1.

) 3 Definitions Of Research Method

• Research method is defined as the tools or an instrument that is used to
accomplish the goals and attributes of conducting a research process. Think of
the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be
employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.
• The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen
understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although,
as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):
• Research methods is a broad term. While methods of data collection and data
analysis represent the core of research methods, you have to address a range of
additional elements within the scope of your research.

2.) Identify and differentiate the 3 types of research

method

 Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation)
animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories
of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory
observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers
view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological
validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life
situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in
the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more
meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than
naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation
are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

 Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of
indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study
rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and
effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and
atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying
biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research. These
biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical
individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.
 Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through
interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions,
researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both
reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly.
Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.

Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-

ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a
detailed discussion refer to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages can
be found with each type:

Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants

but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or
reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze
statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give.
Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to
analyze statistically. (Jackson, 2009, p. 89)

In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative
(as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive
research methods.

It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe

a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that
data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause
A?

Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this

fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually
demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the
truth.

Difference
One of the goals of science is description (other goals include prediction and
explanation). Descriptive research methods are pretty much as they sound —
they describe situations. They do not make accurate predictions, and they do not
determine cause and effect.

There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-
study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of
these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better
understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media, or
when reading a research study on your own.
3.) Enumerate and explain the (7) types of Descriptive
Research

1. Descriptive-survey. This type is suitable wherever the subjects vary among

themselves and one is interested to know the extent to which different conditions
and situations are obtained among these subjects. The word SURVEY signifies
the gathering of data regarding present conditions. A survey is useful in: (1)
providing the value of facts, and (2) focusing attention on the most important
things to be reported. In this type of survey, it is necessary to determine the
psychological and social aspects of research by way of application or
implementation of evidence to recognize between facts and influence.
2. Descriptive-normative survey• Good and Scates (1972) stressed that “the term
NORMATIVE is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to
ascertain the normal or typical condition for practice, or to compare local test
results with a state or national norm”. In the descriptive-normative surveys, the
results/findings of the study should be compared with the norm.
3. Descriptive-status. This approach to problem solving seeks to answer
questions to real facts relating to existing conditions. This is a technique of
quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of
cases chosen for study. Several studies stress the current conditions with the
assumption that things will change. They cover many traits or characteristics of
the group.
4. Descriptive-analysis. This method determines or describes the nature of an
object by separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of
things. The researcher should determine the composition, structure, sub-
structure that occurs as units with the larger structure.\
5. Descriptive classification• this method is employed in natural sciences
subjects. The specimens collected are classified from phylum to species. To
illustrate:• An investigator wishes to conduct a taxonomic study of sea urchins in
the municipal waters of Zamboanga del Norte. He collects from different research
stations and then identifies and classifies them according to classes and species.
6. Descriptive-evaluative• this design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the
current study.
7. Descriptive-comparative. This is a design where the researcher considers two
variables (not manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure to compare and
conclude that one is better than the other if significant difference exists.
4.) Cite (4) explain the description of the respondents
part in research
5.) Enumerate & explain the elements of sampling
technique

Probability Sampling
This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every element
of the population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. It’s
alternatively known as random sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling
It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the
researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling
might be biased and makes difficult for all the elements of population to be
part of the sample equally. This type of sampling is also known as non-
random sampling.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Simple Random Sampling: Every element has an equal chance of getting
selected to be the part sample. It is used when we don’t have any kind of prior
information about the target population.
For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50 student. Each
student has equal chance of getting selected. Here probability of selection is
1/50

Stratified Sampling
This technique divides the elements of the population into small subgroups
(strata) based on the similarity in such a way that the elements within the
group are homogeneous and heterogeneous among the other subgroups
formed. And then the elements are randomly selected from each of these
strata. We need to have prior information about the population to create
subgroups.

Cluster Sampling
Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then the clusters
are randomly selected. All the elements of the cluster are used for sampling.
Clusters are identified using details such as age, sex, location etc.
Cluster sampling can be done in following ways:
• Single Stage Cluster Sampling

Entire cluster is selected randomly for sampling.

· Two Stage Cluster Sampling

Here first we randomly select clusters and then from those selected clusters we
randomly select elements for sampling
Systematic Clustering
Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random except the first element.
Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of population. All the elements are
put together in a sequence first where each element has the equal chance of being
selected.
For a sample of size n, we divide our population of size N into subgroups of k elements.
We select our first element randomly from the first subgroup of k elements.
To select other elements of sample, perform following:
We know number of elements in each group is k i.e N/n
So if our first element is n1 then
Second element is n1+k i.e n2
Third element n2+k i.e n3 and so on..
Taking an example of N=20, n=5
No of elements in each of the subgroups is N/n i.e 20/5 =4= k
Now, randomly select first element from the first subgroup.
If we select n1= 3
n2 = n1+k = 3+4 = 7
n3 = n2+k = 7+4 = 11

Multi-Stage Sampling
It is the combination of one or more methods described above.
Population is divided into multiple clusters and then these clusters are further divided
and grouped into various sub groups (strata) based on similarity. One or more clusters
can be randomly selected from each stratum. This process continues until the cluster
can’t be divided anymore. For example country can be divided into states, cities, urban
and rural and all the areas with similar characteristics can be merged together to form a
strata.

TYPES OF NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience Sampling
Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This method is used when the
availability of sample is rare and also costly. So based on the convenience samples are
selected.
For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research, as it’s
quick and easy to deliver results.
Purposive Sampling
This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the best for the purpose of our study.
For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing master’s degree then the selection criteria would be “Are you
interested for Masters in..?”
All the people who respond with a “No” will be excluded from our sample.
Quota Sampling
This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects the representative
sample from the population. Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample should be
same as population. Elements are selected until an exact proportion of certain types of
data is obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.
For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males then our sample
should reflect the same percentage of males and females.
Referral /Snowball Sampling
This technique is used in the situations where the population is completely unknown
and rare.
Therefore we will take the help from the first element which we select for the population
and ask him to recommend other elements who will fit the description of the sample
needed.
So this referral technique goes on, increasing the size of population like a snowball.

For example: It’s used in situations of highly sensitive topics like HIV Aids where people
will not openly discuss and participate in surveys to share information about HIV Aids.\

6.) Search for the sampling techniques formula

When to Use Slovin's Formula

Use Slovin’s formula when nothing is known about the behavior of a population.
How to Use Slovin's Formula
Slovin's formula is written as:
n=N÷(1+Ne2)
where:
n = Number of samples,
N = Total population
e = Error tolerance.
To use the formula, first figure out the error of tolerance. For example, a confidence
level of 95 percent (giving a margin error of 0.05) may be accurate enough, or a tighter
accuracy of a 98 percent confidence level (a margin of error of 0.02) may be required.
Plug the population size and required margin of error into the formula. The result equals
the number of samples required to evaluate the population.
For example, suppose that a group of 1,000 city government employees needs to be
surveyed to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs. For this survey a margin of
error of 0.05 is considered sufficiently accurate. Using Slovin’s formula, the required
sample survey size equals n=N÷(1+Ne2) people:
n=1,000÷(1+1,000x0.05x0.05)=286
The survey therefore needs to include 286 employees.

7.) Differentiate the probability sampling method and

non-probability sampling method

Sampling means selecting a particular group or sample to represent the entire

population. Sampling methods are majorly divided into two categories
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In the first case, each
member has a fixed, known opportunity to belong to the sample, whereas in
the second case, there is no specific probability of an individual to be a part of
the sample.
For a layman, these two concepts are same, but in reality, they are different in
the sense that in probability sampling every member of the population gets a
fair chance of selection which is not in the case with non-probability sampling.
 Other important differences between probability and non-probability sampling
are compiled in the article below.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR PROBABILITY NON-PROBABILITY

COMPARISON SAMPLING SAMPLING

Meaning Probability sampling is a Nonprobability sampling is a

sampling technique, in which
the subjects of the population
get an equal opportunity to
be selected as a
representative sample.
method of sampling
wherein, it is not known that
which individual from the
population will be selected
as a sample.

Alternately known Random sampling Non-random sampling

as

Basis of selection Randomly Arbitrarily

Opportunity of Fixed and known Not specified and unknown

selection

Research Conclusive Exploratory

Result Unbiased Biased

Method Objective Subjective

Inferences Statistical Analytical

Hypothesis Tested Generated

 8.) Enumerate and define atleast (4) methods under
probability sampling method

Margin of Error
The margin of error expresses the maximum expected difference between the true
population parameter and a sample estimate of that parameter. To be meaningful, the
margin of error should be qualified by a probability statement (often expressed in the
form of a confidence level).
For example, a pollster might report that 50% of voters will choose the Democratic
candidate. To indicate the quality of the survey result, the pollster might add that the
margin of error is +5%, with a confidence level of 90%. This means that if the survey
were repeated many times with different samples, the true percentage of Democratic
voters would fall within the margin of error 90% of the time.

A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the

main focus of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches are
done. However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test
every individual in the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. This
is the reason why researchers rely on sampling techniques.

A sample is simply a subset of the population. The concept of sample arises from the
inability of the researchers to test all the individuals in a given population. The sample
must be representative of the population from which it was drawn and it must have good
size to warrant statistical analysis.
The CI is a range of values, above and below a finding, in which the actual value is
likely to fall. The confidence interval represents the accuracy or precision of an
estimate.
Error tolerance is the design of things to be resilient to human error. The term is
applied to user interfaces that are difficult to get wrong. When a human error does
occur, error-tolerant designs gracefully detect and handle it.

9.) Enumerate and define atleasts (3) methods under

non-probability

Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the
researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects
depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.

For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher
needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st
year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year
students. The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race,
religion and socioeconomic status.

Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this

type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific
purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that
some subjects are more fit for the research compared to other individuals.
This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size.
In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify
another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The
downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the
population.

10.) Look for 3 examples of research instrumentation

1. Research instruments are tools developed by researchers to achieved

their stated objectives when carrying out a research study. In other
words, research instruments are designed tools that aid the collection
of data for the purpose of analysis.

2. Research instruments are tools by which we can collect data for

measuring the thing you are interested in.

3. Research instruments are data collection tools for measuring the thing
you are interested in.
11.) Look for atleast 3 examples of Data Gathering
Procedure part of Research
Data Mining

this procedure is simple. You can easily find many resource materials where
data and numerical figures are already tallied and presented. Usually, you
can find data among research institutions and academic centers. Data mining
is simply using an already published set of data.

Interviewing

is another example of a data gathering procedure. One benefit that you can
get from this process is that you can actually gather raw and reliable data
direct from your subjects. Although it is time consuming, you can still have
very credible result from this data gathering procedure.

Surveying

actually involves gathering responses from subjects through a written

medium. You will be distributing paper questionnaires for your subjects to
answer. You will then tally the results and use the data for your research. You
may find an essay online about how to write questionnaires.

12.) Look for atleast 3 examples of sources of Data part of

research

Data sources
Data collection was done through both secondary and primary sources.
Primary data sources included key informants for each case study.
Secondary data sources mainly covered government publications, technical
document, and annual reports of the companies. Valuable insight was also
gained from the analysis of research studies conducted by the National ICT
Policy Commission (CPI) on ICT projects in the country. Secondary data
covered different sources and provided an essential preparation for the
interviews. Secondary data helped to cross-check official information, learn
about major events, technical details, historical decisions and main
organisational players and roles. They also supported the exploring of
particular responses during interviews.
Mitev (2000a, 2000b), and Silva and Backhouse (1997) have illustrated
through the Socrate and London Ambulance Services case studies the
 benefit of examining written secondary sources as research material, which
provides a multitude of interpretations. For this study it was possible to
conduct the data collection and analysis in an iterative manner.

Data Sources:
The secondary data is based on time series data i.e. between 1975 to 2010
published from IEA via internet, WBR via internet, Energy Agency,
International Energy Statistics, CSO data, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) annual reports, Bureau of Energy efficiency (BEE),
Karnataka Renewable Energy Development Limited(KREDL), Economic
survey of India and Karnataka, Plan documents of India.

13.) Look for atleast 3 examples of research locale part of

research
Research Locale
The study will be conducted in the Philippines. The respondents will be
interviewed in their houses or any comfortable place that the respondent will
choose to. The researchers also gathered respondents residing in USA.
These respondents will be interviewed via video chat. The researchers chose
the place of implementation because itwill give the researchers the needed
information for people with spina bifida. The study will be conducted in the
first semester of the academic year 2016-2017.

Research Locale
The study was conducted at the Lyceum of the Philippines UniversityCavite
Campus since the chosen respondents are students of the University
 Research Locale
The study was conducted at Far Eastern University, this place was selected
for knowing the efficiency of the said study among nursing students and for
them to feel comfortable, this study was been implemented on the 4th yr.
Bachelor of Science in Nursing students, these study has tested the
effectiveness of music therapy while reviewing their lessons before taking
their exams this study helped researchers found out how effective it is for
students in a classroom to memorize their lessons easily, researchers had
also identified the effectiveness while listening to music when the participants
had this activity at the same place, this had also enabled the researchers to
know if music therapy can help the students remember what they are
studying or reviewing at the same place. The research study was
implemented inside the classroom of Far Eastern University, the classroom
was clean, well-ventilated, air-conditioned and had enough chairs for every
students who participated with the activity.

14.) Enumerate & explain atleast (5) statistical treatment

Statistical Treatment for Data Responses to the questionnaire by senior high school
students were statistically analyzed with the data requirements of the study. Students
were statistically analysed with the data instruments of the study. Descriptive statistics
such as frequency count, mean, percent and rank are considered. To know if there is a
correlation between the independent and dependent variables Pearson Product
Moment of Correlation Coefficient was utilized with 0.05 level of significance.
 15.) Identify & give atleast (3) examples of getting the
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
DEFINITION OF MEAN

The mean is the average of the numbers: a calculated "central" value of a set of
numbers.

To calculate it: add up all the numbers, then divide by how many numbers there are.

Example:
What is the mean of 2, 7 and 9?

Add the numbers: 2 + 7 + 9 = 18

Divide by how many numbers (i.e. we added 3 numbers): 18 ÷ 3 = 6

So the Mean is 6

DEFINITION OF MEDIAN
MEDIAN -The middle number (in a sorted list of numbers).

To find the Median, place the numbers you are given in value order and find the middle
number.

Example: find the Median of {13, 23, 11, 16, 15, 10, 26}.

Put them in order: {10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 23, 26}

The middle number is 15, so the median is 15.

NOTE:
(If there are two middle numbers, you average them.)

DEFINITION OF MODE
MODE- The number which appears most often in a set of numbers.

Example: in {6, 3, 9, 6, 6, 5, 9, 3} the Mode is 6 (it occurs most often).