduct the interview. However noise.
nervous you feel, sit in as relaxed a manner as you can, and Once these preparations have been made, you’re off. Before
don’t keep twitching nervously, with your fingers, with the starting dictation on each piece of correspondence, do state
strap of your handbag, with your skirt hem, or whatever. the exact nature of the document, e.g. ‘short letter’, ‘long
which will be required. This type of information is with correctly. I would like to talk to you today on the
invaluable to your secretary as to the correspondence to be various things we have to think about when preparing for
transcribed. meetings, and the disorientation involved.
As for the dictation - the microphone is not a lollipop, so Once it has been agreed that the meeting will take .place on a
don’t try to eat it! Hold it two or three inches away from particular day there are many practical tasks you should attend
your mouth. If you hold it too close, your speech. will be to. First of all make sure you enter the date of the meeting in
blurred; too far away and you won’t be heard at all. Don’t your boss’s diary and your own. This will, of course, avoid the
mumble into the mike, but try to ensure your speech is clear. risk of a clash of apP9intments at a later date. Then check the
And please don’t go like a bull at a gate - a secretary will not venue for the meeting, and if there is a regular room make
thank you if you dictate at 50 miles an hour! sure it is available. This may be the company’s own board
When you have dictated the first sentence or so, listen to it room, or in the case of a departmental meeting perhaps you
again by playing back the recording, so that you can make any will use the manager’s office. “ You then need to prepare and
necessary adjustments - the sound may. be too high or too circulate the notice of meeting and agenda. If you will turn to
low, so it’s much better to correct it at this point than deafen page 41 of your seminar booklet you will see examples of the
your secretary later! “wording and layout of the notice and agenda.
If the volume’s OK, then go ahead. We all need to pause for (NB: Discuss from examples printed in “seminar booklet page
thought now and again, so when you find it necessary to do 41.)
so, or when the phone rings, remember to switch off the Any additional documents for distribution, such as reports,
mike. Your secretary doesn’t want to listen to a few minutes statistics, etc., should be circulated with the notice and agenda,
of nothing, or to :i conversation with your wife about what’s so that members may become thoroughly familiar with their
for dinner! contents prior to the meeting. Remember also to ‘make
Wherever you can, try to include a mention of new additional sets of such documents - isn’t it .always the case that
paragraphs, and give clear instructions to your secretary someone forgets to bring their copies on the day of the
regarding headings and any items which need to be meeting, “and we end up having to get “extra copies for them
numbered. at the last minute! If you take extra copies to start with, you will
Your secretary will also need to clarify things with you every avoid this last-minute rush.
few minutes if you don’t spell out personal names, place In consultation with your Chairman you should then produce a
names, foreign names anything which she may be unfamiliar draft of the Chairman’s agenda which he may amend as
with. Numbers too - prices, sums of money, percentages, etc. necessary. The Chairman’s agenda is a little more detailed than
When you’ve successfully reached the end of a document, the ordinary members’ agenda. It is .for use only by the
mark the length of the document on the index slip - this will Chairman, containing” extra notes for his own reference in
be a valuable reference tool for your secretary on the size of helping him to conduct the business of the meeting efficiently.
paper to use for the correspondence. “ So much for the preliminary documentation, what about other
Finally, make sure you keep any letters, memos, reports, files matters? If you have a regular caterer, a provisional order
and other relevant documents connected with the dictation should be made for refreshments at this stage, which will be
in a special pill and pass “all this to your secretary with the confirmed when. the number of participants is known nearer
recording. In this way all the information she needs will be the date.
just where she can find it, and she won’t need to bother you Any equipment which may be required at the meeting should
with queries. be arranged, including making sure any visual aids required will
If you follow the above advice, it should save your Secretary be available if necessary. (Does anyone require the overhead
much frustration - and a happier secretary makes your life projector, spirit pens, video recorder, etc.?)
easier too, doesn’t it? Happy Dictating! Place names should be prepared if these are needed to ‘identify
3 After reading the following assignment carefully, study the the participants at the meeting. Obviously these will not be
answer given. Discuss what is wrong with it, and rewrite the necessary at a departmental meeting where everyone knows
answer more appropriately. everyone else,” but at more formal meetings they may be useful.
You have been asked” to give a talk at a secretarial seminar on Once these provisional arrangements .have been attended to,
the secretary’s duties in connection with meetings, and the you can more or less relax until the day of the meeting itself.
text of your speech is printed below. You have also been Then you” will need to make sure everything is organised as
asked for a one-page summary of your speech for inclusion efficiently as possible, “using- a bit of the foresight we are
in the seminar booklet, which delegates will keep for future supposed to develop as secretaries. First of all arrange the
reference. Using an appropriate format make your summary meeting room, attending to’ such things as seating arrange-
in not more than 150 words. ments, water and glasses, writing paper and pencils, and
ashtrays. Any-doc-Nments to because during the meeting
Meetings form an essential part of business life and, as
should be laid out on the table. Spare copies of the agenda and.
secretaries; our role is to ensure that they are organized and
minutes of the last meeting should be at hand, as well as the
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
earlier. You should also check that any equipment and accesso-
ries required are in the right place and in working order. You
don’t want your boss to switch on the OHP during the
meeting only to find the bulb has blown, or for him to write
on a transparency only to find the spirit pen has run out!
Next reconfirm that refreshments will be served at the appropri-
ate time, and give any last-minute instructions regarding the
number of members attending the meeting. .
The switchboard and receptionist should also be given a list of
participants at the meeting, together with instructions for
diverting their calls as necessary. Perhaps a colleague will be called
upon to take all calls, or the switchboard operator herself may
be required to take messages. Whatever the arrangements, make
sure the relevant people know what is required of them.
If you are attending the meeting as secretary, gather your own
paperwork together with suitable materials to take down the
minutes. Ensure that you have your own and your boss’s
diaries available to check details of appointments when future
dates have to be arranged during the meeting. Finally place a
‘meeting in progress’ notice on the door. This will ensure no
one walks in and disturbs the progress of the meeting. I will
not mention anything about Minutes here because my colleague
will be discussing that with you in detail later in the
programme.
Arranging meetings can be a bit of a headache - collating all the
reports and material for the meeting, making sure all the
documentation is issued at the appropriate time, and. all the
various other matters which we have to attend to. But if you
thiI1k them through logically, step-by-step, and use the
summarized checklist which I have included in the seminar
booklet, you can ensure that. nothing is overlooked.
So whether you are organising your first meeting or your
‘fiftieth, I wish you success.
answer ploys.
• Choose synonyms for given words
7. If the author of the passage adopts a position, or stance, on
• Identify the meaning of words from the context an issue, but discusses other viewpoints as well in the
• Calculate how marks are allocated in comprehension questions passage, be on the lookout for answer choices that confuse
• Develop effective techniques to answer comprehension question the author’s viewpoint with the viewpoints of others. This
is another common wrong-answer ploy.
Students, No communication in our business or private life can 8. Be on the lookout for wrong answer choices that provide
take place successfully without comprehending. Any assignment information not mentioned in the passage—yet another
we undertake in any aspect of our studies is an assignment in common wrong-answer ploy. These wrong answer choices
comprehension. Most examiners and assessors would com- can be tempting, because it’s remarkably easy to assume that
ment that many questions are badly answered because you overlooked the information as you read the passage.
candidates do not answer the question which has been set-they
The importance of using a dictionary has to be emphasized.
do not fully understand what is required before answering the
Occasions will arise when you are not familiar with a word used
question.
in a passage. Always look up unfamiliar words immediately, and
Comprehension is tested every time we read or write. Most relate the dictionary meaning to the contextual use of the world.
errors in previous units of this book will have resulted from
In view of the importance of vocabulary work, preliminary
not having read a question properly, and fully understood it,
exercises are provided in this unit on the meanings of words in
before attempting an answer. The importance of careful and
context, followed by a look at the types of question asked, how
thorough reading cannot, therefore, be over-stressed.
to word and display your answers and how marks are allocated.
It is most unlikely that you have not studied comprehension
exercises before now. We all know what comprehension Using a Dictionary
exercises requited – a passage has to be read and then questions Comprehension all about understanding. That is why use of a
based on the passage must be answered. dictionary is so important, to ensure understanding. Use a
dictionary if necessary to fill in the blanks in the words below.
Read the first question before you begin reading the passage. By
You should choose a word, which could be used to replace the
doing so, you can read more actively—with an eye out for the
phrases in italics.
information you need.
1. My boss is always finding fault with anything and everything
1. Never confirm your answer to a question until you’ve read
in my work. ( f—t—i—s )
the entire passage. Information relevant to a question can
appear anywhere in the passage. 2. Since the company recruited a new Account, the accounting
and book keeping records seem to have gone from bad to
2. Using your pencil and scratch paper, jot down a rough
worse. (d- - -r- -r- - -d)
outline as you read. It will help you locate relevant details
quickly as you answer the questions, and minimize vertical 3. I understand Personnel haven’t decided on a replacement
scrolling and re-reading. for the MD’s Secretary, but Laura and Jackie are in the
running. (c- - t- -d- -g)
3. Don’t be overly concerned with details (dates, examples, and
lists) as you read; instead, jot down in outline form where 4. I felt like a fish out of water on my first day at work. I knew
these details are located in the passage so you can locate them no one at all. ( m- - - -t)
quickly as needed to respond to the questions. 5. If I work hard at all these exercises, I’m sure I’ll make the
4. After reading the entire passage, take about 15 seconds to grade. ( s - - - - -d)
sum it up in one sentence—in the form of a rough thesis 6. You must bring home to Lesley that she cannot leave it until
statement. Doing so is well worth the effort, because you’ll the last week of term before she starts work on her
be able to answer some Reading Comprehension questions integrated project. ( c - -v- - -e)
with nothing more than the thesis in mind. 7. You must be honest with yourself and others – don’t try to
5. No matter what type of question you’re dealing with, gloss over the truth. ( c - - c - -I)
eliminate any answer choice that runs contrary to the 8. Stella is always assuming superior airs, but she’s really no better
passage’s overall thesis. than the rest of us. ( p-tr-n——g)
6. Be on the lookout for answer choices that provide 9. John has been the main person behind the formation of new
information supported by the passage but not responsive to company. ( m- - - - m - -d)
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
warms up. ( j - -k - -y)
Contextual Clues
Grammatical Precision Very often the meaning of an unfamiliar word can be identified
When choosing the meaning of a word mentioned in a from the context. In the following sentence:
passage, care must be taken not to alter the meaning or change a. Choose one word from the choices given to replace the
the tense. You must make sure you answer fits exactly in the nonsense word which is in italics.
passage in place of the stated words or phrases.
b. Unsubtle the word in italics to make a synonym for the word
Example: He intentionally left the fire door open. you chose to replace it.
Incorrect: on purpose/deliberate Example : I have to act as the idyaremrinet between my boss
Correct: deliberately and his callers.
In each sentence below, one word is italicized. From the choices Answer: go-between
given, choose one word which could replace it. Synonym: intermediary
1. This electronic typewriter is going to be superseded by a 1. Don’t be a victim of crotinarspation – you should not put
new model. off until tomorrow what you could do today.
a. Replace b. Replaced a. Dilettante b. Dilapidation c. Dilatoriness
c. Replacing d. Replaces 2. Suzanne has those intone qualities which make her perfect
2. Do you remember the balcyon days we spent whiling away for the job
the hours on Rawa, our paradise island off the east coast of a. Inert b. Inhuman c. Inborn
Malaysis?
3. A letter which is written in a genniscodencd tone will not give
a. Tranquil b. Tranquility the recipient a very good impression.
c. Tranquiliser d. Tranquilising a. Courteous b. Patronizing c. Polite
3. My boss is always making insinuations about a pay increase, 4. If any of the company’s rules are lovetiad you will not give
but I’ve still not had confirmation. the recipient a very good impression.
a Hint b. Hints a. Disobeyed b. Followed c. Obeyed
c Hinted d. Hinting 5. Since the new Chairman was appointed, the company has
4. If may son is contumacious, I always making insinuations grown substantially and become very orpserpuso.
about a pay increase, but I’ve still not had confirmation. a. Unsuccessful b. Successful c. Profit – sharing
a. Disobey b. Disobeyed 6. Drinking too much coffee at night causes mosainin.
c. Disobedient d. Canceling a. Caffeine b Sleeplessness c. Tiresome
5. Don’t forget to have your work permit abrogated before 7. The disciplinary matter is yebacean for the Manager to may a
you fly home. decision when he returns tomorrow.
a. Cancel b. Cancels a. Awaiting b. Suspension c. Suspense
c Cancelled d. Canceling 8. If you want to change you lunch hour, you must obtain the
6. It’s women’s prerogative to arrive a few minutes late for a contains of your manager first.
date. a. Appendix b. Deprecation c. Approval
a. Privilege b. Privileged 9. The new secretary shows a lot of togismanna towards me,
c. Privacy d. Private but I don’t know what I’ve done to upset her.
7. Linda is a peripatetic author – she been all over the world a Resentment b. Friendship c. Contentment
while writing her first novel. 10. When the fire bell rings, employees must leave the building
a. Travel b. Traveled and report to their gestideand safety officer.
c. Traveling d. Ttraveler a. Nomination b. Nominated c. Nominal
8. A secretary has to perform quite a lot of esoteric duties in Types of Answer
her job. Most comprehension questions ask for a certain type of answer:
a. Specialist b. Specialize • Who? ( a person )
c. Specialized d. Special • When? ( a time)
9. I need a corroborator to back me up or I’ll be in big trouble, • Where? (a place)
even though it’s not my fault.
• Why? ( a reason )
10. My boss is always very irascible over the tiniest mistake in
• How? ( a method )
my work.
• What? ( a thing/idea )
a Irritate b Irritable
Whose opinion? a. …
Whose opinion? c. …
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
The sentence which shows most clearly the … is ... careful when consulting a dictionary because often more than
one meaning is provided - be careful to choose the right
10. In your own words, what do you think is meant by the
meaning which matches the meaning of the word in the
expression’ …’?
passage. Do not copy dictionary definitions out ‘wholesale’ -
I think this expression means… use your initiative to rephrase accordingly.
Marks Awarded for Comprehension 8. Your handwriting should be legible and your expression as
Questions correct as possible. Present your answers neatly, with
One way of judging whether a lot or a little is required of any question numbers clearly shown. Marks can be lost because
question is to refer to the number of marks awarded. Some of poor presentation and untidy work:
students write half a page in answer to a 2-mark question, and
two lines in answer to an 8-mark question.
Assignments
1 Read the following passage carefully.
Obviously that cannot be right!
Comprehension questions need careful consideration. You Luxor Hotels and Conference Facilities
should check carefully the number of marks allocated to each Our company name stems from the day when the founder,
question and bear this in mind when looking for and writing George Meredith, was staying in Luxor and planning a confer-
out your answers. ence to be held in. Singapore. He decided to set up his own
business and began with one hotel in 1989. Today there are
Very often questions ask for reasons, advantages, arguments,
Luxor hotels in more than 100 countries around the world. The
effects. Remember in such cases that the number of marks
biggest, with 600 rooms, is in Chicago and the smallest, with
allocated will be divided equally between the number of
100 rooms, in Perth, Western Australia. There are no hotels
reasons, advantages, etc., which you give.
with fewer than 100 rooms. All Luxor hotels in the USA have at
For example, a 6-mark question may mean there are three least 250 rooms whereas European hotels prefer smaller units.
reasons, with 2 marks for each. An 8-mark question may mean Over 66% f Asian hotels have more than 300 rooms.“
there are four advantages,
Quality is emphasised at all Luxor hotels. They are all decorated
with 2 marks for each, and so on. . annually, all fittings are regularly checked and any worn furniture
There can be no hard and fast rules. All I say is be aware that is immediately replaced. In 1992 alone, 5000 litres of paint were
examiners do not usually award marks ad hoc. There is generally used in Singapore and about 50% of the carpets were replaced in
a strict marking scheme to which they work. Wording your our hotels in China. During 1994, 1000 beds were replaced in
answer in close relationship with the marks available should be Cape Town by new ones imported from Canada. In 1996 every
remembered at all times. conference centre in Asia replaced its video facilities with the
Remember, too, that, marks are probably awarded for neatness newest German equipment. By 2001, half the video’ facilities in
and presentation. all European hotels will have been updated.
Staff training is paramount at Luxor hotels. The largest hotels
Guidelines for Comprehension
have a training manager and smaller ones are grouped together
1. The importance of careful and thorough reading cannot be for training. All staff from senior managers to bar staff and
over-emphasised. Concentrate carefully and read the passage reception staff attend training sessions annually. The quality of
thrum once. Then read through the questions. On your their work is assessed at monthly meetings with their line
second reading of the passage, it should be possible to managers.
identify area-s to which certain questions refer.
From the very beginning, Luxor’s conference trade has devel-
2. Make a note in the margin of the passage as a cross-reference oped at great pace. In 1990 there were three conferences with
to the question number concerned. In some comprehension just 200 delegates, but by 1995 there was at least one conference
passages, questions are posed so that they work logically every week of the year and almost 10,000 people attended.
through the text, but this is not always the case. Subjects ranged from international trade to private meetings of
3. Answer the questions one by one, tackling them in the order national sports bodies. One of the strangest topics for a
in which they are printed if possible. conference was plankton farming. This was attended by 700
4. Use your own word rather than those used in the passage delegates from around the world - half the number who were
wherever’ possible. at the Chicago conference on whales in Lake Michigan in 1994.
5. Take particular note of the number of marks allocated to Luxor Hotels—and Conferences continues to grow and we look
each question. This gives you an idea of how much is forward to the future with confidence and anticipation.
required in your answer, and how much detail is necessary. ‘ Indicate whether these statements are true or false. Quote a few
6. Base the wording of your answer on the wording of the words from the text to support your answers.
question. This also helps to reinforce in your mind the a. There are 100 Luxor hotels.
question which is asked. Tr.ue/False
7. When you are required to give definitions of words or b. All meetings held at Luxor hotels are concerned which
phrases, be sure your answer is in the same part of speech. If business.
c. In 1995' 50 conferences took place. house as security was far mare tax efficient.’
True/False ‘The Bank Manager also. introduced me to a good accountant.
For me, this was the major cultural change, realizing that an
d. Every Luxor hotel has a training manager.
accountant need’s just be someone who. cranes in ‘and tats up
True/False the figures at the end of the year. Now we monitor the
e. 400/0 of Asian hotels have 250 rooms. situation constantly and can plan accordingly.
True/False _ Today, with a £112 million turnover and growing and all John’s
f. George. Meredith attended a conference in Luxor. loans. cleared, ITSA Goal’s own factory produces goals and
other soccer related equipment for schools, clubs and individu-
True/False
als throughout the UK and Europe. No question about it,
g. 700 delegates visited a place called Whales in Lake Michigan. John has scored with this cracking idea.
True/False . Reproduced courtesy of John Wilson, ITSA Goal and Midland
h. Half the carpets in China’s hotels are new. Bank pic
True/False a. How did John Wilson please his son? (2)
i. All Luxor hotels have at least 100 rooms. b. Explain ‘the huge potential for a portable goal’. (2)
True/False c. Explain ‘John’s initial plan to sell the goals via sports shops
j. Seventy per cent of the video. equipment in European hotels was dashed.’ (2)
will be changed in 2001. d. Why was John’s plan ‘dashed’? (2)
True/False e. How did John finance this project initially? (2)
2 Read this passage and then answer the questions which f. How did the Bank Manager help John? (4)
follow. Use your awn wards as far as possible. g. What happened when John took on a good accountant? (6)
To. please his san, John Wilson recreated the wood and pea h. What does Coca-Cola gain from the business? (4)
netting goal he had first made as a bay. He then saw the huge
i. What does John mean by a ‘win win win’ situation? (2)
potential far a portable goal that could be packed away in a bag
and used anywhere - beach, lawn or field. Explain the following phrases used in the passage:
Funding came from remortgaging his home in Sheffield and i. Cheaper, albeit inferior (2)
from a government grant. Using John’s patented design, a local ii. Other soccer related equipment (2) .
plastics company then produced goals that were strong, easy to. Total: 30/marks
assemble, safe, virtually impassible to. knack aver and yet light
Read the following passage, then answer the question which
enough far children to. carry and _rect. ‘ITSA Goal’ (Inter
follow.
Trading Sports Associates) was now in business.
The first half: John’s initial plan to. sell the goals via sports Aroma Therapy
shops was dashed when retailers told him there was no. market Aromatherapy involves the use of essential oils from plants.
far a product costing £125 when <;heaper, albeit inferior, These oils are very potent and to understand their benefits you
portable goals already existed. John turned to. the Football need to ‘know what they are, and how they work in
Association who. agreed to test the product, liked it and gave it aromatherapy.
official approval. Luck then took a hand. An essential oil is a delicate fluid which forms the fragrance of a
The FA was talking to. Coca-Cola about a Youth Development plant or flower. It can be stored in the stem, leaves, roots or
project far small team games far which John’s product was ideal. bark, depending on the plant. Although called oil, it doesn’t
John calls the resulting deal a win win win situation. actually resemble one in texture; bout is a highly scented and
extremely potent liquid.
‘Coca-Cola buys regularly from me in bulk at a discounted price.
I sell the goals - Coca-Cola “Big Red Bag” branded - to. schools The powerful aroma of essential oils can affect the way we feel.
and football clubs. I target through leaflets and other literature Experts say the reason for this is that their aroma is ‘trans-
and ward-of-mouth. Customers ‘benefit from the discounted ported’ from nerve cells in the nose to the part of the brain,
price. I return the money from the sales to. Coca-Cola who. also. which is concerned with emotion. Therefore, different oils are
get the brand name displayed nationwide.’ often used to help relieve anxiety and stress, .and to alleviate
depression.
The second half: John generously stresses the role that Midland
has played in helping him aver the years. John felt he lacked It has been preyed that essential oils have a great ability to penetrate
sound ‘financial advice. The Midland Branch Manager far the skin. Once absorbed into the blood stream, different ones
Ratherham met that need. ‘ seem to have an ‘affinity’ with different organs in the body.
‘He restructured the whale financial side of the company and Essential oils are regenerative as well. as antiseptic, and therefore
helped me with planning. Funding the business through my help the skin to heal faster. Lavender, for instance, is excellent
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
good for spots, pimples and insect bites. mineral in the system.
You I1eed to smell pure undiluted essential oils to appreciate Minerals are the poor relations of vitamins. Few of us know
their potency and they should never be used neat. Eucalyptus just which minerals we need (and which we should avoid), how
and peppermint, for instance, can irritate the skin if applied much we need and which foods they are found in. It gets more
undiluted. confusing, because if you eat too much of one mineral, such as
Essential oils are beneficial in various ways, so it is important to iron, it might cause you to absorb less of another such as zinc.
choose the right one. (Extract from Prima magazine, London) Even worse, minerals such as lead can be positively bad for you.
And excessive aluminum has been linked with Alzheimer’s
a. Explain the meanings of the following words, as used in the
disease.
passage:
So just what are these elusive substances? Minerals are metals
i. Potent
which occur naturally in the soil and are absorbed into the
ii. Aroma plants and animals we eat. If we don’t get enough of these
iii. Alleviate minerals, we feel run down. At worst, this can cause mineral
iv. Neat deficiency illnesses such as anaemia.
b. Where do the oils used in aromatherapy come from? Many of us could be low in certain minerals - especially if we eat
an unbalanced diet, or one high in refined food. Refining often
c. How does the aroma of these oils affect us?
means extracting the most wholesome part of the food. White
d. What would happen if eucalyptus was applied to the skin bread, for example, contains less minerals than whole meal
neat? bread because the wheat germ and bran are removed.
e. With which oil should insect bites be treated? - Although the cells in our body naturally contain minute amount
4 Acupuncture of minerals, they are used up as our cells become worn out. As
Acupuncture - needle-therapy - hails from China. According to the body is not very good at storing minerals (apart from a little
traditional Chinese medicine, good health depends on the calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and iron), it is vital we have
body’s ability to maintain a state of inner balance. In acupunc- enough in our daily diet.
ture the needles are used to restore balance and so cure illness. There is considerable controversy over whether or not we need to
Bodily harmony, or health, is said to be the result of a balancing take supplements. If you continually eat on the run and you
act between two opposing forces known as Yin and Yang. Yin know you’re not having a balanced diet, then a supplement can
represents soft, feminine qualities. Yang hard,. masculine only do you good. . But do you need a supplement if you’re
qualities. eating a balanced diet of mineral rich liver, meat, fish, dairy
Good health also relies on the smooth flow of the body’s life- produce, wholegrain, fruits and vegetables?
force or vital energy known as Chi. Emotional upsets, poor Traditional nutritionists say that a balanced diet will give you all
diet, overwork and stress can disturb the even flow of Chi and the nutrients you need. Others believe .that the use of pesti-
lead to illness. The vital Chi circulates along a network of cides which poison the soil, pollution and food processing
invisible channels called Meridians. mean that many of our foods no longer contain enough
Treatment involves stimulating various defined points along minerals.
the Meridians by planting needles in them. This strengthens Whatever the truth, taking a supplement will do you no harm -
Chi, and restores the equilibrium of Yin and Yang. These provided you take only the recommended dose. Taking a higher
points are known as acupuncture points. dosage can be positively harmful. Too much iron can prevent
Sometimes described as ‘acupuncture without the needles’, you absorbing zinc, and if you take excessive amounts of
acupressure uses light fingertip pressure. In Shiatsu - the magnesium, you’ll get a bout of diarrhea!
Japanese version- heavy pressure is involved too. (Extract from Prima magazine, London)
(Extract from Prima magazine, London) a. Explain the meaning of the following words, as used in the
a. Briefly explain the three forces on which the Chinese believe passage:
good health relies. i. Excruciating
b. What are Meridians? ii. Deficiency
c. Briefly explain how acupuncture works. iii. Extracting
d. How does acupressure differ from acupuncture? iv. Minute
5 Read the following passage, then answer the questions that v. Controversy
follow. b. What causes heat cramps?
Minerals - Are You Getting Enough? c. Briefly explain what minerals are.
The weather’s boiling, you’ve been running around, you’re in a d. Why do certain people not have enough minerals?
birof a lather and suddenly an excruciating cramp hits you. Such
e. Which minerals is the body good at storing?
‘heat cramps are caused by losing sodium when we perspire -
Reading Comprehension
Passages are taken from the humanities, social
sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences.
The passages are of varied lengths, but generally of
75 to 150 lines. The number of questions pertaining
to a particular passage could range from 3 to 5.
Strategies :
Go through the passage once to get the general idea of the
passage
Don't try to memorize details but instead pay attention to
the topic and the focus of the passage as you read.
For questions asking you to give the passage a title, look at
the first and last lines of the passage for clues.
Sample
Passage:
In his 1976 study of slavery in the US, Herbert Gutman, like Fogel, Engerman, And
Genovese, has rightly stressed the slaves‘ achievements. But unlike these
historians......(rest of the passage) ........In sum, Gutman's study is significant
because it offers a closely reasoned and original explanation of some of the
slaves' achievements, one that correctly emphasizes the resources that slaves
themselves possessed.
Which of the following is the most appropriate title for the passage, based on its
content?
A. The influence of Herbert Gutmanon Historians of Slavery in the US
B. Gutman's explanation of how slaves could maintain a cultural Heritage anddevelop a
communal consciousness
C. Slavery in the US: New Controversy about an old subject
D. The Black heritage of Folklore, Music, and Religious Expression: It's growing influence
E. The Black family and extended kinship structure: How they were important for the freed
slave
By the end of this lesson you will: The Body Shop and I have always been closely identified in the
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
public mind, undoubtedly because it is impossible to separate-the
• Hone your skills in understanding the passage given for comprehension.
company values from my own personal values and issues that I care
• Learn to answer correctly the questions given below the comprehension passionately about: social responsiveness, respect for human
passage. rights,- the environment and animal protection. But I must
point out that The Body Shop is not a one-woman show - it is
Student’s lets recall what we have studied in lesson 38. We will a global operation with-thousands of people working towards
now try to understand the passages below. common goals, engaged in their own livelihood, and franchi-
Read this passage and then answer the questions, which follow. sees running their own businesses.
Use your own words as far as possible. The Body Shop is always on my mind, in one way or another.
Whether ii be in a state of delight or frustration. The relation-
Profile of Anita Roddick ship I have with The Body Shop is one where I sometimes
I started The Body Shop in 1976 simply to create a livelihood
can’t tell the difference between stress and enthusiasm.
for myself - and my two daughters, while my husband,
Gordon, was trekking across the Americas. I had no training or Reproduced courtesy of The Body Shop International PLC
experience and my only business acumen was Gordon’s advice a. Why did Anita Roddick start The Body Shop? (2)
to take sales of £300 a week. Nobody talks of entrepreneurship b. What did she learn from her first shop? (4)
as survival, but that’s exactly what it is and what nurtures c. Anita Roddick says ‘I had a wealth of experiences to draw
creative thinking. Running that first shop taught me business on. Summarise these experiences. (6)
was not financial science; it’s about trading - buying and selling.
It’s about creating a product or service so good that people will d. Give two reasons to suggest why ‘green’ is important to The
pay for it. Now 22 years on, The Body Shop is a multi-local Body. Shop. (6)
business with 1650 stores in 47 countries, trading in 24 e. What does Anita Roddick mean when she says ‘It is
languages across 12 time zones. And impossible to
I haven’t a clue how we got here! separate the company values from my own personal values.’
It wasn’t only economic necessity that inspired the birth of The Try to
Body Shop. Women, when they want to earn a livelihood, explain these values in your own” words. (8)
usually earn it through what they are interested in or what they f. How would you sum up how Anita Roddick feels about
are knowledgeable about. I had a wealth of experience to draw on. I The Body
traveled, and I spent time in farming and fishing communities Shop? (4)
with pre-industrial peoples. My travels exposed me to body
Total: 30 marks
rituals of women from all over the world. Also the frugality
that ‘my mother exercised during the war years made me Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions
question retail conventions. Why waste a container when you which follow. Use your own words as far as possible.
can refill it. And why buy more of something than you can use? Reproduced courtesy of British Teleco1Jlmunications pic from
We behaved as she did in the Second World War - we re-used BT’s Annual Review and Summary Financial Statement 1998
everything, we refilled everything and we recycled allowed could.
The Community Opportunity
The foundation of The Body Shop’s environmental activism
Companies do not exist above and beyond the societies in
was born out of ideas like these.
which they operate; they are part of those societies. They are
I am aware that success is more than a good idealities timing ‘citizen companies’, with all the rights and responsibilities that
too. The Body Shop arrived just as Europe was going.’ green’. citizenship brings. BT is determined to make an imaginative
The Body Shop has always been recognizable by its green and ejective impact in all the communities in which we conduct
colour, the only colour that we could find to cover the damp, our business. Some 90°/0 of members believe that companies
mouldy walls of my first shop. I opened a second shop within have at least some ‘responsibility to the community. We are
six months, by which time Gordon was back in England. He proud to accept that responsibility.
came up with the idea for ‘self-financing’ more new stores,
BT is committed to helping people in need and at risk to
which sparked the growth of the franchise network through
improve their quality of life through our Community Partner-
which The Body Shop spread across the world. The company
ship Program. With a budget of around £15 million a year for
went public in 1984.
working with community causes, this program is the largest of
Since then I have been given a whole host of awards, some I its kind in the UK. But it is not just about good citizenship. We
understand, some I don’t, and a couple I think I deserve.
public say that the _contribution a company makes to the Read this passage carefully and then answer the questions which
community could affect their buying decisions. follow. Use your own words as far as possible.
This is why we are careful that all our involvement is reputation
Wake Upto Pollution
enhancing. After all, a good reputation means that governments
‘Don’t choke Britain’ is about persuading people to forget the
will want us in their countries, customers will want to buy from
car and wake up to better ways to get around. This local
us, shareholders will want to invest in us, skilled people will want
authority-led initiative aims’ to raise public awareness about the
to ‘join us, and our employees will be proud to work for us.
damage t_ our environment and health caused by increased
Our community partnership activities throughout the UK are traffic congestion and pollution.
themed around access and communication. We place particular
Embracing many local initiatives throughout June, the Don’t
emphasis on education and training, the improvement of
Choke Britain Campaign urges people out of their cars and
communication skills, support for people with disabilities, and
onto bikes, buses, trains and pavements.
the involvement of BT people.
Midland Mainline has a raft of travel options which comple-
In the last year we have put in place a programme to enable
ment the vision of a less car-orientated future. Its latest offer is
charities and voluntary groups to make more effective use of
Door-to-Door, where two, three or four people can catch an off-
communications technology. As part of this, we are collaborating
peak train to London and back from as little as £39 for the
with the charity One World On Line to offer training and support
group. A pre-booked taxi to and from the station_ is included
for small charities to help them run their own Internet sites.
in the price.
But it’s not just about encouraging people to talk and listen. BT
is bringing the benefits of the new technology it is developing ‘Until people are offered a cheaper and more convenient alterna-
to the people who need it most. For example, BT and the tive, such as Door-to-Door, they will continue to take the car -
Anchor Trust are developing remote health monitoring to help whether it’s air: the way to London or just to the station,’ says
older people continue to live independently. Midland Mailing’s -Product Manager, Chris Lyons.
More than 80 million people in the UK have some form of Perhaps the most ambitious scheme is the proposed develop-
hearing loss, and BT is helping to address their communica- ment of an East Midlands Parkway Railway Station, close to the
tions needs. All our public payphones are fitted with inductive M 1 motorway. As Chris Lyons says, ‘Midland Mainline are
couplers to help hearing aid users and we have ,been working looking hard at taking more responsibility for our customers’ real
with the Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID) to journey from their from door to their final destination, not just
improve deaf people’s access to arts venues around the country. the journey from station to. station. For example to make getting
to airports easier, we are looking to develop competitively priced
Type talk, the national telephone relay service run by the RNID
tickets that combine rail transport on Midland Mainline with
with finds from BT, enables 20,000 deaf or speech-impaired
other modes of transport. Combining the various travel options
customers to communicate via a text phone. BT will also be one
in one straightforward offer will make traveling to the airport by
of the corporate sponsors of the millennium celebrations, not
public transport much more attractive.’
just at the Millennium Dome in Greenwich but throughout the
country. We want to make a contribution that will touch Clearly,co-ordinated public transport is the way forward if a
everyone’s lives in the year 2000, so we will be launching ‘Mill-e- cleaner” greener Britain is to be achieved. Midland Mainline’s
Mail’ - a free electronic mail address service, which means that services take a
no-one need ever be out of touch. sizeable chunk of traffic off the Ml and that’s good news for
A comprehensive set of reports is also being published that the environment. But is it realistic to think that hardened car users
describe BT’s social, environmental and technological interac- can be coaxed away from their steering wheels?
tions with society. ‘No-one says it’s going to be easy,’ says Chris Lyons. ‘But if the
‘Through these reports, we aim to stimulate a wider debate into products are right and backed up with a reliable, good quality
how BT can contribute to an improved quality of life for all. service, their it’s possible.
a. What does the writer mean by ‘citizen companies’? (4) Using the car has its own problems, not least of which is traffic
jams, incessant road works and the prospect of heavyweight
b. Why does the company believe that it is ‘good business’? (4)
measures to curb driving such as motorway tolls, reduced access
c. Explain ‘we are careful that all our involvement is reputation- to town centres and higher taxation.
enhancing’. (4)
Constant improvements to Midland Mainline’s services such as
d. Describe BT’s work with charities and voluntary greater frequency, new products and better customer service are
organisations. (8) definitely persuading more and more people to use the train.
e. How is BT helping to celebrate the millennium? (4) Reproduced courtesy of Midland
f. Explain the following phrases as used in the passage: Mainline
i To improve their quality of life (2) a. What does the writer mean by ‘Don’t Choke Britain’? What
ii. Touch everyone’s lives (2) is the purpose of the ‘Don’t Choke Britain’ campaign? (4)
iii. Stimulate a wider debate (2)
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
options, which complement the vision of, a less car- people are the present answer to a solid, lasting and not
orientated future.’ (2) inconsiderable demand and it would be hard to see how they
c. Describe the Door-to-Door scheme. (4) could be superseded. Until some bright spark invents a machine
that can think as well as take messages, compose and produce
d. How can the planners make it easier for people to get to
individual letters, keep a vague employer to his schedule,
airports? (4)
remember everything from the year dot and make drinkable
e. What are the problems facing car users? (6) coffee, secretaries are the best alternative.
f. Explain the following phrases: So far so good. A job to be done and a female workforce who
i. Embracing many local initiatives (2) can do it. But why can we do it? I think for the very reason that
ii. Perhaps the most ambitious scheme (2) we are female. Because there will always be a large sphere of
work for which I believe women are temperamentally better
iii. Our customers’ real journey (2)
suited than men. Really effective secretarial work demands
iv. Coordinated public transport (2) imagination; putting yourself in another person’s place and
v. Hardened car users (2) thinking for them. And women have on the whole always’ been
Total: 30 marks better equipped to do this. A recent movement has initiated
heated debate about the comparative roles of the sexes, in the
9. The Personal Assistant to the Far East Division’s Chairman
wake of which have come opportunities hitherto unheard of
is to give the opening address at a secretarial seminar, and she
for women to prove themselves ‘equal to a man’s world. And
has submitted a draft of her speech to you. Read it carefully
some are clearly more than equal, revealing formidable ability,
and answer the questions which follow.
drive’ and stamina in many important areas. Certainly these
In the days of illiterate kings and barons, when most dealings prominent women will continue to focus attention on changing
were conducted verbally through intermediaries, the job of attitudes to their sex, but they will not after the fundamental
‘secretary’ conjured up a icture of someone employed by the rich nature of the ordinary, timeless female capacities and strengths.
and powerful as a private .ear, intent upon the concealment of The debate will go on, but it will not change the fact that
dirty linen. However, take heart. By the late Middle Ages the women by and large have more patience, attention to detail,
word ‘secretary’ had gained in status, referring to one whose self-control and imagination - that is, the qualities that make,
office it was to write for another, especially one who was inter alia, a good secretary.
employed to conduct correspondence, to keep records.
You might say ‘anyone who has mastered all this and still has
So the written word became the chief medium of communica- some energy left deserves to go places - upwards’. As I have
tion, and when the Victorians launched the newest ‘profession’ said before there certainly are women in very senior, stimulating
in the widest sense of the word; commerce - with all its and deeply rewarding jobs who started out as secretaries and
attendant record-keeping, and invented the Penny Post, the who made the transition with resounding success. But for the
business letter as we know it was born rest of us, the question must be asked ‘where are we going?’
From that point the phenomenon has been developed to a For the status quo is showing signs of exciting development.
high degree; indeed, doubtless far too many such letters are The much-heralded silicon chip technology is clearly’ here to stay
written now, causing literally tons of paperwork to be pro- and is surely removing all the drudgery which has been built
duced, processed and stored every working day. Hence secretaries into secretarial work -the filing, the checking, the tedious
have really come into their own and not just as transcribers of garnering; of information. But because such technology cannot
letters. For as busy decision-makers in all spheres, be they MPs, make decisions, the thinking part of the secretary’s job - the
surgeons, barristers, bankers, civil servants or business execu- administration, the coordination, the arranging and confirming,
tives, cannot write all their letters out by hand, equally they the liaison with people - must be thrown into relief, expanded
cannot make every single telephone call, book all their own and endowed with a new status. Result - streamlined version of
appointments or keep track of all their file copies. So they need an old classic: that position which is often at the very centre of
someone to bail them’ out. Someone who will give a reliable power, carries a sizeable amount of responsibility, calls for the
and sensible back-up service, will hold the strings, acting as a exercise of the highest level of expertise and represents really
base or nerve-centre in the hectic flow of events, and can be caring work, putting to good use the feminine capacity for being
trusted to handle all information passing before them in an a buffer state, a partner and full supporting cast. Surely there is
adult and serious fashion. In other words, guess who? quite a good job to be made of all that?
A ‘secretary’ can now signify anything from a thigh-booted, nail Well, here we are. We have been taught to take shorthand (and
polishing dolly who sits behind a typewriter thinking about her sometimes we can even read it back!) and to type. The same
boyfriend and waiting for 5 pm, to the high-flying and terrifying broad aims and much the same problems concern us all. How
paragon who can speak five languages_ take shorthand at 3 00 to create order out of chaos” how to raise or foster the public
wpm while piloting a VC10 and run a press reception for 1000 image of the company, how to bring the best out of the people
before breakfast. At its most accurate the word denotes those and the crises. And how about when we don’t really understand
who occupy the area between these two - that small army of the technicalities of the work we are dealing with - or no-one
quiet and efficient persons whose job it is to deal with their
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
spout that is put into consistency of the sap?
8. The hole. Afterward, the collected sap is transferred into A. Lines 6-8
tubes that are hooked up B. Line 9
9. To a tank kept in the sugar house. Then the sap goes C. Lines 10-11
through the boiling process.
D. Lines 14-15
10. Boiling enhances the flavor as well as adding color to the
This specific detail question directs you to the exact line and asks
sap. Once the sugar
for the first occurrence of the word. These types of questions
11. Content of the sap is about 65-66%, the sap is ready to be are relatively easy to locate. The correct response is (A). Pay
strained and marketed. attention that numbers are always in ascending order.
12. The maple syrup found in the supermarkets, however, is 5. All of the following is true about boiling EXCEPT
usually not pure and
A. It enhances the color.
13. Has other additives. The color of pure maple may range
B. It improves the flavor.
from golden honey to
C. It increases the sugar content.
14. Light brown. Between 35 to 50 gallons of sap are needed to
produce 1 gallon of D. It reduces the shelf life of the syrup.
15. Maple syrup. Also popular for strength and finish of its This specific detail question is negative. In order to answer it
wood, the sugar maple tree correctly, eliminate all the choices A, B, and C that are used in the
paragraph; therefore, (D) is the correct choice.
16. Has been put to use in furniture, interior woodwork,
flooring, and crates. 6. What can be inferred about the production of maple syrup?
1. What is the main purpose of the passage? A. It is rather simple, but time-consuming.
A. To examine the economic viability of a tree B. It is labor intensive.
B. To list a number of the major producers of maple syrup C. Its processing demands complicated equipment.
C. To provide information on how maple syrup is made D. The higher the volume, the less predictable the quality is.
D. To emphasize the use of the maple lumber in furniture and This question tests your inference ability. The answer to the
other products question is not directly stated in the passage. (A) is the best
answer. The production technique is quite straightforward, but
This is a general inference question. Most of the passage
it takes time. The producers have to depend on the natural flow
explains the technique used for making maple syrup. The best
of the sap.
answer is (C). The choice (A) is inaccurate. The choices (B) and
(D) are both specific details but not the main idea of the 7. In line 11, the phrase “to be strained” could best be replaced
passage. by
2. For which of the following words does the author provide a A. To be tried
definition? B. To be purified
A. The sugar maple (line 1) C. To be filtered
B. A tank (line 9) D. To be solidified
C. Additives (line 13) This is a language expression question. The question is based
on the closest synonym for the phrase “to be strained.” Even
D. Furniture (line 16)
though all the choices are grammatically sound, (C) is the most
This specific detail question tests your understanding of a logical choice according to the context.
definition. Only the sugar maple (line 1) is defined. The choices
8. In lines 13-14, what is the author’s purpose in mentioning
(B), (C), and (D), even though mentioned in the passage, are
“golden honey to light brown”?
not defined.
A. To provide a visual description
3. According to the passage, which of the following periods is
ideal for sapping? B. To make the reading more technical
A. Late January through April C. To illustrate the difference in quality
B. May to late July D. To persuade the reader to buy the product
C. August to early October This inference question asks the author’s purpose. The passage
is non-technical; therefore, the choice (B) is inaccurate. The
D. Early November to late December
choice (C ) is incorrect because the difference in quality is not a
This is a specific detail question. Based on the information in concern of the passage. The choice (D) is incorrect considering
the passage, sapping takes place at the end of the winter and in the author is not persuading the reader to buy any specific
early spring. Therefore, (A) is the best answer. product. Therefore, the best choice is (A).
9. The word “its” in line 15 refers to
B. Maple syrup something about its other uses. The choices (A), (C), and (D)
can not be inferred from the passage.
C. Color
The new test of TOEFL starting July 1995 will have:
D. The sugar maple tree
• At least two or three vocabulary or phrase questions. These
This is a language expression question as well. This type of
questions are based on the meaning of the vocabulary or the
question always gives you the line number, so it is easy to locate.
phrase within the context of the passage. Sometimes these
The correct answer is based on the antecedent, the noun to
questions test your understanding of the meaning of a
which the pronoun refers. Reading the sentence, we notice that
complicated sentence or an important comment or idea
“its” is a possessive pronoun which refers to the noun phrase,
expressed in a paragraph.
the sugar maple tree; therefore, (D) is the correct choice.
• More pronoun and antecedent questions.
10.The relationship between the wood and the maple tree is
similar to the relationship between • More detailed questions about the methods of development
in the passage. These questions test your understanding of
A. A vase and a bouquet of flowers
definitions and explanations presented for a term or a word
B. A painter and a canvas in the passage. Sometimes the specific lines on which the
C. A novel and a writer definitions and explanations appear are mentioned.
D. An inlet and a sea Effective Ways to Improve Your
This analogy question tests your understanding of the relation- Vocabulary
ship between the ideas. These types of questions need
• If you do not know the meaning of a given word, the prefix
attention. The analogy here is the relationship between a part
and a whole. The choice (A) shows the relationship between cut and suffix information can help you unlock its meaning.
flowers and a vase. The choice (B) shows the relationship Study the common prefix list to increase your knowledge of
between the performer and the tool. (C) is incorrect because it a word. To illustrate, “nourished” means having proper
indicates the relationship between a creator (writer) and the nourishment. “Malnourished “ means improper
work created (novel). (D) is the correct choice. The relationship nourishment. The prefix “mal” means bad or improper. In
between an inlet (a part) and a sea (a whole) is similar to the addition, learning common suffixes can be an extremely
relationship between the wood (a part) and the maple tree (a helpful tool for the acquisition of new words. For instance,
whole). suffixes can help you with the understanding of different
parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. If you
11. Which of the following would best describe the add the suffix “ment” to the verb develop, the new word
organization of the passage? development is a noun. Further, if you decide to add the
A. A persuasive argument in favor of the maple syrup industry suffix “al” to the noun development, the new word
is advanced. developmental is an adjective.
B. A comparison and contrast between pure and commercial • The best way to increase your vocabulary is to study 15-20
maple syrup is made. new words a day. Write the new word and its pronunciation
C. A cause and effect analysis of the maple syrup production is on the front of a three by five inch index card; on the back,
presented. write the definition of the word and the sentence in which
D. A step-by-step explanation of how maple syrup is made is you saw the word. Keep reviewing your index card pile and
given. adding new vocabulary. Before long, you will have a rich
assortment of words.
This question tests your understanding of how the author
organizes the information in the passage. Most of the passage How to Tackle the Vocabulary
explains a step-by-step process of how maple syrup is made; • Be careful with word choice that has the prefix clue, which can
thus, the correct choice is (D). The author does not attempt to be a distractor rather than the correct response. The prefix
convince the reader; consequently, the choice (A) is not true. The “ex” means “out,” but the word “extension “ is not a
passage neither expresses the causes of the maple syrup synonym for “exterior.”
production nor lists the similarities between pure and commer- The exterior of modern churches lacks typical Gothic architec-
cial maple syrup; therefore, the choices (B) and (C) are incorrect. tural features.
12. The following paragraph will probably discuss A. Appearance
A. Ways to eradicate diseases attacking maple trees B. Outside
B. Other uses of the sugar maple tree C. Extension
C. Marketing plans for import distribution D. Facade
D. The diversity of the ecosystem The correct choice is (B).
This is an inference question. Based on the conclusion we can • Do not study unusual or technical words related to specific
draw from the passage, the correct choice is (B). Since the sugar fields of study such as chemistry, biology, geology, and
maple tree’s popularity for strength and finish of its wood is
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
section includes only general words that have synonyms. preposition, it is not the correct answer. Associated with is the
Definitions of minerals, animals, planets, chemicals, plants, appropriate synonym for related to.
etc. are not tested. Other types of words labeled as Slang, • If you do not know the answer, guess. You will not lose any
Informal, Nonstandard, Rare, Vulgar, Poetic, and Archaic are points for guessing.
not tested.
Helpful Testing Hints
• Use context clue to guess the meaning of the words or
phrases tested in the reading comprehension passages.
• From the four answer choices given, choose the word or the
phrase that is closest in meaning, or is a synonym, to the
vocabulary or the phrase. Some of the choices might have
similar meanings, but only one will be the most appropriate
meaning within the context.
• The vocabulary items vary in degree of difficulty. While some
may be easy, others may be semi-difficult or difficult. Study
all three types of vocabulary.
• Nouns and adjectives as well as verbs and adverbs are tested
in the vocabulary section. The ratio varies from test to test.
Some vocabulary items are two-or three-word phrasal (for
example, get into , look over , count on ).
• The words tested on TOEFL are similar to those used in
college-level textbooks.
• If you do not know the meaning of a word or a phrase, read
the entire sentence because the sentence may provide
additional clues. The sentences used before or after the
sentence in which the word or phrase appears often supply
clues to the meaning of the word or phrase. The following
example shows this point.
Although mint hybrids are infertile, true mints can be propa-
gated from seeds.
A. Reproduced
B. Selected
C. Planted
D. Derived
Pay attention to the context clue and construction of this
sentence. The information in the dependent clause is in contrast
with the information in the independent clause. The word
infertile means barren, something that can not reproduce,
while the word propagate means reproduce; therefore, the
correct response is (A).
• DO NOT be tricked into choosing the correct answer on the
basis of its grammatical form. All the possible answers have
the same grammatical form. For instance, if the vocabulary is
a phrasal, all the answers will be phrasal, but the correct
answer does not necessarily have the same preposition. Look
at the example.
Coral, a gemstone, is related to living plants.
A. Compatible with
B. Partial to
C. Accompanied by
D. Associated with
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
view obviously affects our communication with people who, impolite on the one hand or being shy on the other.
squat, for what we see when we communicate is a part of the Touching and particularly handshaking differences are important
message. But how correct is this view? Actually, squatting is a to understand in cross-cultural communication. This is made
very normal body position. Our children squat quite natu-rally difficult by other cultures adopting West-ern greetings. How-
until their elders teach them to sit. Who is to say that sitting is ever, some cultures, like the Chinese, do not like much
more advanced or better? touching. They will give a handshake you might perceive as
For another example, people from our culture who visit certain weak. Other cultures that like touch-ing will give you greetings
Asian countries are likely to view the fast, short steps taken by ranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. If you
the inhabitants as peculiar or funny and to view our longer can avoid judging others from different cultures on their
strides as nominal. And when people from our culture, see the greeting based on your standards for others like you, you can
inhabi-tants of these countries bow on meeting and leaving, seize the opportunity to access the cultural style of another.
each other, they are likely to interpret the bowing as a sign of Here are some types of handshakes by culture.
subservience or weakness.
Similarly, people from our Culture Handshakes
Americans Firm
culture see standing up as the
Germans Brusque, firm, repeated upon arrival and departure
appropriate thing to do on
French Light, quick, not offered to superiors, repeated upon arrival and departure
certain occasions (as when British Soft
someone enters the room), Hispanics Moderate grasp, repeated frequently
whereas people from some Latin Americans Firm, long-lasting
other cultures do not. Middle Easterners Gentle, repeated 'frequently'
As you know, movements of Asians Gentle; for some, shaking hands is unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an
certain body parts (especially exception to this is the Korean, who generally has a firm handshake)
the hands) are a vital form of
human communication. Some of these movements have no In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations.
definite meaning even within a culture. But some have clear But in some other cultures (notably African cultures), a smile is
meanings, and these meanings may differ by culture. To us an regarded as a sign of weakness in’ cer-tain situations. (Such as
up and down movement of the head means yes and a side-to- ‘bargaining). Receiving a gift or toughing with the left hand is a
side movement of the head means no. These movements may serious breach of etiquette among Muslims, for they view the
mean nothing at all or some-thing quite different to people left hand as unclean. We attach no such meaning to the left
from cultures in which thrusting the head forward, rais-ing the hand. And so it is with other body movement searching the
eyebrows, jerking the head to one side, or lifting the chin are eyebrows, positioning the fingers, raising the arms, and many
used to convey similar meanings. more. All cultures use body movements in communicating, but
In addition, the two-fingered “victory” sign is as clear to us as in different ways.
any of our hand ges-tures. To an Australian, whose culture is Views and Practices Concerning Factors
not vastly different from ours, the sign has a most vulgar of Human Relationship
meaning. The “OK” sign is terribly rude and insulting in such Probably causing even more miscommunication than differ-
diverse places as Russia, Germany, and Brazil. In Japan, a similar ences in body positions and movements are the different
sign represents money. If a busi-nessperson completing a attitudes of different cultures toward various factors of human
contract gave this sign, the Japanese might think they needed to relationships. For illustrative purposes, we will review seven
give more money, perhaps even a bribe. Even the widely used major factors: time, space, odors, frankness, and intimacy of
“thumbs up” sign for “things are going well” could get you relationships, values, and expression of emotions.
into trouble in countries from Nigeria to Australia. In our
Time. In our culture, people tend to regard time as something
culture a side-by-side hand movement can ‘be interpreted to
that must be planned for the most efficient use. They strive to
mean “hello.” The same movement can be interpreted to mean
meet deadlines, to be punctual, to conduct business quickly, and
“go away” or “no” in India. And so it is with many of our
to work on a schedule.
other body movements. They differ widely, even within
cultures. In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East and
some parts of Asia), people view time in a more relaxed way.
The meanings that movements of our eyes convey also vary by
They see planning as unwise and unneces-sary. Being late to a
culture. In North America, we are taught not to look over the
meeting, a social function, or such is of little consequence to
heads of our audience but to maintain eye contact in giving
them. In fact, some of them hold the view that important
formal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to look
people should be late to, show that they are busy. In business
at others but not to stare. In Indonesia, cooking directly at
negotiations, the people in these cultures move at a deliber-ately
people, especially those in higher positions and older, is
slow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting to the main
considered to be disrespectful. On the other hand, our practices
issue. It is easy to see how such different views of time can
of eye contact are less rigorous than those of the British and
cause people from different cultures to have serious miscom-
Germans. Un-less one understands these cultural differences,
munication problems.
attitudes toward space. Even people from the same culture may vary by culture. The dominant view in Latin America, for
have different space preferences. North Americans tend to prefer example, is a strong boss with weak subordinates doing as the
about two feet or so of distance between them-selves and those boss directs. In sharp contrast is the somewhat democratic work
with whom they speak. But in some cultures (some Arabian arrange-ment of the Japanese in which much of the decision-
and South American cultures), people stand closer to each other; making is by consensus. Most in our culture view as appropriate
not following this practice is considered impolite and bad an order between these extremes. These widely differ-ing
etiquette. For another example, North American view personal practices have led to major communication problems in joint
space as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus, business ventures in-volving ‘people from these cultures.
they stand in line and wait their turn. People from some other The role of women varies widely by culture. In North America,
cultures view space as belonging to all. Thus, they jostle, for we continue to move toward a generally recognized goal of
space when boarding trains, standing at ticket counters, equality. In many Islamic cultures, the role of women is quite
shopping in stores, and such. In encounters between people different. To many in our culture, the practices of the people of
whose cultures have such different, attitudes toward space, these other cultures suggest severe restriction of human rights.
actions are likely to be misinterpreted. In the view of the peo-ple of these cultures, their practices are in
Odors. People from different ‘cultures may have deferent accord with their religious convictions. They see us as being the
attitudes toward body odors. To illustrate, Americans work ones out of step.
hard to neutralize body odors or cover them up and view those Values. Also differing by culture is our values-how we evaluate
with body odors as dirty and unsanitary. On the other hand, in the critical mat-ters in life. Americans, for example, have been
some Asian cultures people view body odors not as something indoctrinated with the Protestant work ethic. It is the belief that
to be hidden but as something that friends should experience. if one puts hard work ahead of pleasure, success will follow.
Some of the people from these cultures believe that it is an act The product of this thinking is an emphasis on planning,
of friendship to “breathe the breath” of the person ‘with working efficiently, and max-imizing production. Of course,
whom they converse and to feel their presence by smelling. not all of us subscribe to this ethic, but it is a strong force in the
Clearly, encounters between people with such widely differing thinking of many in our culture. The prevailing view in some
attitudes could lead to serious miscommunication. other cul-tures is quite different. In. some, the major concern is
Frankness. North Americans tend to be relatively frank or for spiritual and human well being. The view of work is relaxed,
explicit in their relation-ships with others, quickly getting to the and productivity is, at best, a secondary concern.
point and perhaps being blunt and sharp doing, so. Asians Views about the relationships of employers and employees also
tend to be far more reticent or implicit and sometimes go to may differ by cul-ture. North American workers expect to
great lengths to save face or not to offend. Americans belong to change companies in their career a number of times; and they
a high-context culture, a Cul-ture that explicitly shares all expect companies to fire them from time to time. Employees
relevant background information in our communication. expect to move freely from job to job, and they expect employ-
Asians, on the other hand, belong to a low-context culture, ers to hire and fire as their needs change. Expectations are quite
extracting limit background information and thus communicat- different in some other cultures. In Japan, for example,
ing more implicitly. Thus, Asians may Appear evasive, employment tends to be for a lifetime. The workplace is viewed
roundabout, and indecisive to North Americans; and, North much like a family, with loyalty expected from employees and
Americans may appear harsh, impolite, and aggressive to employer. Such differences have caused misunderstandings in
Asians. Telephone customs may be an exception, especially American-Japanese joint ventures.
among the Chinese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptly
How employees view authority is yet another question that
after their purpose has been accomplished. North Americans,
cultures view differ-ently. We North Americans generally accept
on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and clearly
authority, yet we fiercely maintain the rights of tl1e individual.
prepare the listener for the end of the call.
In many Third World cultures, workers accept a subservient role
Intimacy of Relationships. In many cultures, strict social passively. Autocratic rule is expected—even wanted.
classes exist, and class status determines how intimately people
Expression of Emotions. From culture to culture, differences
are addressed and treated in communication. For this reason, a
in social behavior de-velop. To illustrate, in some Asian cultures
person from such a culture might quiz a person from another
public displays of affection are strongly frowned upon-in fact,
culture to determine that persons class status. Questions
considered crude and offensive. Westerners, on the other hand,
concerning occupation, income, title, and such might be asked.
accept at least a moderate display of affection., To Westerners,
People from cultures that stress human equality are apt to take
laughter is a sponta-neous display of pleasure, but in some
offense at such questioning about the notion of class status.
cultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can be a controlled
This difference in at-titude toward class status also is illustrated
behavior-to be used in certain social situations. Even such
by differences in the familiarity of address. Some Americans are
emotional displays as sorrow are influenced by culture. In some
quick to establish a first-name basis. This practice is offensive to
Middle Eastern cultures, sorrow is expressed with loud,
people from some other cultures, notably the English and the
seemingly uncontrolled wailing. In similar situations, West-
Germans, who expect such intimate address only from long-
erners typically respond with subdued and controlled emotions.
standing acquaintances.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Mediterranean\cul-tures display as they communicate. And we The people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Because
have seen the more subdued communica-tion of others- few of us can learn more than one or two other languages well,
notably northern Europeans. The first group tends to see the problems of miscommunication are bound to occur in
second as disinterested and lacking in friendliness. The second international communication.
sees the first as excitable, emo-tional, and perhaps even
Lack of Language Equivalency
unstable.
Unfortunately, wide differences among languages make precisely
Many more such practices exist. Some cultures combine equivalent transla-tions difficult. One reason for such differences
business and social plea sure; others do not. Some expect to is that languages are based on the con-cepts, experiences, views,
engage in aggressive bargaining in business transactions; others and such of the cultures that developed them. And different
prefer. Straightforward dealings. -Some talk loudly and. with cultures have different concepts, experiences, views, and such.
emotion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner. For el-ample, we think of a florist as someone who sells
Some communicate with emphasis on economy of expression; flowers and related items in a store. In some cultures, however,
others communicate with an abundance of verbiage. street vendors, mainly women and children, sell flowers.
The comparisons could-go on and on for there are countless Obviously, our florist does not have a precise equivalent in/the
differences-in cultures. But it is not necessary to review them all. language of such cultures.
What is important is that we recognize their existence, that we Similarly, our supermarket has no equivalent in some languages.
look for them, and that we understand them. We should guard The French have no word to distinguish between house and
against ethnocentrism, the use of cultural practices as standards home, mind and brain, and man and gentleman. The Spa.T1ish
for determining mean-ing in cross-cultural communication. have no word to distinguish between a chairman and a president,
Effects on Business Communication while Italians have no word for wishful thinking: And Russians
Techniques have no words for efficiency, chal-lenge and having fun. However,
The foregoing examples illustrate only a few of the numerous Italians have nearly 500 words {or types of pasta. And so it is
differences that exist among cultures. Books have been written with words for many other objects, actions, concepts, and such
on the subject. Our objective here is only to establish the point (for example, roundup, interview, strike, tough, monopoly,
that the differences among cultures affect communication domestic feminine, responsible, aloof).
between people of different cultures. Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is the
The communication techniques presented in this book should grammatical and syntactic differences among languages. Some
be modified to fit the culture involved. Keep in mind that this languages (Urdu, for example) have no gerunds, and some have
book was written for our culture. Much of what we say does no adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages deal with verb
not apply to other cultures. Especially is this the case with our mood, voice, and tense in the same way. The obvious result is
cov-erage of the basic message situations-those concerning that even the best trans-lators often cannot find literal equiva-
directness and indirectness. People in Asian cultures, for lents between languages.
example, generally favor a somewhat indirect approach for Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem of
messages we would treat directly. They begin with an identifica- multiple word meanings. Like English, other languages have
tion of context- that is, a description of the situation the more than one meaning for many words. Think, for example,
message concerns. They use what appears to us as exaggerated of our numerous meanings for the simple word run (to move
politeness and slowness in moving the message. In fact, some fast, Jo compete for office, a score in baseball, a break in a
of our direct messages would be regarded as rude by people in stocking, a fading of colors, and many more). Or consider the
these cultures.? multiple meanings of such words as fast, cat, trip, gross, ring,
Our persuasive appeals may be rejected in India, where views of and make. The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000
an older, more highly developed morality lead to thinking words to define what. Unless one knows a language well, it is
different from ours.8 Even the British, whose culture we think difficult to, know which of the meanings is intended.
of as resembling our own, have message practices that differ Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used in
from ours. They especially differ in the treatment of negative a way their dic-tionary translations and grammatical structures
situations. They prefer an approach that we would regard as do not explain. Those within the cul-ture understand these
blunt and calloused. They would regard our goodwill strategies expressions; those outside may not. For example, we might say,
as insincere and evasive. “Business couldn’t be better,” meaning business is very good.
And so it is with the many other cultures of the world. Our One from another culture might understand the sentence to
practices just do not fit into them. What to do about this mean, “Business is bad” (impossible to im-prove). Or we
problem? You have no choice but to become a stu-dent of might say, “We could never be too nice to our customers,”
culture. You must learn the cultures of those with whom you meaning try as we may, we couldn’t be overly nice. To one from
communicate. Don’t expect them to understand your culture, another culture, the sentence might mean “We cannot be nice to
although many of them do. With your recipient’s culture in our customers.”
mind, you then modify your communication accordingly. Similarly, like-meaning words can be used in different ways in
different cultures. One example is the simple word yes, a word
Japanese yes, can often be understood by Americans and British the same verb is com-bined with other words: break away, break
as their English yes. But the Chinese yes often means ‘I am out, break in, break down. Dictionaries are of little help to
listening.’ Or it may be understood in English as the opposite nonnative who are seeking the meanings of these word
of yes. For example, when an American says to a Chinese combinations.
counterpart, ‘I see you don’t agree with this clause,’ the Chinese There are many two-word verbs-so many, in fact, that a special
will usu-ally reply, ‘Yes’ meaning a polite agreement with the dictionary of them has been compiled. Following are a, few of
negative question: ‘Yes, you are right. I do not agree with the them arranged by the more common words that combine with
clause. the verbs:
Overcoming such language problems is difficult. The best way, Verb Plus “Away" . Verb Plus “ln"
of course, is to know more than one language well, but the give away cash in
competence required is beyond the reach of most of us. Thus, keep away cave in
your best course is first to be aware that translation ‘problems Lay away lose in
exist and then to ask questions-to probe-to determine what the pass away dig in
other person understands. put away give in
For very important oral messages, documents, or such, you throw away run in
might consider using a procedure called back translating. This take in
throw in
procedure involves using two translators, one with first-
language skills in one of the languages involved and one with
Verb Plus “Back" Verb Plus “Off”
first-language skills in the other “language. The first translator cut back break off
translates the message into his or her language, and the second feed back brush off
translator then translates the message back into the original. If keep back buy off
the translations are good, the second translation matches the play back check off
original. read back clear off
Difficulties in Using English take back cool off
turn back finish off
Fortunately for us, English is the primary language of interna-
win back let off
tional business. This is - not to say that other languages are not
mark off
used in international business, for they are. When business verb plus “down “ payoff
executives from different countries have a common language, calm down run off
what-ever it may be, they are likely to use it. For example, an die down send off
executive from Iraq and an executive from Saudi Arabia would hand down show off
communicate with each other in Arabic, for Ara-bic is their keep down shut off
common language. For the same reason, an executive from let down sound off
Venezuela would use Spanish in dealing with an executive from lie down start off
Mexico. However, when execu-tives have no common language, mark down take off
they are likely to use English. The members of the European pin down write off
Free Trade Association conduct all their business in English play down
even though not one of them is a native English speaker. in the put down verb Plus “out”
words of one international authority, “English has emerged as run down blow out
the lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way that shut down
sit down
Greek did in the ancient world of the West and China did in the
wear down
East.
Although we can take comfort from knowing that ours is the verb plus “out” verb plus “up”
primary language of international business, we must keep in clean out blow up
mind that it is not the primary language of many of the who clear out build up
use it. Since many of these users have had to learn English as a crowd out call up
second language, they are likely to use it less fluently than we cut out cover up
and to experience prob-lems in understanding us. Some of die out dig up
their more troublesome problems are reviewed in the following dry out end up
pages. even out fill up
figure out get up
Two-Word Verbs. One of the most difficult problems to fill out hang up
nonnative speakers of Eng-lish involves the use of two-word find out hold up
verbs. By two-word verbs we mean a wording con-sisting of (1) a give out keep up
verb and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb, hold out look up
produces a meaning that the verb alone does not have. For hold out mix up
example, take the verb break and the word up. When combined, lose out pick up
they have a meaning quite different from the meanings the pull out save up
rule out shake up
© Copy Right: Rai University
260 11.234
verb plus “out” verb plus “up” Culturally Derived Words. Words derived from our culture
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
pull out save up also present problems. The most apparent are the slang
rule out shake up expressions that continually come into and go out of use.
tire out shut up Some slang expressions catch on and find a place in our
wear out slow up dictionaries (brunch, hobo, blurb, bogus). But most are with us
work out split up for a little while and then are gone. Exam-ples of such short-
wrap up lived slang expressions are the “twenty-three skiddoo” ‘and “oh
you kid” of the 1920s and the ritzy, scram, natch, lousy, soused,
, in the groove, and tops of following decades. More recent
verb plus “over” verb Plus Miscellaneous
ones that are probably destined for the same fate include nerd,
check over words
do over bring about wimp, earth pig, pig out, couch potato, squid, airhead, and cool.
hold over catch on Perhaps you are not aware of just how much slap we use.
pass over get across Most slang words are not in dictionaries or on the word lists
put over pass on that non-English-speaking people study to learn English. The
run over put across obvious conclusion is that you should not use slang in cross-
stop over put forth cultural communication.
take over roll over
Similar to and in fact overlapping slang are the words and
talk over set forth
think over expressions that we de-rive from our various activities-sports,
win over social affairs; work, and the like. Sports es-pecially have contrib-
uted such words, many of which are so widely used that they
are part of our everyday vocabulary. From football we have
Of course, nonnative studying English learn some of these kickoff, goal-line stand, and over the top. Baseball has given us
word combinations, for they are part of the English language. out in left field, strike out, touch base, off base, right off the
But many of them are not covered in language textbooks or bat, a steal, squeeze play, balk, and go to bat for. From boxing
listed in dictionaries. It is apparent that we should use these we have knockout, down for the count, below the belt, answer
word com-binations sparingly when communicating- with the bell, and on the ropes. From other: sports and from sports
nonnative speakers of English. When-ever possible, we should in general we have jock,’ ace, par, stymie, from scratch, ballpark
substitute for them words that appear in standard dictionaries. figure, and get the ball rolling.
Following are some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:
Similar to these words and expressions are words and expres-
Two-Word Verbs Suggested Substitutes sions developed within our culture (colloquialisms). Some of
give up surrender these have similar meanings in other cultures, but most are
speed up, hurry up accelerate difficult for non-natives to understand. Following are some
go on, keep on continue examples
put off defer
Head for home in the groove
take off depart, remove
come down descend Have an itching palm nuts (crazy)
go in, come in, get in enter Grasp at straws grand(thousand0
Flat footed circle the wagons
Two-Word Verbs Suggested Substitutes
go out, come out, get out exit, leave On the beam shoot from the hip
blow up explode Out to pasture tuckered out
think up imagine Sitting duck gumption
figure out solve
take out, take away go back, get back, be back Crying In his beer tote (carry)
remove return In orbit in a rut
A honey pump priming
Additional problems result from the fact that some two-word A flop make heads or tails of it
verbs have noun and adjective forms. These also tend to Dope (crazy) tearjerker
confuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such nouns Hood (gangster) countdown
are breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, hookup, show-off, and sit-in. Up the creek without a paddle shortcut
Exam-ples of such adjectives are going away (a going-away gift), A fish out of water educated guess
cover-up (cover-up tac-tjcs), cleanup (cleanup work), and turning-
o f f (turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjectives A chicken with its head cut off
of this kind are commonly used and appear in standard diction- If you are like most of us, many of these words and expres-
aries (words such as hookup, feedback, breakthrough, lookout, and sions are apart of your vocabulary. You use them in your
takeover). In writ-ing to nonnative readers, you will need to use everyday communicating, which is all right. They are colorful,
sparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries. and they can communicate clearly to those who understand
them, however, so you will need, to eliminate such words and good people, and generally in understanding and satisfying
expressions in communicating with them. You will need to use the needs
words that are clearly defined in the dictionaries that these 2. Culture may be defined as “the way of life of a group of
people are likely to use in translating your message. Following people.”
are some examples:
• Cultures differ.
Not This But This • People tend to view the
We were caught flat-footed. We were surprised.
He frequently shoots from the' hip. He -frequently acts before he thinks.
practices of their culture as
We would be up the creek without a paddle. We would be in a helpless situation. right and those of there
They couldn’t make heads or tails-of the report. They couldn't understand the report. cultures as peculiar or
The sales campaign was a flop. The sales campaign was a failure. wrong.
'I'll touch base with you on this problem august. Take, I'll talk with you about this problem in August.
an educated guess op this question. Answer this section to the, best of your knowledge 3. Variations in how people
Your sales report put us in orbit Your sales report pleased us very much. of different cultures use
We’ will wind down manufacturing operations in We will end manufacturing operations-in November. body positions and body
November Your prediction was correct movements is a cause of
Your prediction was right on the beam.
miscommunication.
• How people walk, gesture
A General Suggestion For smile, and such varies
Communicating Acr’os’s Cultures from culture to culture.
In addition to the specific suggestions for improving your • When people from different cultures attempt to
communication in English with nonnative English speakers, communicate, each may not understand the other’s body
you should follow one general suggestion: write or talk simply movements.
and dearly. Talk slowly-and enunciate each word. Remember
4. People in different cultures differ in their ways of relating to
that because most nonnative speakers learned English in
people.
school, they are acquainted mainly with primary dictionary
meanings and are not likely to understand slang words or • Specifically, they differ in their practices and thinking
shades of difference in the meanings we give words. They will concerning time, space, odors, frankness, relationships,
understand you better if you avoid these pitfalls. In .the words values, and social behavior.
of two highly regarded scholars in the field you should “educate • We should not use our culture’s practices as standards for
yourself in the use of Simplified English. determining meaning
You also will communicate better if you carefully word your • Instead, we should try to understand the other culture.
questions. Be she your questions are not double questions. 5. Language equivalency problems are another major cause of
Avoid “Do you want to go to dinner now or wait until after the miscommunication in cross – cultural communication.
rush hour is over?” Also avoid the yes/no question that some • About 3,000 languages are used on earth.
cul-tures may have difficulty answering directly. Use more open-
• They differ greatly in grammer and syntax.
ended questions such as “When would you like to go to
dinner?’” Also, avoid negative questions such “Aren’t you going • Like English, most have words with multiple meanings.
to dinner?” In some cultures a yes response confirms whether • As a result, equivalency in translation is difficult.
the questioner is correct; in other cultures the response is 6. Overcoming the language equivalency problems involves
directed toward the question being asked. hard and tedious work.
Finally, try to check and clarify your communication through • The best advice is to master the language of the nonnative
continuous confirmation. Summarizing in writing also is a English speakers with whom you communicate.
good idea, and today’s technology enables parties to do this on
• Also, you should be aware of the problems caused by
the spot. It allows you to be certain you have conveyed your
message and received theirs accurately. Even in Britain, a culture language differences.
similar to ours, similar words can have vastly different mean- • Ask questions carefully to make sure you are understood.
ings. For example, we use a billion to mean 1,000,000,000 • For important communications, consider back translation –
whereas the British use it to mean 1,000,0000,000,000. Continu- the technique of the second to translate back to the original.
ally checking for meaning and using written summaries can help • Check the accuracy of the communication with written
ensure the accuracy of the communication process. summaries.
Summary By Chpater Objectives
1. Businesses are becoming increasingly global in their
operations.
• Being able to communicate across cultures is necessary
in these operations.
Student’s this lesson will equip you to come home with a job in hand after an interview.
In interviews what you have learnt so far is secondary, what matters is how prepared are
you for the interview and finally the job.
It is not possible to guarantee questions in any interview, but you should consider asking
yourself the following questions so that you will be fully prepared during the interview.
You are best placed to know your own shortcomings and where you might fall below the
expected standard, so it is important to anticipate and practice the answers. Focus on your
strengths and what skills you can bring to a position. The interview is a prime opportunity
for you to sell yourself to the interviewer.
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:
The questions most typically asked at interviews have been grouped into the following
topic areas (but are seldom as structured during the interview process). The questions
below are focused towards a European market; please note that the style and types of
questions do vary from one country to another. This list is not exhaustive but should
provide food for thought. You should prepare for questions about: your background, your
aspirations, the potential employer and the position, your personality and your interests.
Potential Employer
• Why did you apply to us?
• Where did you hear about the position?
• What do you know about our organization?
• Do you know anyone who works for us?
• What interests you about the position?
• What do you think we have to offer you as a company?
Career Ambitions
• What are your long/short term goals?
• Tell me about your career aspirations.
• What are you looking for in a career?
• Do you have plans to gain further qualifications?
• Where do you see yourself in 2/5 years time?
• Describe your ideal employer.
Personality
• Describe yourself - strengths/weaknesses?
• How would your friends describe you?
• What motivates you?
• What are your strengths/weaknesses?
• How do you spend your spare time?
Problem/Sticky Questions
• What salary or benefits are you looking for ? (We can give you advice regarding
how to deal with this question prior to your interview).
• Why are you changing your career?
• Explain the gap in your work history.
• Given your career plans, how long do you expect to stay with our organization?
• Can we contact your current employer for references ? (this question is usually
only asked after an offer letter has been sent - nevertheless be prepared).
REMEMBER
Tricky questions
You maybe asked about your major personal strengths. Select something, which is
relevant, such as: getting on well with other people, always completing a job properly,
etc. If asked about your weak points, choose one that still shows you in a positive light,
e.g. ‘I take on too much work’. Just before the interview, you may be asked to take a
series of tests. Prepare yourself by working through a book of these tests now. If you
take a personality test, give honest answers, not ones that you think will improve your
score. In any test, work quickly but without rushing – quality is more important than
quantity!
Communication Communication
• A circle network
Communication takes place within e.g. between people
networks. These are some of the
at same level
types of network:
• chain
• circle
• wheel
• all-channel
Communication Communication
• A chain network • A wheel network
e.g formal contact e.g. sales teams report to head
office
Communication Failure
No matter what medium of
communication is used, it can fail if:
• jargon is used inappropriately
• badly written messages are transmitted
• the message goes to the wrong receiver
• information overload takes place
• the communication channel breaks
down
Communication Failure
In the UK firms wanting to move
into e-commerce can be:
• prevented due to slow connection
speeds
• affected by lack of broadband
services
against any government department for realizing its dues, even The three cardinal principles of communication for any, good
if it means delay or loss. business organization is
Beyond Caveat Emptor a. Adequacy
Value driven business organizations transcend the ‘Caveat b. Transparency
Emptor’ or the ‘buyer beware’ attitude. The attempt is not to c. Consistency.
outwit the customer and make a fast buck. The attitude is not
Adequacy implies that all relevant information is made available
one of carrying to any customer inimical information in fine
by the business and its management to its employees, custom-
print at some corner hoping that it would miss his attention.
ers, investors or shareholders as the case may be to facilitate a
Enlightened business managers do realize that ‘you missed the
fair assessment of the state of affairs.
fine print, say you suffer’ days are over. Good customers are
hard to come by and should be given fair treatment. The sense Transparency relates to the degree of openness in the sense that
of fair play, it is realized, is an important value that should no attempt is made to cover up or hoodwink the shareholders.
permeate communication and customer relations. Consistency in a sense reflects the core principles, statements
Business Legal Compliance and performance-related claims, which the company stands by
Businesses have learnt hard way that their relationship with the over a period of time. It means that there is no attempt to
customer extends beyond the legal aspect. Legal requirements contradict the, statements and claims made by senior manage-
have to be met, particularly when they are favoring the cus- ment functionaries and that they speak on the same wavelength.
tomer. Taking recourse to legal remedies and carrying on The Rights of Customers
running legal battles against the customers is far from desirable, In the context of ensuring effective communication and
even when the legal grounds favor the business. A business can meaningful customer relations, business organizations will have
win the court case but lose the customer, and even the goodwill to take cognizance of customer expectations and their rights as
of a section of existing and potential customers. they perceive them. Essentially, these relate to the right of
Customers are Not Adversaries information, the right of choice and the right of accountability.
All these arguments bring out the message that customers are Right of information This right concerns the customer’s need
not to be treated as adversaries. They are partners without to have all relevant information on the product and the
whose sup-port no business can hope to survive. Among company before he is in a position to decide on the transaction
partners there cannot be a win-lose relationship. It has to be a or relationship. The prices and rates, the terms and conditions,
win-win relationship. Beyond legal compliance, beyond the the incen-tives and discounts, the warranties and after-sales
jargon, there should be a sincere effort to make the relationship arrangements should all be made available. In the services
mutually beneficial. sector, the right of information is gaining acceptance not only in
the financial services and public utilities, but also in medical and
Move Towards Corporate Governance such other professional services. The right of information in
Values relating to communication and customer relations are
different areas would mean the fol-lowing:
also to be seen in the larger context of business organizations
moving towards corporate governance. The term corporate • A doctor giving his patient details about his ailment, the type
governance has a wide connotation. It supports a business ethic of medication and treatment he proposes to follow and may
that shuns short cuts and unethical practices. It brings out the even involve encouraging the patient to seek a second
accountability of management to shareholders. In its broader opinion, if need be
sense, corporate governance is said to encompass the entire • For Airlines services it means giving reasons for the delay in
range of formal and informal interactions of the corporate the flight depar-ture, the probable time of departure and the
sector with the society at large. Corporate governance strives to efforts being made to cut down the delay and not leaving the
ensure fairness, honesty and transparency of a business passengers in the dark
organization in rela-tion to its dealings with various stakehold- • For a bank or a financial institution it means giving to the
ers viz., shareholders, creditors, the state and employees. The borrower the full picture of the rates and charges involved,
widely referred prescriptions of the Cadbury Code in the United and not keeping him or her in the dark about any hidden
Kingdom deal with the role and responsibilities of the Board costs
of Directors and its sub-committees. Among others, the code
• For a mutual fund agent or salesman it means keeping the
lays down that the Board report should contain a coherent
prospective inves-tor duly informed about the implications
narrative, supported by the figures of the company’s perfor-
of investing in mutual funds-that the returns may vary and
mance and pros-pects and that the Board has an obligation to
even the principal amount may get eroded depend-ing upon
present a balanced and understandable assessment of the
market related factors
company’s position. These aspects of corporate governance are
particularly relevant in the context of ensuring good and proper The right of information would also cover the availability of
communication and customer relations. and easy access to product and company literature.
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
The second important expectation from the customer would Bill Gates makes the following observations in his recent book, ‘Business
relate-to the right of choice. Customers generally expect to have- at the speed of thought’.
adequate choice of identical or more or less similar products or
Business is going to change more in the next ten years than in the last
services. In fact the trend in market today is to offer abundant
choice and even tailor-made products or services rather than a Fifty years.
one-size-fits--all kind of approach. If 1980s were about quality and 1990s were about re-engineering,
To cite examples, for an airline passenger the right of choice 2000s will be about velocity.
would involve different menus to choose from; for a bank The information access will alter the lifestyles of consumers and their
borrower, it may mean various options for foreclosure; for a expectations of business.
mutual fund investor, it may involve the facility of shifting Very soon people around the world will be living the web lifestyle.
from one scheme to the other without much of a load factor.
For business communicators, all these developments bring in
Right of Accountability new opportunities and responsibilities. Messages have to be
Today’s businesses have to be far more accountable to their brief, swift and focused. Transmission leakages can be brought
customers than the businesses in the past. Through transpar- down substantially. There is much greater choice of channels
ency, the customers and others get to know what is happening and instruments. It has become necessary to keep abreast of
in the company and when things do not happen as they should such developments, appreciate their advantages and use them
be happening customers often make their voices heard. They for improving the effectiveness of business
resent if the costs of any inefficiency within the company are
communication and customer relations. Given below are some
passed on to them. They expect the employees to turn out a
new concepts of
day’s fair work and resent gossiping or idling. Similarly, custom-
ers expect the business managements to penalize their • Significance to the business communicator
em-ployees for any mistakes they may commit, which result in • Teleconferencing
losses, and not pass them on to the customers. • Video conferencing
To conclude, business organizations are laying particular • E-mail
emphasis on the ethi-cal part of business too. Even as they
• E-Commerce
commit themselves to the core business prin-ciples, they also
articulate the values, which govern their actions. People forming • E-Business
part of the business should make conscious efforts to reflect • Communication Networking Systems
such concerns through communication and customer relations, • Data Warehousing
so that enduring and endearing relation-ships are built up and
sustained across all sections. Teleconferencing
As the name suggests, is a conference or discus-sion that takes
Business Communication and Customer place over telephone. Telephone instruments with speaker
Relations In The New Millennium facility en-able speaking and hearing without the handset or
Newtrends In Business Communication mouthpiece. In the process, it is possible for more than one
The contours of business communication are changing at a person to speak from one end and discuss with more than one
rapid pace. Telecommunications and computers are driving this person at the other end. This way, the advantage is that people
change across the world. Numerous technol-ogy-induced from one group or section can speak to another and have
developments towards the end of the last century have brought discussions, without physically meeting at a particular place. It is
about new dimensions to the range, speed, methods and gaining popularity in modem business places and organiza-
modalities of personal and business communication. Internet, tions, especially for small group interactions.
Laptops, mobiles, modems and computer based messaging
systems have started impacting every sphere of activity including Video Conferencing
business communi-cation and customer relations. Video conferencing goes a step ahead of teleconferencing,
whereby apart from the audio messages, the video pictures are
Businesses are undergoing a metamorphosis. Old ways of also available. It is possible to look at the person speaking. It is
doing things are yielding place to the new and more sophisti- of a particular relevance when the chief of the state or the CEO
cated ones. As John Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene ob-serve, in of the company or any expert wants to communicate with
their book Megatrends 2000, “In telecommunications we are people spread across regions. A typical example of this is the
moving to a single world-wide information network, just as live telecast of budgets and election results, and the analysis that
economically we are becoming one global market place”. Thanks follows, wherein opinions and comments are sought. It is also
to globalization - and cross-border flow of ideas and resources, possible that if an expert speaker cannot be physically present to
developments in one place are rapidly reaching the other parts address the meeting, a live telecast of his message or address can
of the world. The technology revolution has started impacting be brought to the assembly of people in a meeting or seminar.
the rural areas as well. This facility, however, is available in select places institutes and is
comparatively quite expensive.
Stands for Electronic Mail. It is a computer based messaging satellite based Very Small-Aperture Terminal (VSAT) communi-
system that transports electronic messages from one computer cation network across the country for the benefit of banks and
system to another through a communication network. In a financial institutions. The future holds out enormous inter-
large organization like a bank, e-mail connectivity is established bank and intra-bank VSAT based applications in the financial
across numerous locations, such as branches, regional offices, sector, resulting in speedier, secure and cost-effective modes of
controlling offices, service units and training centers. Each _- communication.
mail location is identified by unique e-mail identification.
Data Warehousing
Messages and data, which are otherwise transferred through
Information is, the key to business success. Relevant and
courier, speedpost and floppies, can instead be transferred
reliable information on markets, customers, competitors and
through e-mail. Data trans-mission through e-mail is both
employees often provides the much-needed competitive edge.
instantaneous and cost effective.
Data Warehousing and Data-mining constitute the foundations
Speaking With Figures for building a robust and comprehensive management
As technology makes rapid in-roads into Indian homes, E-communication information system that covers not only decision-making
is all set for an exponential growth in the next 4-5 years. Here are support systems but also market information and client
some projec-tions on the penetration of personal computers, use of Internet information. Data Warehousing, as the name suggests, is a
and growth of E-Commerce: central repository of all critical data which helps the organization
to take decisions based on authentic and
PC penetration is projected to increase from 1.10 million in 1999 to7.52
million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of 47% (IDC). up-to-date information. Building a Data-Warehouse however is
a stupendous task. The type of data to be collected, the sources
Internet users are projected to go up from 2.113 million in 2000 to
to be tapped, the frequency of updating and such other
22.5million in 2004, averaging an annual growth of95% during 1999-
decisions have to” be taken after a careful assessment of time,
2003 (IDC).
efforts, process and costs involved. By its very nature, it is a very
E-commerce is projected to increase from Rs 400 crore to Rs 24000 long-drawn process, but when it is done well, the benefits to
crore by 2005 (ICRA) and Rs 27900 crore by 2004 (IDC) with the business would be enormous.
particular reference to B to C (Business to Customer).
The New Universal Language
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
communication. -
Data Mining and Date Warehousing have facilitated build up of
a robust and comprehensive management information system
Definitions
including a client in-formation system, which can be used to
n “The long-term success of the
relate more meaningfully with clients and other public.
organization and improved value for its
The primacy of the customer has come to stay. Customer
shareholders lies to a very great extent
interactions now take place not only face-to-face and through
telephone, but also through e-mail and Internet. Customer in the company’s ability to develop and
Relationship Management (CRM) calls for managing-all these sustain genuine relationships with its
multiple channels to create a win-win situation for both the customer.” -James G. Barnes
organisation and the customer.
I Review Questions
1. What is the impact of technology on communication? List
out some new concepts of significance to the business
communicator.
2. Write short notes on: (a) Teleconferencing (b) E-mail (c) E-
commerce.
3. What are communication networking.” systems? What has
been their progress in the financial services sector in India?
4. What does Data Warehousing mean? How can it be used for
building up an efficient customer information system?
Four Tools
n Complaint Resolution
n Feedback
n Guarantees
n Corrective Action
Relationships Recovery
n Attempting to know the n Empower employees so that they may
customer.
deal with mistakes as they occur.
n Commitment and
Communication
n “Clients should call you
only once. After that, you
should proactively call
them.” –Richard
Buckingham
Technology
n Internet communication as
a means of enhancing
customer relationships.
n Ease of use of the
technology important.
Brainstorm
n A customer enters a
restaurant and receives bad
service, bad food, and
overall dissatisfaction. Use
Foster’s tools or Barnes’ 4
R’s to resolve the problem.