Introduction to

Geomechanics Applied to
Open Pit
By
William Gibson
Introduction….sort of

Area x L x Grade x price = $$$$

Project has to be
economical

At the same time

must be safe

Engineering design
must balance both
components
Nature of the Instability

Any excavation produce a

redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field Rock Mass Strength

Geometric Components to Deliver

Bench
height Bench
Stack
Bench face
angle α SBW
Geotechnical
berm or ramp

Overall
Slope
Height

BSA

Pit Floor
Pit Floor IRA
Strength Assessment

Rock Mass Strength

Joint Strength
Small and Large Scale Failures
Mode of Failure
Scale Define the Rock Strength
and Mode of Failure
Strength defined by Failure Envelope
 Rock Mass Strength
Concrete, Steel, Soil Rock Mass

Laboratory Tests Laboratory Tests

Rock Mass
Classification

Material Strength Rock Mass Strength

 Linear – Failure Envelope

2c cos φ 1 + sin φ
τ = c + σ n tan φ σ1 =
1 − sin φ
+ σ3
1 − sin φ
Non Linear Failure Envelope
a
⎛ σ3 ⎞
σ 1 = σ 3 + σ c ⎜⎜ mb + s ⎟⎟
⎝ σc ⎠
RQD Rock Quality Designation
Q system
Rock Mass Classification RMR
Non Linear Failure Envelope
a
⎛ σ3 ⎞
σ 1 = σ 3 + σ c ⎜⎜ mb + s ⎟⎟
⎝ σc ⎠
Rock Mass Strength
Alternative Method to Assess Rock
Mass Strength
Joint Strength
 Half of the Job done

Any excavation produce a

redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field Rock Mass Strength

 Stress Analysis

Assessment of the Stability

(Equilibrium)
 Numerical Models
„ The models are function of the mode
of failure analyzed (difficult to have a
model that considers all the potential
mode of failures)
„ Failure through joints are different
than failure through rock mass. In
the first one the geometry of the
surface failure is predefined
Mode of Failure
Planar Failure
Planar Failure
Equilibrium
Concept of FoS

F>D => Wedge in Equilibrium

Factor of Safety FoS=F/D
 Effect of Water on Tension Crack

Change Resistance and Drive Force due to Water

1400 1.20

1300 1.10

Factor of Safety
1200 1.00
Force [kN]

F
1100 0.90 D
FS
1000 0.80

900 0.70

800 0.60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ratio zw/z
 Wedge Analysis
„ Similar to planar failure
„ Wedge considered as a rigid block
„ Resistance forces controlled by joint
strength
„ Actual orientation of the joints is
included in the analysis
„ Actual location is not considered at
bench scale (maximum possible
wedge)
Wedge Stability Analysis
 Wedge Analysis
„ In general applied to small scale
„ Some times applied to large scale
where faults define a wedge
„ In mining the main objective is
define the spill berm width (SBW) for
falling rocks and small failures
„ In civil slope design the main
objective is identify the unstable
wedge and support it
Results for Bench Analysis and its use
in Open pit Design
„ In open pit mines some failures at
bench scale are acceptable
„ The wedge analysis is used to
quantify the spillage
 Length of wedge (L)

Given depth
of failure (B)
Smaller length = Larger length = larger
Smaller failure failure volume
volume

More More spread out

concentrated

Volumes of failed material

SBW required to contain spillage
Spill Berm
6 KV tan α − tan φ
R=3 ×
π tan φ ⋅ tan α

Spill Berm Radius (R)

K = 1.5 swelling factor
Symmetrical conical
expression of volume V = volume of failed material (m3)
of failed material L = length of wedge (m)
a = bench face angle (?)
ø = angle of repose of failed
material (38?)
Spill Berm
L

R 6 KV tan α − tan φ
Spill Berm
R= ×
Pyramidal (wedge) expression of volume L tan φ ⋅ tan α
of failed material
Example
Example
SBW required to contain spillage
Spill Berm
6 KV tan α − tan φ
R=3 ×
π tan φ ⋅ tan α

Spill Berm Radius (R)

K = 1.5 swelling factor
Symmetrical conical
expression of volume V = volume of failed material (m3)
of failed material L = length of wedge (m)
a = bench face angle (?)
ø = angle of repose of failed
material (38?)
Spill Berm
L

R 6 KV tan α − tan φ
Spill Berm
R= ×
Pyramidal (wedge) expression of volume L tan φ ⋅ tan α
of failed material
Break????
Mode of Failure <-> Kind of Analysis
Limit Equilibrium
Limit Equilibrium
Problem: more unknowns than
equations
Different Methods based on
Different Simplifications
 Limit Equilibrium
„ The method calculates the FoS for a
predefined surface
„ In general we want the lowest FoS
„ 1000s of trial must be tested to find
lowest FoS
„ In rock mechanics only for large
scale failure can be applied
Hoek Chart
Example
 Numerical Method
„ Numerical Models <-> Numerical Method

„ Finite Elements
„ Finite Differences
„ Boundary Elements
„ Discrete Elements
„ Discontinuous Deformation Analysis
 Element 3 nodes,
stresses are constant in the element
0.00000
180

0.45000
0.90000
1.35000
1.80000
165

2.25000
2.70000
3.15000
3.60000
150
135
120
105
90
75
60
45

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255
 Finite Elements

3
v

u 2
1

U=H(x,y)Ui
Elements 3 or 4 nodes are linear

Strain and Stresses are constant

 Triangular Elements 6 nodes

-0.02400
-0.01800
-0.01200
-0.00600
165

0.00000
0.00600
0.01200
0.01800
150

0.02400
135
120
105
90
75
60
45

30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255
Elements 6 or 8 nodes are quadratic

Strain and Stresses are linear

 Finite Difference Method
FLAC Program

v&
u&
Calculation Cycle
Typical FLAC Model
Factor of Safety using Finite
Difference or Finite Elements

tan φ c
FoS = =
tan φ f cf

φf : friction at failure

cf : cohesion at failure
Slope at Failure
Discontinuous Methods
Discontinuous Methods
Discontinuous Method
 Numerical Methods
„ FoS is calculated with out assuming a
surface failure
„ More realistic approach to the stress
distribution compared with limit
equilibrium method
„ Features like faults can be included
 Job done

Any excavation produce a

redistribution of stresses

New Stress Field Rock Mass Strength

Sort of, How do we compare stresses and

strength?
Is Fos enough?
 Example
Combining all the analysis
Rock Fall Analysis
Typical FoS Used in Mining
Industry
Probabilistic Analysis
Reliability Index
 Probabilistic Analysis
„ Works better than deterministic,
better feeling about the chances to
face a failure
„ More difficult to calculate, very
demanding in computer power.
 Summary
„ Think the mode of failure of a slope
is a engineer responsibility not a
computer program responsibility
„ Choose the right tool for the analysis
„ Because in mining the slopes are
temporary and the access is limited
the FoS used in design are low.
Monitoring is mandatory
 Summary
„ The most common methods to
improve stability in mining is
dewatering and unloading
„ Support may be used in some special
cases
 References
„ Hoek, E. and J.W. Bray Rock Slope
Engineering, Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy.
„ http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/Pra
cticalRockEngineering.asp

„ Contact: wgibson@srk.com.au