Jomo Kenyatta University OF Agriculture & Technology: P.O. Box 62000, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya E-Mail: Elearning@jkuat - Ac.ke

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
JKUAT SODeL
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

P.O. Box 62000, 00200
©2015
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat.ac.ke
ICS 2405 Knowledge Based Systems
JJ II LAST REVISION ON January 14, 2015

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This presentation is intended to covered within one week.
The notes, examples and exercises should be supple-
mented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
JKUAT SODeL
clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same

page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solu-
tion/answer.
©2015
Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat.ac.ke.
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JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation
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LESSON 1
Knowledge based systems
Learning outcomes
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Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Identify and explain knowledge based systems and artifi-
cial intelligence
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1.1. Introduction
1.1.1. AI Concepts
• Intelligence and types of intelligence
• Understanding AI
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• History of AI
• Characteristics of AI
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• Modeling and AI System

• Main branches of AI
• Applications of AI:
– Application areas
JJ II – Application domains
J I • Problem solving techniques
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1.2. Intelligence
1.2.1. Dictionary definition
• The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new
situations
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• The ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one’s envi-

ronment or to think abstractly as measured by objective
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criteria (as tests)
1.2.2. Types of Intelligence

According to Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory, there
are various types of intelligence viz:
JJ II • General intelligence: - Abilities that allow us to be flex-

J I ible and adaptive thinkers, not necessarily tied to acquired
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knowledge.
• Linguistic-verbal intelligence: - Use words and lan-
guage in various forms / Ability to manipulate language
to express oneself poetically
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• Logical-Mathematical intelligence: - Ability to detect

patterns / Approach problems logically / Reason deduc-
tively
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• Musical intelligence: - Recognize nonverbal sounds: pitch,

rhythm, and tonal patterns
• Spatial intelligence: - Typically thinks in images and
pictures / Used in both arts and sciences
JJ II • Intrapersonal intelligence: - Ability to understand one-
J I self, including feelings and motivations / Can discipline
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themselves to accomplish a wide variety of tasks
• Interpersonal intelligence: - Ability to ”read people”—discrim
among other individuals especially their moods, intentions,
motivations; / Adept at group work, typically assume a
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leadership role.
• Naturalist intelligence: - Ability to recognize and clas-
sify living things like plants, animals
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• Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence: - Use one’s mental

abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily movements
Note: Understanding the various types of intelligence
provides theoretical foundations for recognizing differ-
ent talents and abilities in people
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1.3. What is AI?
There is no agreed definition of the term artificial intelligence.
However, there are various definitions that have been proposed.
These are considered below.
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• AI is a study in which computer systems are made that

think like human beings. Haugeland, 1985 & Bellman,
1978.
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• AI is a study in which computer systems are made that

act like people. AI is the art of creating computers that
perform functions that require intelligence when performed
by people. Kurzweil, 1990.
JJ II • AI is the study of how to make computers do things, which

J I at the moment people are better at. Rich & Knight .AI
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is the study of computations that make it possible to per-
ceive, reason and act. Winston, 1992
• AI is considered to be a study that seeks to explain and
emulate intelligent behaviour in terms of computational
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processes. Schalkeoff, 1990.

• AI is considered to be a branch of computer science that
is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior.
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Luger & Stubblefield, 1993.

Artificial Intelligence is the development of systems that exhibit
the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human be-
havior:
• perception,
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• reasoning, planning,
• problem solving,
• learning and adaptation, etc.
Development of AI: History
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1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain

1950 Turing’s “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”
1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel’s checkers (draughts)
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program Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist, Gelernter’s Geome-

try Engine
1956 Dartmouth meeting: “Artificial Intelligence” adopted
1966–74 AI discovers computational complexity, Neural net-
work research almost disappears
JJ II 1969–79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
J I 1980–88 Expert systems industry booms
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1988–93 Expert systems industry busts: “AI Winter”
1985–95 Neural networks return to popularity(Return of ANN)
1988– Resurgence of probabilistic and decision-theoretic meth-
ods Rapid increase in technical depth of mainstream AI, “Nou-
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velle AI”: ALife, GAs, soft computing
Turing Test for Intelligence Tests the ability of a computer

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system to act humanly

The aim is to determine if the human interrogator thinks
he/she is communicating with a human.
To pass Turing Test the computer must:
• Process natural language;
JJ II • Represent knowledge;
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• Learn and adapt to the new situations.
Total Turing test included vision & robotics.
Characteristics of AI
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• Symbolic Processing: AI emphasizes manipulation of

symbols rather than numbers. The manner in which sym-
bols are processed is non-algorithmic since most human
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reasoning process do not necessarily follow a step by step

approach (algorithmic approach).
• Heuristics: Are similar to rules of thumb where you need
not rethink completely what to do every time a similar
problem is encountered.
JJ II • Inferencing: This is a form of reasoning with facts and
J I rules using heuristics or some search strategies.
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• Pattern matching A process of describing objects, events
or processes in terms of their qualitative features and log-
ical and computational relationships.
• Knowledge Processing Knowledge consists of facts, con-
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cepts, theories, heuristics methods, procedures and rela-

tionships.
• Knowledge bases. Collection of knowledge related to a
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problem or an opportunity used in problem. Reasoning

occurs based on this knowledge base.
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JJ II Contrasting AI with Natural Intelligence

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Important commercial advantages of AI are:-
1. AI is permanent as long as computer system and programs
remain unchanged
2. AI offers ease of duplications and dissemination as com-
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pared to long apprenticeship for natural intelligence.

3. AI can be less expensive than natural intelligence.
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4. AI being a computer system is consistent and thorough;

natural intelligence may be erratic since people are erratic,
they don’t perform consistently.
5. AI can execute certain tasks much faster than humans can.
6. AI can perform certain tasks better than many or even
JJ II most people.
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Natural Intelligence has the following advantages
1. Natural intelligence is creative, AI is uninspired- human
always determine knowledge.
2. Natural intelligence enables people to benefit from use of
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sensory experience directly, while most AI systems must

work with symbolic knowledge.
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Modelling an AI System A typical AI system consists of

three subsystems, i.e.,
1. Perception Subsystem
2. Reasoning Subsystem
JJ II 3. Action Subsystem(made of actuators/effectors)

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Main Branches of AI AI research and application can be
categorized into field’s along different dimensions.
• By the scope of cognitive/Intelligent capacities under re-
search - the fields include: Core cognitive facilities e.g.
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searching, reasoning, learning, planning categorizing and

recognizing. Input/output facilities e.g. sensors.
• By the type of major techniques - the fields include: Rule –
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Based system Case based system Neural networks Genetic

programming Logical programming (e.g. Prolog) Func-
tional programming(e.g. lisp)
• By the domains of application - the fields include: game
playing theorem proving data mining etc
JJ II • By the design Symbolic AI – Designers explicitly program
J I all of the AI “knowledge.” Connectionist AI – Designers
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“teach” an artificial neural network what the AI needs to
“know.” Evolutionary AI – Designers give the AI the ability
to refine itself
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AI application areas
• Game Playing
– Much of the early research in state space search was
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done using common board games such as checkers,

chess, and the 15-puzzle
– Games can generate extremely large search spaces.
These are large and complex enough to require pow-
erful techniques for determining what alternative to
JJ II explore
J I • Automated reasoning and Theorem Proving
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– Theorem-proving is one of the most fruitful branches
of the field
– Theorem-proving research was responsible in formal-
izing search algorithms and developing formal rep-
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resentation languages such as predicate calculus and

the logic programming language
• Expert System
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– One major insight gained from early work in problem

solving was the importance of domain-specific knowl-
edge
– Expert knowledge is a combination of a theoretical
understanding of the problem and a collection of heuris-
JJ II tic problem-solving rules
J I – Current deficiencies:
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∗ Lack of flexibility; if human cannot answer a
question immediately, he can return to an exam-
ination of first principle and come up with some-
thing
∗ Inability to provide deep explanations
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∗ Little learning from experience

• Natural Language Understanding and Semantics
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– One of the long-standing goals of AI is the creation of

programming that are capable of understanding and
generating human language
• Modeling Human Performance
JJ II – Capture the human mind (knowledge representation)

J I • Robotics
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– A robot that blindly performs a sequence of actions
without responding to changes or being able to detect
and correct errors could hardly be considered intelli-
gent
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– It should have some degree of sensors and algorithms

to guide it
• Machine Learning
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– Learning has remained a challenging area in AI

– An expert system may perform extensive and costly
computation to solve a problem; unlike human, it
usually doesn’t remember the solution
– Examples include:
JJ II ∗ Decision tree learning
J I ∗ Genetic algorithms
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∗ Neural networks
Application Domains of AI
1. Application domain areas include:
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2. Military
3. Medicine
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4. Industry
5. Entertainment
6. Education
7. Business
JJ II Problem Solving Techniques in AI Problems are tackled

J I in AI using two main approaches namely:
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• Search technique
• Modelling natural phenomena (e.g. evolution and neural
networks).
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Revision Questions
Example . What is Artificial Intelligence?

- Describe the Turing Test. .
Solution:
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Artificial intelligence is a study in which computer systems

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are made that act like people. People in this group include
Kurzweil, 1990 who particularly thought that AI is the art of
creating computers that perform functions that require intelli-
gence when performed by people. Rich & Knight were also in
this group and they considered AI as the study of how to make
computers do things which at the moment people are better at.
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the turing test is whereby The human interrogator thinks
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he/she is communicating with a human.
To pass Turing Test the computer must:
Process natural language;
Represent knowledge;
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Reason;
Learn and adapt to the new situations.
Exercise 1. What is intelligence? and Can intelligence be

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mechanized?
References and Additional Reading Materials

1. A. Barr, E. A. Feigenbaum, and P. R. Cohen. The Hand-
book of Artificial Intelligence. William Kaufman. Los Al-
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tos, CA. 1981 (3 vols.)
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2. B. G. Buchanan and R. O. Duda. Principles of Rule-Based
Expert Systems. Report STAN-CS-82-926. Stanford Uni-
versity, August, 1982.
3. F. Hayes-Roth, D. A. Waterman, and D. B. Lenat, (Eds.).
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Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA..

1983.
4. E. Rich. Artificial Intelligence. McGraw-Hill, New York,
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NY, 1983.
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Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1.
. ... Exercise 1
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©2015
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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

ICS 2405 Knowledge Based Systems

JJ II LAST REVISION ON January 14, 2015

clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Modeling and AI System

• The ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one’s envi-

criteria (as tests)

1.2.2. Types of Intelligence

JJ II • General intelligence: - Abilities that allow us to be flex-

• Logical-Mathematical intelligence: - Ability to detect

• Musical intelligence: - Recognize nonverbal sounds: pitch,

• Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence: - Use one’s mental

• AI is a study in which computer systems are made that

• AI is a study in which computer systems are made that

JJ II • AI is the study of how to make computers do things, which

processes. Schalkeoff, 1990.

Luger & Stubblefield, 1993.

1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain

program Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist, Gelernter’s Geome-

velle AI”: ALife, GAs, soft computing

Turing Test for Intelligence Tests the ability of a computer

system to act humanly

• Symbolic Processing: AI emphasizes manipulation of

reasoning process do not necessarily follow a step by step

cepts, theories, heuristics methods, procedures and rela-

problem or an opportunity used in problem. Reasoning

JJ II Contrasting AI with Natural Intelligence

pared to long apprenticeship for natural intelligence.

4. AI being a computer system is consistent and thorough;

sensory experience directly, while most AI systems must

Modelling an AI System A typical AI system consists of

JJ II 3. Action Subsystem(made of actuators/effectors)

searching, reasoning, learning, planning categorizing and

Based system Case based system Neural networks Genetic

done using common board games such as checkers,

resentation languages such as predicate calculus and

– One major insight gained from early work in problem

∗ Little learning from experience

– One of the long-standing goals of AI is the creation of

JJ II – Capture the human mind (knowledge representation)

– It should have some degree of sensors and algorithms

– Learning has remained a challenging area in AI

JJ II Problem Solving Techniques in AI Problems are tackled

Example . What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial intelligence is a study in which computer systems

Exercise 1.  What is intelligence? and Can intelligence be

References and Additional Reading Materials

Building Expert Systems. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA..

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Example . What is Artificial Intelligence?

Exercise 1. What is intelligence? and Can intelligence be