Metabolism of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the first cellular constituents formed by photosynthetic organisms and result
from the fixation of CO2 on absorption of light. The carbohydrates are metabolized to yield a
vast array of other organic compounds, many of which are subsequently utilized as dietary
constituents by animals. The major function of carbohydrates in metabolism is as a fuel to be
oxidized and provide energy for other metabolic processes. The carbohydrate is utilized by cells
mainly as glucose. The 3 principal monosaccharides resulting from digestive processes are
glucose, fructose and galactose.

Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas)
Glycolysis can be defined as

“Glycolysis is a series of reactions that consume and extract energy from glucose by splitting it
into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates”

Glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+ → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H2O

Site of occurrence
Glycolysis takes place in the extramitochondrial part of the cell (or the soluble cytoplasm). It is
frequently referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP pathway

Phases of Glycolysis
There are two phases of glycolysis. During glycolysis, the 6-carbon glucose is broken down
into two moles of 3-carbon pyruvate via 10 enzyme-catalyzed sequential reactions.

a. Preparatory phase
It consists of the first 5 steps. In these reactions, glucose is enzymatically phosphorylated by
ATP (first at carbon 6 and later at carbon 1) to yield fructose 1,6- diphosphate which is then split
in half to yield 2 moles of the 3-carbon compound, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The first phase
of glycolysis, thus, results in cleavage of the hexose chain. This phase requires an investment of
2ATP moles to activate (or prime) the glucose mole and prepare it for its cleavage into two 3-
carbon pieces.

b. Pay off phase

The last 5 reactions of glycolysis constitute this phase. This phase represents the payoff of
glycolysis, in which the energy liberated during conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 2
moles of pyruvate is converted by the coupled phosphorylation of 4 moles of ADP to ATP.
Although 4 moles of ATP are formed in phase II, the net overall yield is only 2 moles of ATP
per mole of glucsoe oxidized, since 2 moles of ATP are invested in phase I. The phase II is, thus,
energy conserving.
Glycolysis Pathway

Steps involve in Glycolysis

Step 1: Phosphorylation of Glucose
Here, the glucose ring is phosphorylated. Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group to
a molecule derived from ATP. As a result, at this point in glycolysis, 1 molecule of ATP has been
consumed.The reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyme that catalyzes the
phosphorylation of many six-membered glucose-like ring structures. Atomic magnesium (Mg) is also
involved to help shield the negative charges from the phosphate groups on the ATP molecule. The result
of this phosphorylation is a molecule called glucose-6-phosphate (G6P)
Step 2: Isomerization of Glucose 6-phosphate
The second step of glycolysis involves the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-
phosphate (F6P). This reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase
(PI). The reaction involves the rearrangement of the carbon-oxygen bond to transform the six-
membered ring into a five-membered ring. To rearrangement takes place when the six-membered
ring opens and then closes in such a way that the first carbon becomes now external to the ring.

Step 3: Phosphorylation of Fructose 6-phosphate

In the third step of glycolysis, fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose- 1,6-bisphosphate

(FBP). Similar to the reaction that occurs in step 1 of glycolysis, a second molecule of ATP
provides the phosphate group that is added on to the F6P molecule.The enzyme that catalyzes
this reaction is phosphofructokinase (PFK). As in step 1, a magnesium atom is involved to help
shield negative charges.

Step 4: Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

This step utilizes the enzyme aldolase, which catalyzes the cleavage of FBP to yield two 3-
carbon molecules. One of these molecules is called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) and the
other is called dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).

Step 5: Isomerization of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate

GAP is the only molecule that continues in the glycolytic pathway. As a result, all of the DHAP
molecules produced are further acted on by the enzyme triphoshpate isomerase (TIM), which
reorganizes the DHAP into GAP so it can continue in glycolysis. At this point in the glycolytic
pathway, we have two 3-carbon molecules, but have not yet fully converted glucose into
pyruvate.

Step 6 : Oxidative Phosphorylation of Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

In this step, two main events take place:

1) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized by the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD)
 2) The molecule is phosphorylated by the addition of a free phosphate group. The enzyme that
catalyzes this reaction is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH).The enzyme
contains appropriate structures and holds the molecule in a conformation such that it allows the
NAD molecule to pull a hydrogen off the GAP, converting the NAD to NADH. The phosphate
group then attacks the GAP molecule and releases it from the enzyme to yield 1,3
bisphoglycerate, NADH, and a hydrogen atom.

Step 7 : Transfer of Phosphate from 1,3-DPG to ADP

In this step, 1,3 bisphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme

phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK). This reaction involves the loss of a phosphate group. The
phosphate is transferred to a molecule of ADP that yields our first molecule of ATP. Since there
are two molecules of 1,3 bisphoglycerate (because there were two 3-carbon products from stage
1 of glycolysis), so two molecules of ATP produce at this step. With this synthesis of ATP,
compensate the first two molecules of ATP that we used, leaving with a net of 0 ATP molecules
up to this stage of glycolysis. An atom of magnesium is involved to shield the negative charges
on the phosphate groups of the ATP molecule.

Step 8 : Isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate

This step involves a simple rearrangement of the position of the phosphate group on the 3
phosphoglycerate molecule, making it 2 phosphoglycerate. The molecule responsible for
catalyzing this reaction is called phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM). A mutase is an enzyme that
catalyzes the transfer of a functional group from one position on a molecule to another.

The reaction mechanism proceeds by first adding an additional phosphate group to the 2′ position
of the 3 phosphoglycerate. The enzyme then removes the phosphate from the 3′ position leaving
just the 2′ phosphate, and thus yielding 2 phsophoglycerate. In this way, the enzyme is also
restored to its original, phosphorylated state.

Step 9 : Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate

This step involves the conversion of 2 phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). The

reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme enolase. Enolase works by removing a water group,
or dehydrating the 2 phosphoglycerate.

Step 10 : Transfer of Phosphate from PEP to ADP

The final step of glycolysis converts phosphoenolpyruvate into pyruvate with the help of the
enzyme pyruvate kinase. As the enzyme’s name suggests, this reaction involves the transfer of a
phosphate group. The phosphate group attached to the 2′ carbon of the PEP is transferred to a
molecule of ADP, yielding ATP. Again, since there are two molecules of PEP, generate 2 ATP
molecules

Energy calculation in Glycolysis

During aerobic and anaerobic conditions

(a) In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate so formed then enters mitochondria where it is oxidized, with the
loss of its carboxyl group as CO2, to form the acetyl group of acetyl-coenzyme A. Later, the acetyl group
is completely oxidized to CO2 and H2O by the citric acid cycle with the intervention of molecular
oxygen. This pathway is followed by aerobic animal and plant cells.

(b) If the supply of oxygen is insufficient, as in vigorously contracting skeletal muscles, the pyruvate
cannot be oxidized further for lack of oxygen. Under such conditions, it is then reduced to lactate, a
process called anaerobic glycolysis. Lactate is also produced from glucose in anaerobic microorganisms
that carry out lactic acid fermentation.
Biomedical importance
Most tissues have at least some requirement for glucose. In brain, the requirement is substantial.
Glycolysis, the major pathway for glucose metabolism, occurs in the cytosol of all cells. It is
unique in that it can function either aerobically or anaerobically. Erythrocytes, which lack
mitochondria, are completely reliant on glucose as their metabolic fuel and metabolize it by
anaerobic glycolysis. However, to oxidize glucose beyond pyruvate (the end product of
glycolysis) requires both oxygen and mitochondrial enzyme systems such as the pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex, the citric acid cycle, and the respiratory chain.

Glycolysis is both the principal route for glucose metabolism and the main pathway for the
metabolism of fructose, galactose, and other carbohydrates derived from the diet. The ability of
glycolysis to provide ATP in the absence of oxygen is especially important because it allows
skeletal muscle to perform at very high levels when oxygen supply is insufficient and because it
allows tissues to survive anoxic episodes. However, heart muscle, which is adapted for aerobic
performance, has relatively low glycolytic activity and poor survival under conditions of
ischemia. Diseases in which enzymes of glycolysis (e.g. pyruvate kinase) are deficient are
mainly seen as hemolytic anemias or, if the defect affects skeletal muscle (e.g.
phosphofructokinase), as fatigue. In fast-growing cancer cells, glycolysis proceeds at a higher
rate than is required by the citric acid cycle, forming large amounts of pyruvate, which is reduced
to lactate and exported. This produces a relatively acidic local environment in the tumor which
may have suggestions for cancer therapy. The lactate is used for gluconeogenesis in the liver, an
energy-expensive process responsible for much of the hypermetabolism. Lactic acidosis results
from several causes, including impaired activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase

Formation of acetyl coa from pyruvate

The junction between glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle is the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA

Net equation:
2 pyruvate + 2 NAD+ + 2 CoA ----> 2 acetyl CoA + 2 NADH + 2 carbon dioxide

 Pyruvate molecules are translocated from the cytosol into the mitochondrion by a carrier
protein in the mitochondrial membrane. ·
 This step is catalyzed by a multienzyme complex which:
1. Removes CO2 from the carboxyl group of pyruvate, changing it from a threecarbon to a two-
carbon compound. This is the first step where CO2 is released.
2. Oxidizes the two-carbon fragment to acetate, while reducing NAD+ to NADH. Since
glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules per glucose, there are two NADH molecules
produced.
 3. Attaches coenzyme A to the acetyl group, forming acetyl CoA. This bond is unstable, making
the acetyl group very reactive.

Citric acid cycle ( Kerb cycle/ Tricarboxylic acid cycle

A cycle of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in living cells that is the final series of reactions of
aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates, by which carbon dioxide is produced, oxygen is
reduced,and ATP is formed. Also called citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle.

Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD + FAD + ADP + HPO4-2 —————> 2 CO2 + CoA + 3

NADH+ + FADH+ + ATP
 In prokaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the cytoplasm; in eukaryotic cells, the citric
acid cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. The process oxidises glucose
derivatives, fatty acids and amino acids to carbon dioxide (CO2) through a series of enzyme
controlled steps. The purpose of the Krebs Cycle is to collect (eight) high-energy electrons from
these fuels by oxidising them, which are transported by activated carriers NADH and FADH2 to
the electron transport chain. The Krebs Cycle is also the source for the precursors of many other
molecules, and is therefore an amphibolic pathway (meaning it is both anabolic and catabolic).

Steps in citric acid pathway

Step 1: Formation of Citrate

The first reaction of the cycle is the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to
form citrate, catalyzed by citrate synthase. Once oxaloacetate is joined with acetyl-CoA, a
water molecule attacks the acetyl leading to the release of coenzyme A from the complex.
Step 2: Formation of Isocitrate

The citrate is rearranged to form an isomeric form, isocitrate by an enzyme acontinase. In this
reaction, a water molecule is removed from the citric acid and then put back on in another
location. The overall effect of this conversion is that the –OH group is moved from the 3′ to the
4′ position on the molecule. This transformation yields the molecule isocitrate.

Step 3: Oxidation of Isocitrate to α-Ketoglutarate

In this step, isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to

form α-ketoglutarate. In the reaction, generation of NADH from NAD is seen. The
enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the –OH group at the 4′ position of
isocitrate to yield an intermediate which then has a carbon dioxide molecule removed from it to
yield alpha-ketoglutarate.

Step 4: Oxidation of α-Ketoglutarate to Succinyl-CoA

Alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized, carbon dioxide is removed, and coenzyme A is added to form

the 4-carbon compound succinyl-CoA.During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced to NADH +
H+. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

Step 5: Conversion of Succinyl-CoA to Succinate

CoA is removed from succinyl-CoA to produce succinate.The energy released is used to make
guanosine triphosphate (GTP) from guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and Pi by substrate-level
phosphorylation. GTP can then be used to make ATP. The enzyme succinyl-CoA
synthase catalyzes this reaction of the citric acid cycle.

Step 6: Oxidation of Succinate to Fumarate

Succinate is oxidized to fumarate. During this oxidation, FAD is reduced to FADH2. The
enzyme succinate dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of two hydrogens from succinate.

Step 7: Hydration of Fumarate to Malate

The reversible hydration of fumarate to L-malate is catalyzed by fumarase (fumarate

hydratase). Fumarase continues the rearrangement process adding Hydrogen and Oxygenback
into the substrate that had been previously removed.

Step 8: Oxidation of Malate to Oxaloacetate

Malate is oxidized to produce oxaloacetate, the starting compound of the citric acid
cycle by malate dehydrogenase. During this oxidation, NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+.
Biomedical significance

1. Intermediate compounds formed during Krebs cycle are used for the synthesis of
biomolecules like amino acids, nucleotides, chlorophyll, cytochromes and fats etc.
2. Intermediate like succinyl CoA takes part in the formation of chlorophyll.
3. Amino Acids are formed from α- Ketoglutaric acid, pyruvic acids and oxaloacetic acid.
4. Krebs cycle (citric Acid cycle) releases plenty of energy (ATP) required for various
metabolic activities of cell.
5. By this cycle, carbon skeleton are got, which are used in process of growth and for
maintaining the cells.
6. It also has a central role in gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, and interconversion of amino
acids. Many of these processes occur in most tissues, but the liver is the only tissue in
which all occur to a significant extent. Very few, if any, genetic abnormalities of citric acid
cycle enzymes have been reported; such abnormalities would be incompatible with life or
normal development.

ENERGY CALCULATION

Twelve ATP are formed per turn of the citric acid cycle

As a result of oxidations catalyzed by the dehydrogenases of the citric acid cycle, three
molecules of NADH and one of FADH2 are produced for each molecule of acetyl-CoA
catabolized in one turn of the cycle. These reducing equivalents are transferred to the
respiratory chain, where reoxidation of each NADH results in formation of 3 ATP and
reoxidation of FADH2 in formation of 2 ATP. In addition, 1 ATP (or GTP) is formed by
substrate-level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinate thiokinase.

Oxidation of Glucose Yields Up to 38 Mol of ATP under Aerobic Conditions But only 2
Mol when O2 is Absent

When 1 mol of glucose is combusted in a calorimeter to CO2 and water, approximately 2870 kJ
are liberated as heat. When oxidation occurs in the tissues, approximately 38 mol of ATP are
generated per molecule of glucose oxidized to CO2 and water. In vivo, ∆G for the ATP synthase
reaction has been calculated as approximately 51.6 kJ. It follows that the total energy captured in
ATP per mole of glucose oxidized is 1961 kJ, or approximately 68% of the energy of
combustion. Most of the ATP is formed by oxidative phosphorylation resulting from the
reoxidation of reduced coenzymes by the respiratory chain. The remainder is formed by substrate
level phosphorylation.
The citric acid cycle is the final pathway for the oxidation of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein
whose common end-metabolite, acetyl-CoA, reacts with oxaloacetate to form citrate. By a series
of dehydrogenations and decarboxylations, citrate is degraded, releasing reduced coenzymes and
2CO2 and regenerating oxaloacetate.
• The reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the respiratory chain linked to formation of ATP.
Thus, the cycle is the major route for the generation of ATP and is located in the matrix of
mitochondria adjacent to the enzymes of the respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
• The citric acid cycle is amphibolic (a biochemical pathway that involves both catabolism and
anabolism), since in addition to oxidation it is important in the provision of carbon skeletons for
gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and interconversion of amino acids.

Metabolism of glycogen
Glycogen is the major storage form of carbohydrate in animal and corresponds to starch in plant.
It occurs mainly in liver (up to 6%) and muscle(up to 1%). However, because of great mass,
muscle represents some 3-4 times as much as glycogen store as liver. It is branched polymer of
α- glucose. The function of muscle glycogen is to act as a readily available source of hexose
units for glycolysis within the muscle itself. Liver glycogen is largely concerned with storage
and export of hexose units for maintenance of the blood glucose, particularly between meals.
After (12-18 hours) of fasting, the liver becomes almost totally depleted of glycogen, whereas
muscle glycogen is only depleted significantly after prolonged various exercise. when glucose
increased, osmatic pressure in the cell increase, causing water movement toward the cell and
leading to burst so when glucose accumulates in the cell, it will convert to glycogen which
consists of branched series of glucose.

Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to
chains of glycogen for storage.
Glycogenisis pathway

Steps in Glycogenesis
 The process of glycogenesis start when glucose-6-phosphat is changed to glucose-1-
phosphate by mutase enzyme known as glucose-6-phoaphmutas-1-phosphate. The reaction
is reversible and depends on concentration of substrate (glucose6-phosphat), if there is a
large amount or quantities of glucose-6-phosphat will lead to formation of glucose 1-
phosphate and the opposite is right. No loss in the energy in this reaction As glucose 1-
phosphate formed, it will react with high energy compound
 glucose 1-phosphate is high energetic compound and called (active glucose molecule), this
reaction is carried by (UDP glucose pyrophosphorylase)
 one UDP glucose is formed ,it can add already to exiting glycogen in the cell (glycogen
primer) by addition of α1-4 linkage causing elongation of the chain is carried by glycogen
synthase
 In the same time (simultaneously) another enzyme will change α1-4 linkage to α1-6 linkage,
this enzyme (Amylo α1-4 α1-6 linkage transglucosidase or branching enzyme. The process
continues by addition of more glucose molecules at α1-4 linkage and then changing this to
α1-6 linkage as result a large glycogen molecule

Glycogen synthase

Glycogen synthase is usually found in the cell in acitive and inactive form

Role of cAMP

Adenyl cyclase is activated by:

1- Adrenalin hormones

2- Glucagon hormones

- So the inactive glycogen synthase is activated by losing phosphate group and gives it to ADP
molecule to form ATP

- The reaction is carried out by the glycogen synthase phosphatase enzyme which activated by
insulin, so high concentration of glucose will cause activation of glycogen synthase

- Active glycogen synthase become inactive when it takes phosphate group and thus is converted
to ADP
 - The reaction is carried by the enzyme glycogen synthase kinase (active), this phosphate group
is attached to (OH) group of enzyme

- Also glycogen synthase kinase is found active or inactive forms. Inactive one is activated by
cAMP (cyclic AMP) or 3,5 cyclic AMP that is formed within the cell from ATP by the action of
adenyl cyclase enzyme, its activated by adrenalin and glucagon hormones During exercise or
emotional stress, adrenalin is released in very high concentration activating the formation of
cAMP and then glycogen synthesis is inhibited while a high amount of glucose will be used by
the body to produce high amount of energy, which necessary for the exercise or emotional stress.

- Glycogen synthase is activated by glucose-6 phosphate and inhibited by glycogen (allosteric

enzyme)

Regulation of glycogenesis:
Regulation of glycogenesis is accomplished on two levels such as allosteric regulation and
hormonal regulation.
Allosteric regulation:
1) In well fed state → glycogen synthase is allosterically activated by glucose 6-phosphate and
ATP (in liver, not in muscle, free glucose is also an activator) → stimulates glycogenesis. In
contrast, glycogen phosphorylase is allosterically inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate and
ATP → no glycogenesis
Hormonal regulation:
1) Insulin – Insulin stimulates glycogenesis by stimulating Glycogen synthase enzyme activity.
2) Glucagon and epinephrine – Glucagon and epinephrine inhibit glycogenesis by
inhibiting Glycogen synthase enzyme activity.

Biomedical importance of glycogenisis

Liver glycogen functions to store and export glucose to maintain blood glucose concentration in
fasting state. The liver concentration of glycogen is about 450 mM after a meal, falling to about
200 mM after an overnight fast; after 12–18 h of fasting, liver glycogen is almost totally
depleted. Although muscle glycogen does not directly yield free glucose (because muscle lacks
glucose 6-phosphatase), pyruvate formed by glycolysis in muscle can undergo transamination to
alanine, which is exported from muscle and used for gluconeogenesis in the liver. Glycogen
storage diseases are a group of inherited disorders characterized by deficient mobilization of
glycogen or deposition of abnormal forms of glycogen, leading to liver damage and muscle
weakness; some glycogen storage diseases result in early death.

Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the process by which the glycogen present in the liver is transformed into
glucose, to be released into the blood. This metabolic production of glucose is done in three
steps, or hydrolysis reactions, which allow enzymes to "liberate" the glucose in the liver and
muscles, release it into the bloodstream, and naturally regulate the rate of glycaemia.
Glycogenolysis is thus what is called a hyperglycemic mechanism, which is triggered according
to the needs of the organism.

Pathway

Steps in glycogenolysis

Golycogen phosphorylase cleaves the α-1, 4 glycosidic bonds between the glucose residues at
the non reducing ends of the glycogen by simple phosphorolysis.

• This enzyme contains a molecules of covalently bound pyridoxal phosphate required as a

coenzyme.
 • Glycogen phosphorylase is a phosphotransferase that sequentially degrades the glycogen
chains at their non reducing ends until four glucose units remain an each chain before a branch
point. The resulting structure is called a limit dextrin and phosphorylase cannot degrade it any
further. The product of this reaction is Glucose 1 phosphate.

• The glucose 1 phosphate is then converted to glucose 6 phosphate by phosphoglucomutase.

• Conversion of glucose 6 phosphate to glucose occurs in the Liver, Kidney and intestines by
the action of Glucose 6 phosphatase. This does not occur in the skeletal muscle as it lacks the
Enzyme.

Removal of Branches

A debranching enzyme also called Glucantransferase which contains two activities,

Glucantransferase and Glucosidase. The transfer activity removes the terminal 3 glucose
residues of one branch and attaches them to a free C4 end of the second branch.The glucose in
α-(1,6) linkage at the branch is removed by the action of Glucosidase as free glucose.

Lysosomal Degradation of Glycogen

A small amount of glycogen is continuously degraded by the lysosomal enzyme α-(1, 4)

glycosidase (acid maltase). The purpose of this pathway is unknown. However, a deficiency of
this enzyme causes accumulation of glycogen in vacuoles in the cytosol, resulting in a very
serious glycogen storage disease called type II (Pomp’s disease)

Role pf Camp

Phosphorylase enzyme
 It’s found in the cell in active and inactive forms. active→ inactive by losing a phosphate
group and this carried out by phosphorlyase phosphatase. Inactive→ active by taking phosphate
group (ATP→ ADP) and this carried out by phosphorylase kinase. Phosphorylase enzyme has
2 immunologically different isoenzyme, one from liver and the other from muscles, and there
are some similarities and differences between them

 Both are allosteric enzymes

 Both require pyridoxal-phosphate (vit B6 phosphate) as cofactor

 Both are interconverted into active and inactive form

 Both are activated by adrenal

Biomedical importance Glycogenolysis plays an important role in the fight-or-flight

response and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood.

 In myocytes (muscle cells), glycogen degradation serves to provide an immediate source

of glucose-6-phosphate for glycolysis, to provide energy for muscle contraction.

 In hepatocytes (liver cells), the main purpose of the breakdown of glycogen is for the
release of glucose into the bloodstream for uptake by other cells. The phosphate group of
glucose-6-phosphate is removed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which is not
present in myocytes, and the free glucose exits the cell via GLUT2 facilitated diffusion
channels in the hepatocyte cell membrane