1

WING
The wing is the principal structural unit of the airplane. It has several functions
beyond that of providing lift. For a wing to produce "lift", it must be oriented at a
suitable angle of attack relative to the flow of air past the wing. In aerodynamics,
angle of attack (AOA) specifies the angle between the chord line of the wing of a
fixed-wing aircraft and the vector representing the relative motion between the aircraft
and the atmosphere.

On larger airplanes the engines are mounted in nacelles either attached to the
wing or mounted in the wing. The nacelles also provide a housing for the landing gear
when it is retracted. The space within the wing is usually used for fuel storage.

The main geometrical features of a wing are its span; the area of the wing; its
dihedral angle; its sweepback angle; and the wing section.

Dihedral angle is the upward angle of an aircraft's wing, from the wing root to the
wing tip. The amount of dihedral determines the amount of inherent stability along the
roll axis. Although an increase of dihedral will increase inherent stability, it will also
decrease lift, and increase drag.

The design of the wing depends on the size, weight, and use of the airplane.
Generally, there are two kinds of wing design: cantilever and semi-cantilever. The
semi-cantilever usually has one, or perhaps two, supporting wires or struts attached
to each wing and the fuselage.

As far as the internal structure is concerned, there are three general types of
conventional wings: monospar, two-spar, and multispar. Stringers are longitudinal
members which are attached to the upper and lower skin to make it stiff. They are
used in the design of a wing with stressed skin. Ribs are the basic elements of the
wing structure which give the wing section its shape and also transmit the air loads
from the skin to the spars.
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Many of the control functions are provided by special devices built into the
wing. Most obvious are the ailerons and landing flaps.

Flaps are high lift devices. There are many different types of flaps used, with the
specific choice depending on the size, speed and complexity of the aircraft on which
they are to be used, as well as the era in which the aircraft was designed. Plain flaps,
slotted flaps, and Fowler flaps are the most common. Krueger flaps are positioned on
the leading edge of the wings and are used on many jet airliners.

The leading edge is the part of the wing that first contacts the air. The leading
edge may be equipped with e.g. leading edge extensions, leading edge slats, leading
edge slots, vortex generators.
The trailing edge of an aerodynamic surface such as a wing is its rear edge,
where the airflow separated by the leading edge rejoins. Essential control surfaces
are attached here to redirect the air flow and exert a controlling force by changing its
momentum. Such control surfaces include ailerons on the wings for roll control,
elevators on the tailplane controlling pitch and the rudder on the fin controlling yaw.
Elevators and ailerons may be combined as elevons on tailless aircraft.
Other surfaces and equipment that may be attached to the trailing edge of an
aircraft's wing or on its control surfaces include: trim tabs, servo tabs, anti-servo tabs,
and flaps.

Vocabulary
structural konstrukční, strukturální
to provide poskytovat, vytvářet
aerodynamics aerodynamika
angle of attack úhel náběhu
chord line tětiva
atmosphere atmosféra, prostředí
to mount montovat, uložit
nacelle gondola
housing kryt
landing gear podvozek
to retract zatahovat
fuel storage uložení paliva
obvious zřejmý, jasný
landing flap přistávací klapka
aileron křidélko
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dihedral angle úhel vzepětí
sweepback angle úhel šípu
wing section profil křídla
wing root kořen křídla
wing tip špička/konec křídla
inherent stability přirozená stabilita
roll axis osa klonění
weight hmotnost
cantilever wing samonosné křídlo
semicantilever wing polosamonosné křídlo
spar nosník křídla, podélník
monospar jednonosníkový
multispar vícenosníkový
stringer tvarový podélník, podélná výztuha
member článek, konstrukční prvek
skin potah
stiff tuhý
stressed skin nosný potah
rib žebro
to transmit přenášet
load zatížení
plain flap jednoduchá klapka
slotted flap štěrbinová klapka
Fowler flap Fowlerova klapka
Krueger flap Kruegerova klapka
leading edge náběžná hrana
trailing edge odtoková hrana, zadní hrana
extension nástavec, prodloužení
slat slat, náběžná klapka
slot slot, štěrbina
vortex generator turbulátor, vyvíječ vírů, vířič
to rejoin opět se spojit
to redirect přesměrovat
air flow proud vzduchu
to exert vyvinout, projevit, uplatnit
momentum hybnost, impuls, kinetická energie
aileron křidélko
tailplane stabilizační plocha
elevon elevon
trim tab vyvažovací klapka
servo tab pomocná klapka

Exercises
1. Read and translate
angle: dihedral angle, sweepback angle, aileron angle, angle of attack
wing: cantilever wing, delta wing, dihedral wing, upper wing, stressed-skin wing,
high-aspect-ratio wing, long chord wing, multispar wing, swept-back wing, fixed
wing
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edge: leading edge, fixed leading edge, movable leading edge, trailing edge, trailing
edge flap, tip edge
axis: longitudinal axis, axis of symmetry, rudder axis, elevator axis, horizontal axis
lift: tail lift, high-lift devices, wing lift, static lift
ratio: lift-drag ratio, aspect ratio
skin: double skin, stressed skin, upper skin, sandwich skin, fuselage top skin
fin: two-spar fin, tapered fin, swept-back fin, fixed fin

2. Fill in
The wing has several functions beyond that of ........................lift.
On larger airplanes the engines are mounted in .........................either attached to the
wing or mounted ....................... it.
The nacelles also provide a housing for the landing ............................ when it is
.....................................
The ................ within the wing is usually used for fuel ............................... .
The main geometrical ...................................... of a wing are its ................................;
the area of the wing; its dihedral angle; its ....................................angle; and the
.........................................section.
Dihedral angle is the upward ........................ of an aircraft's wing, from the wing
............................ to the ................................... tip.
Generally, there are two kinds of wing design:.....................and ...................... .
Stringers are longitudinal members which are ................................ to the upper and
............................ skin to make it ............................ .
Ribs transmit the air loads from the skin to the ........................... .
There are many different types of flaps used, with the specific choice ......................on
the size, ................................ and complexity of the aircraft on which they are to be
used.
The leading .............................. is the part of the wing that first contacts the air.
The trailing edge of a wing is its rear edge, where the ......................... separated
.................the leading edge ..................................... .
Elevators and ailerons may be combined as ………………………on tailless aircraft.

3. Put into plural

The leading edge is the front edge of the wing. The airplane is moving around three
axes. The horizontal tail consists of a stabilizer and an elevator. On a large airplane
the engine is mounted in a nacelle. This type of wing has no stringer. An automatic
form of this device is also used. The elevator controls the angle of attack. A fin is fixed
and a rudder is movable.

4. Find opposites
To retract the landing gear, landing, horizontal, front, leading edge, movable, high,
down, small, upper, similar, different, internal, monospar, maximum, conventional,
single, civil, obvious, stiff, longitudinal, climb, low-wing, heavier-than-air, generally,
assembly, anhedral angle
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5. Answer
1. What is the main function of the wing?
2. Where are the engines mounted on larger airplanes?
3. What purpose is the space within the wing used for?
4. What are the main geometrical features of a wing?
5. How would you define the term “dihedral angle”?
6. What factors does the design of the wing depend on?
7. How many kinds of wing designs are there?
8. When are stringers used?
9. Which part of the wing structure gives the wing section its shape?
10. What types of flaps do you know?
11. What is the difference between the leading edge and the trailing edge?
12. Explain the term “elevon”.

6. Interpret
Another method for increasing lift is to change the curvature, or camber, of the wing.
In general, the greater the curvature, the lower the efficiency at higher speeds. The
trailing edge flaps provide both high lift and high efficiency by making it possible for
the pilot to change the curvature according to the flight conditions. The increase of lift
in this way is about 10 percent.

7. Give a short description of a wing

Additional materials
Elevons are aircraft control surfaces that combine the functions of the elevator (used
for pitch control) and the aileron (used for roll control), hence the name. They are
frequently used on tailless aircraft.
A leading edge slot is a fixed aerodynamic feature of the wing of some aircraft to
reduce the stall speed and promote good low-speed handling qualities. A leading
edge slot is a span-wise gap in each wing, allowing air to flow from below the wing to
its upper surface.

Leading edge slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of
fixed-wing aircraft which, when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle
of attack. A higher coefficient of lift is produced as a result of angle of attack and
speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can fly at slower speeds, or take off and land
in shorter distances. They are usually used while landing or performing manoeuvres
which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually retracted in normal flight to
minimize drag.
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Tail unit (Empennage)

The tail unit is the assembly of the vertical tail (vertical stabilizer), the horizontal
tail (horizontal stabilizer, tailplane), and the small section of the rear of the fuselage.
Its purpose is to stabilize the airplane in flight, i.e. to make sure that the resultant
of all the air forces on the airplane passes through the centre of gravity.
The vertical tail consists of a fin which is fixed to the fuselage and gives
directional stability to the aircraft, and the rudder which is movable and by means of
which the direction of flight can be controlled. It is used to control turns in conjunction
with the ailerons.
The horizontal tail lies in a horizontal plane and usually consists of a stabilizer
and an elevator. The elevator controls the angle of attack of the wings by moving the tail
up and down.
The internal structure of the tail unit is similar to that of the wings. It is usually of
all metal construction of the cantilever type.
There are many shapes and different arrangements, however, that can be used
in the design of the tail unit.

Fuselage mounted Cruciform T-tail Flying tailplane

Pelikan tail
V-tail Inverted V-tail X-tail

In some aircraft trim devices are provided to eliminate the need for the pilot to
maintain constant pressure on the elevator or rudder controls. The trim device may be:

a trim tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder which acts to change the aerodynamic
load on the surface.

an adjustable stabilizer into which the stabilizer may be hinged at its spar and adjustably
jacked a few degrees in incidence either up or down. Usually controlled by a cockpit
crank.
Multi-engined aircraft often have trim tabs on the rudder to reduce the pilot effort
required to keep the aircraft straight in situations of asymmetrical thrust, such as single
engine operations.
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A canard design (French for "duck") is a wing configuration of fixed-wing aircraft
in which the forward horizontal surface is smaller than the rearward one, the former
sometimes being known as the "canard" or foreplane, while the latter is the main wing. It
tends to be less controllable than a conventional design because ailerons on the main
wing may be subject to turbulence from the canards. Canards are often said to have
poor stealth characteristics because they present large, angular surfaces that tend to
reflect radar signals.

Vocabulary
tail unit ocasní plochy
assembly sestava, soubor, skupina
vertical tail svislé ocasní plochy
horizontal tail vodorovné ocasní plochy
section část, díl
rear záď, zadní část
to stabilize stabilizovat
resultant výslednice
centre of gravity těžiště
fin kýlová plocha, kýlovka
fixed pevný, připevněný
rudder směrové kormidlo, směrovka
stabilizer stabilizátor, stabilizační plocha
elevator výškové kormidlo
all-metal celokovový
cruciform křížovitý
T-tail ocasní plochy tvaru T
flying tailplane plovoucí ocasní plochy
inverted obrácený
adjustable stavitelný, nastavitelný, regulovatelný
jacked zvednutý
incidence náběh
crank klika, rukojeť
canard uspořádání s vodorovnými plochami kormidel vpředu
rerward zadní, dozadu
foreplane přední ocasní plochy, příďová plocha, přední plocha
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to be subject být vystaven, podléhat
turbulence turbulence
stealth technologie “stealth”, nezachytitelný radarem
angular zakřivený, zalomený, hranatý
to tend to mít tendenci k
to reflect odrážet

Exercises
1. Fill in the prepositions
The tail unit is the assembly .................... the vertical tail, the horizontal tail, and the
small section ................the rear ...................... the fuselage.
Its purpose is to stabilize the airplane................flight.
The vertical tail consists ................. a fin which is fixed ............. the fuselage and gives
directional stability ................... the aircraft.
The rudder is used to control turns ................ conjunction ............. the ailerons.
The horizontal tail lies ............. a horizontal plane.
The elevator controls the angle ..........attack ............... the wings ................ moving the
tail up and down.
The internal structure .................the tail unit is similar ................that .................the
wings.
A trim tab ........... the rear ................the elevators or rudder acts to change the
aerodynamic load.......... the surface.
A canard design is a wing configuration ...................... fixed-wing aircraft ....................
which the forward horizontal surface is smaller than the rearward one.

2. Form verbs from the following nouns

Assembly, stabilizer, flight, stability, move, direction, control, construction, arrangement,
design, elimination, need, maintenance, pressure, elevator, load, reduction,
requirement, operation, configuration, tendency, reflection

3. True or false (if so, correct it)

The horizontal tail consists of a fin which is fixed to the fuselage and gives vertical
stability to the aircraft.
The rudder is movable and by means of the rudder the direction of flight can be
controlled.
The horizontal tail lies in a horizontal plane and usually consists of a stabilizer and a
rudder.
The elevator controls the angle of attack of the wings by moving the tail up and down.
The internal structure of the tail unit is different from that of the wings.
The internal structure of the tail unit is usually of wooden construction of the
semicantilever type.
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Multi-engined aircraft often have trim tabs on the fin to reduce the pilot effort required to
keep the aircraft straight.
Canards are often said to have poor stealth characteristics.

4. Turn into passive

The tail unit stabilizes the airplane in flight.
The rudder controls turns in conjunction with the ailerons.
The elevator controls the angle of attack of the wings by moving the tail up and down.
Trim devices eliminate the need to maintain constant pressure on the elevator.
A trim tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder changes the aerodynamic load on the
surface.
Trim tabs on the rudder reduce the pilot effort required to keep the aircraft straight.
The pilot is changing the direction of flight.

5. Match the expressions and their definitions

1. airplane a. plane, helicopter, or other vehicle that flies
2. aircraft b. a part on the back edge of an aircraft's wing that is used in
making one side of the aircraft move higher than the other
3. horizontal c. an aircraft with wings and at least one engine
4. rudder d. an aircraft control surface that combines the functions of an
elevator and a horizontal stabilizer.
5. aileron e. straight and parallel to the ground
6. stability f. flat piece of wood or other material at the back of a boat or
plane that is moved to change the direction of travel
7. flying tailplane g. the ability of something to remain balanced and not fall or
shake
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Landing gear

The landing gear serves for supporting an airplane when it is not in the air and for
providing its movement on the ground in the take-off, landing and taxiing.
A classification of different types of landing gear built and flown over the years is
very difficult. Considering only the most frequently used, and therefore probably the
most successful, we have:
1. Conventional landing gear, also known as a tail-wheel type. The main landing gear
wheels are located each side of the centreline ahead the centre of gravity, with a
steerable tail wheel located aft near the rudder. This arrangement is usually light, but it
has the increased problems with vision, ground manoeuvring, and braking.
2. Tricycle landing gear known as nose-wheel type. The main wheels are located each
side of centreline behind the centre of gravity, with a steerable nose wheel mounted on
centreline forward. This configuration is noted for ease of ground handling and it does
not nose over when brakes are applied. Originally developed by Glen Gurtiss back in
1908, it is the most widely accepted arrangement.
3. Tandem-wheel landing gear, two wheels mounted one behind the other on the
airplane centreline. The larger wheel is usually located just behind the centre of gravity,
with a smaller wheel forward. Tandem gear is difficult to taxi in a crosswind, even with a
steerable front wheel.
The landing gear must withstand severe impacts which are absorbed by some
type of shock absorbers. Also known as shock struts, they use one of the following
energy absorption control methods: shock cord, air and oil (also called oleo strut), fluid
alone, springs.
Modern aircraft are fitted with hydraulic disc brakes. Wheel braking action may be
applied to both wheels at the same time, or to either of both wheels.
Landing gears may be either fixed or retractable. A fixed landing gear creates a
considerable amount of drag; high-speed airplanes must retract their landing gear to
realize maximum performance. Retraction may be accomplished by electrical or
hydraulic systems, and the landing gear may be folded into the wings, fuselage or pods.
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Vocabulary
landing gear přistávací zařízení, podvozek
landing přistání
taxiing pojíždění
tailwheel landing gear záďový podvozek
wheel kolo
centreline střednice, osa, osová čára
centre of gravity těžiště
steerable řiditelný
tail wheel ostruhové kolo
rudder směrové kormidlo
vision výhled, rozhled
braking brzdění
tricycle landing gear tříkolový podvozek
nosewheel landing gear příďový podvozek
main wheel hlavní podvozek
to be noted for vyznačovat se (čím), být známý (čím)
handling ovládání, řízení, obsluha
to nose over převrátit (se), převrhnout letoun
to apply brakes brzdit
to accept přijmout
tandem-wheel landing gear tandemový podvozek
crosswind boční vítr
severe prudký, silný
impact náraz
to absorb absorbovat, pohltit
shock absorber tlumič
shock strut tlumicí vzpěra
shock cord tlumicí kabel/lano/šňůra
oleo strut vzpěra s olejovým tlumičem
fluid kapalina
spring pružina
hydraulic hydraulický
disc brake kotoučová brzda
fixed pevný
retractable zatahovací
considerable značný
amount množství
to retract zatahovat
performance výkon
retraction zatahování
to accomplish provádět, dosáhnout
electrical elektrický
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to fold skládat, zasunout

Exercises
1. Read and translate
Landing gear: forward-retracting landing gear, main gear, tricycle landing gear,
tail-wheel landing gear, steerable gear, tandem gear, retractable landing gear, fixed
landing gear, lowered landing gear
strut: shock absorber strut, nose-wheel strut, main-wheel strut, oleo strut,
oleopneumatic strut, spring strut
retraction: automatic retraction, manual retraction, too-early retraction, hydraulic
retraction, electrical retraction
brake: brakes off, brakes on, to apply the brakes, landing brakes, disc brake, retractable
air brakes

2. Fill in the missing words

A classification of different types of landing gears................. and ................... over the
years is very difficult.
Conventional landing gear is also ........................ as a tail-wheel type.
The main landing gear wheels are .................................. each side of the centreline
ahead the centre of .................................. .
This arrangement is usually light, but it has the increased ................... with vision,
ground.............................., and braking.
With tricycle landing gear, the main wheels are located each side of
............................behind the centre of........................, with a ......................nose wheel
mounted on centreline forward.
This configuration is .................for ease of ground handling and it does not nose over
when brakes are ................................. .
It was originally ...........................by Glen Gurtiss, and it is the most widely
...........................arrangement.
Severe impacts are ...............................by shock absorbers.
Modern aircraft are ....................... with hydraulic disc brakes.
Maximum performance must be .............................. .
Retraction may be ............................ by electrical or hydraulic systems, and the landing
gear may be ...........................into the wings.

3. Form adjectives by means of the suffix -able or –ive

To retract, to accept, to steer, to manoeuvre, to use, to transport, to move, to control, to
suit, to change, to allow, to observe, to consider, to compress
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4. Read
1st pilot, 28%, 155 miles, 3rd wheel, 2x, Mach 2.5, 33 seconds, 4th engine, 48 degrees,
1,000 km/h, 30,000 ft, the 1960s, ¼, DC 10, Boeing 727, 1,576m, 55 hours, 2 nd axis,
1/3, 13,000,000 passengers, 1,328m runway, 89.6 MPa, 3.6 by 9.8, 327.000lb, 44 tons,
325-365 m.p.h., TU 104, 25 sec., 120 h.p., 15,000 gallons

5. Give the correct form of the verb

The landing gear serves for (to support) an airplane on the ground. The nose gear
prevents the airplane from (to nose over). The world largest aircraft are capable of
(to move) large quantities of cargo. The elevator controls the angle of attack by (to
move) the tail up and down. The power plant is a means of (to create) thrust. After (to
taxi) the airplane got to the runway. In addition to (to be) more efficient, device is easily
operated.

6. Answer
1) What is the purpose of the landing gear?
2) Which types of the landing gear are the most successful?
3) Where are the main landing gear wheels located in case of tailwheel landing gear?
4) When was the tricycle landing gear developed?
5) What does the nose wheel prevent?
6) Why is the nosewheel steerable?
7) Describe the third arrangement of the landing gear.
8) What are its advantages and disadvantages?
9) What must the landing gear withstand?
10) Name some energy absorption control methods.
11) What kinds of brakes are used in modern aircraft?
12) Why is it impossible for high-speed airplanes to have a fixed landing gear?
13) How is the landing gear retraction accomplished?

7. Interpret
The landing gear with the nosewheel is called the tricycle landing gear, and most
modern airliners have the tricycle landing gear. This design has some advantages,
namely better visibility during taxiing, and makes the airplane more stable during
landing. It retracts forward or backward into the fuselage. The main landing gear
includes wheels to taxi, disc wheel brakes to slow up the motion of the airplane in the
landing, retracting mechanism to retract it during the flight and structural members for
the attachment of the landing gear to the primary structure. The shock absorbers must
take up the effect of violent impact.
 14

Fuselage

The fuselage is the structure to which the wings and the tail unit of an airplane
are attached and which provides space for the crew, passengers, cargo, controls and
other items, depending upon the size and the design of the airplane.
The fuselage must be strong enough to withstand different loads acting on it and
have a streamlined shape to reduce the drag.
Fuselage airframes are varied to suit the aerodynamic geometry and to support
much of the equipment. The principal types of fuselage construction are the truss, the
semimonocoque, and the monocoque.
A truss is a group of members forming a rigid framework which may consist of
beams, tubes, wires, etc. The members are subjected to compressive and tensile
stresses only. The truss is used in sporting and agriculture airplanes and as a part of
helicopter airframes.
A semimonocoque fuselage consists of longitudinal members (stringers) riveted
to the skin and transverse members called frames (formers) which run circumferentially
around the insides of the fuselage. The stringers (or longerons or stiffeners) take
bending loads from the tail surfaces and the aft fuselage. The frames receive point
loads and distribute them into the skin. This type of fuselage is widely used in all kinds
of aircraft.
A monocoque fuselage is the structure made in a form of a shell and the skin of
this shell is sufficient to provide the necessary strength and stiffness. The skin of
sandwich construction is especially suitable for the monocoque, but this design is not
feasible for many practical aircraft.
The fuselage must include related items of structure, such as doors, windows,
and floors. Doors and windows are subjected to high pressures because of the external
loads and cabin environment. In supersonic airplanes pressurized cabins are used to
provide life conditions for the crew and passengers at high altitudes.

Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made out of aluminium

Vocabulary
space prostor
crew posádka
passenger cestující
 15
cargo náklad
controls, pl. systém řízení, řízení
item položka, součástka
to withstand vydržet, odolat
load zatížení
streamlined proudnicový, aerodynamický
airframe drak (letadla)
to suit vyhovovat
truss příhradový nosník
semimonocoque poloskořepinový
monocoque skořepinový, skořepina
rigid tuhý
framework kostra
beam nosník
tube trubka
wire drát
compressive stress tlakové namáhání, namáhání v tlaku
tensile stress tahové namáhání, namáhání tahem
sporting airplane sportovní letoun
agriculture airplane zemědělský letoun
stringer podélník, tvarový podélník, podélná výztuha
to rivet (při)nýtovat
transverse příčný
frame/former přepážka, rám
circumferential obvodový, po obvodu
bending load ohybové zatížení
aft zadní
point load bodové/soustředěné zatížení
to distribute rozkládat, rozvádět
shell skořepina
sufficient dostatečný, postačitelný
strength pevnost
stiffness tuhost
sandwich sendvičový
feasible proveditelný, možný
environment prostředí
supersonic nadzvukový
pressurized cabin přetlaková kabina
juncture spojení, připojení
sectioned v průřezu, v profilu
aluminium hliník
 16

Exercises
1. Fill in the prepositions
The fuselage is the structure ............... which the wings and the tail unit of an airplane
are attached and which provides space .............. the crew, passengers, cargo, controls
and other items, depending................. the size and the design ...............the airplane.
Different loads act ...................the fuselage.
Members are subjected ................. compressive and tensile stresses.
Longitudinal members are riveted ............. the skin and transverse members called
frames run circumferentially .........................the insides ................ the fuselage.
Stringers take bending loads .......................... the tail surfaces.
Frames receive point loads and distribute them ......................... the skin.
It is not feasible ..................... many types ............... aircraft.

2. Interpret
Heavy frames and stringers are commonly found near the juncture of the wing and
fuselage because this is where the maximum fuselage loads are found. In most cases,
the main wing structure passes through, under, or above the main fuselage structure
and continues to carry all the wing loads.
The pressurised fuselages are also loaded internally, as the pressure inside them is
higher than the outside air pressure.

3. Make adverbs and use them in sentences

Principal, usual, longitudinal, circumferential, short, strong, vertical, high, rigid,
complete, stiff, rapid, visual, aerodynamic, sufficient, constant, normal, proper, practical,
relative, chief, main, general

4. Find the opposites

Compressive stress, longitudinal, external, inside, high pressure, to distribute, thin air,
curved, relative, to move, smooth, top surface, vertical, simple, hot and humid, to
mount, landing, monospar, fixed, leading edge, upper

5. Answer
1. How is the fuselage defined?
2. What is required of the fuselage?
3. Why are the fuselage airframes varied?
4. What are the principal types of the fuselage construction?
5. What kinds of stress are the truss members subjected to?
6. Where is the truss used?
7. What does a semimonocoque fuselage consist of ?
 17

8. How are the stringers attached to the skin?

9. How do the frames run? What is their function?
10. Which type of skin is especially suitable for the monocoque?
11. Why are the doors and windows subjected to high pressures?
12. What is the purpose of the pressurized cabin?

6. Interpret
The central structure of an airplane connecting the wings and the tail unit is called the
fuselage. The fuselage contains the crew, passengers or cargo, and sometimes the
power plant.

7. Give a short description of the fuselage

Additional text
Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer" are used interchangeably. Historically,
though, there is a subtle difference between the two terms. If the longitudinal members
in a fuselage are few in number and run all along the fuselage length (usually 4 to 8),
then they are called "longerons". Generally, longerons are of larger cross-section when
compared to stringers. On large modern aircraft the stringer system is more common
because it is more weight-efficient, despite being more complex to construct and
analyze. Some aircraft use a combination of both stringers and longerons.
 18

Turbojet engine

The turbojet engines are further divided into the centrifugal flow and axial flow
types.
The turbojet engine consists basically of five major sections: an inlet duct, a
compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine mounted on a common shaft with
the compressor, and an exhaust duct.
In the turbojet engine, the compressor draws in atmospheric air and compresses it.
At this point the compressed air is divided. Part of it, called primary air, goes directly
through the combustion chamber where it is used to support combustion. The
remainder, called secondary air, surrounds the combustion chamber, mixing with and
cooling the hot gases before they enter the turbine. As the gases pass through the
turbine stage, about 75 to 80 percent of their energy is absorbed by the turbine to turn
the compressor and accessory gears. Then the gases further expand through the
tailpipe to atmospheric conditions. This reaction on the engine, caused by the
acceleration of the gases to the extremely high outlet velocity, provides the thrust.
The compressor of a centrifugal flow jet engine consists of a rotary impeller which
compresses air by centrifugal acceleration. Air is picked up by the radial blades of the
rotating impeller and discharged into a diffuser. This annular chamber is provided with
a number of vanes forming a series of divergent passages. Then the air passes from
the diffuser into the compressor manifolds.
The axial flow jet engine has a compressor consisting of a series of airfoil-bladed
discs, one behind the other with stator vanes between each disc. These rotors
compress the air by accelerating it in a direction along the axis of the engine. Each
combination of disc and stator constitutes a stage.
The axial flow jet engine is superior to the centrifugal flow jet engine in some
respects.
Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a
second combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before the nozzle. The
afterburner increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle. The result of
this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40 percent in thrust at takeoff and
a much larger percentage at high speeds once the plane is in the air. The
disadvantage is its very high fuel consumption and inefficiency, though this is often
regarded as acceptable for the short periods during which it is usually used.
 19
Vocabulary
centrifugal flow engine proudový motor s radiálním kompresorem
axial flow engine proudový motor s axiálním kompresorem
inlet duct vstupní kanál, vstupní ústrojí
gas turbine plynová turbina
exhaust duct výfukový kanál, výstupní kanál
to draw in nasávat
primary air primární vzduch
remainder zbytek
secondary air sekundární vzduch
to mix mísit se
to cool ochladit
stage stupeň
accessory pomocný, přídavný, vedlejší
gear ústrojí, zařízení, převod
to expand rozpínat (se)
tailpipe výfuková roura, prodlužovací roura s hnací tryskou
to cause způsobit, zapříčinit
acceleration zrychlení
outlet výstup, výtok
outlet velocity výtoková/výfuková rychlost
impeller oběžné kolo (dmychadla)
centrifugal odstředivý
to pick up zachytit
radial paprskovitý
blade lopatka (turbiny)
to discharge vypustit, vytlačit
diffuser difuzér
annular prstencovitý, kruhový
annular chamber kruhová komora
vane lopatka (statická)
divergent rozbíhavý, divergentní
passage průchod, kanál
manifold soustava potrubí, koleno trubky, vzduchovod
airfoil/aerofoil nosná plocha , profil křídla, plocha, na jejímž povrchu
se dosahuje reakce s pohybujícím se vzduchem
disc disk, kotouč
stator vanes rozváděcí lopatky
respect ohled, zřetel
fuel nozzle/jet (vstřikovací) palivová tryska
injection nozzle/jet vstřikovací (palivová) tryska
to atomize rozprašovat
 20
lubrication mazání
to convert přeměnit
to direct nasměrovat
to spray rozstřikovat, rozprašovat
accessory gears pomocné náhony
afterburner přídavné spalování, hořák přídavného spalování
ahead před
once jakmile
consumption spotřeba
inefficiency neefektivnost, malá účinnost
to regard as považovat za
acceptable přijatelný

Exercises

1. Read and translate

The centrifugal flow type, an inlet duct, a gas turbine, compressed air, to support
combustion, the turbine stage, acceleration of gases, high outlet velocity, a rotary
impeller, centrifugal acceleration, radial blades, airfoil-bladed discs, the direction
along the axis of the engine, to constitute a stage

2. Read and translate

The fuel nozzle supplies the combustion chamber with atomized fuel. The function of
the fuel nozzle is to spray finely atomized fuel into the combustion chamber for rapid
burning. The spraying effect also prevents an accumulation of fuel.
All turbojet engines have also an accessory section and fuel control, starting, cooling,
and lubrication systems.
The axial flow compressor has two main functional elements: the rotor (blades), and
the stator, which consists of rows of blades between the rotor stages. The rotor turns
at high speed, picks up air from the stator blades and accelerates it rearward through
the next stator stage. The stator blades act as diffusers at each stage. They partially
convert high velocity to pressure and direct air flow to each following rotor stage.

3. Form questions
The turbojet engine consists of five major sections.
The compressor draws in atmospheric air and compresses it.
80 % of the energy of hot gases is absorbed by the turbine to turn the compressor.
The gases expand through the tailpipe to atmospheric conditions.
Air is picked up by the radial blades of the rotating impeller and discharged into a
diffuser.
The axial flow jet engine is superior to the centrifugal flow jet engine.
 21
4. Fill in the missing words
In the turbojet engine, the compressor ................. ....... atmospheric air and
................................... it.
A part of the compressed ..................... goes directly through the ............................
chamber where it is used to support combustion.
The second part ................................the combustion chamber, mixing with and
............................... the hot gases before they ............................. the turbine.
The reaction on the engine, ........................by the acceleration of the gases to the
extremely high .............................velocity, provides the ................................. .
The axial flow jet engine has a compressor................................ of a series of airfoil-
bladed .................., one behind the other with stator ...................... between each
disc.
These rotors....................... the air by accelerating it in a direction along the
....................of the ....................... .
Each combination of disc and stator constitutes a ................................ .

5. Match the expressions and their definitions

1.consumption a. additional objects, equipment, decorations etc. that
make something more useful or attractive
2.shaft b. a compressor achieving a pressure rise by
adding kinetic velocity to a continuous flow of fluid
through the rotor or impeller
3.accessory c. air kept under a pressure that is greater than
atmospheric pressure
4.to convert d. a metal bar in an engine that causes a part to
move when another part moves
5.axial compressor e. to change from one system, use, or method to another,
or to make something do this
6.compressed air f. the use of something such as fuel or energy, or the
amount that people use
7.centrifugal compressor g. a compressor in which the working fluid
principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation