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1.

1 INTRODUCTION

If the efficiency of a wind turbine is increased, then more power can be generated thus
decreasing the need for expensive power generators that cause pollution. This would also reduce
the cost of power for the common people. The wind is literally there for the taking and doesn't
cost any money. Power can be generated and stored by a wind turbine with little or no pollution.
If the efficiency of the common wind turbine is improved and widespread, the common people
can cut back on their power costs immensely.

Ever since the Seventh Century people have been utilizing the wind to make their lives easier.
The whole concept of windmills originated in Persia. The Persians originally used the wind to
irrigate farm land, crush grain and milling. This is probably where the term windmill came from.

Since the widespread use of windmills in Europe, during the Twelfth Century, some areas such
as the Netherlands have prospered from creating vast wind farms.

The first windmills, however, were not very reliable or energy efficient. Only half the sail
rotation was utilized. They were usually slow and had a low tip speed ratio but were useful for
torque.

Since its creation, man has constantly tried to improve the windmill. As a result, over the years,
the number of blades on windmills has decreased. Most modern windmills have 5-6 blades while
past windmills have had 4~8 blades. Past windmill also had to be manually directed into the
wind, while modern windmills can be automatically turned into the wind. The sail design and
materials used to create them have also changed over the years.

In most cases the altitude of the rotor is directly proportional to its efficiency. As a matter of fact,
a modern wind turbine should be at least twenty feet above and three hundred feet away from an
obstruction, though it is even more ideal for it to be thirty feet above and five hundred feet away
from any obstruction.

Different locations have various wind speeds. Some places, such as the British Isles, have few
inhabitants because of high wind speeds, yet they are ideal for wind generation. Did you know

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that the world's largest wind farm is located in California, and the total wind power generated
there exceeds 1,400 megawatts of electricity? (A typical nuclear power plant generates 1,000
megawatts.)

Some geographic features such as mountains also have an influence upon wind. Mountains can
create mountain breezes at night, because of the cooler air flowing down the mountain and being
heated by the warmer valley air causing a convection current. Valleys are affected in much the
same way. In the daytime, the cooler air is above the valleys and the hot air is above the
mountains. The hot air above the mountain rises above the valleys and cools, thus creating a
convection current in the opposite direction and creating a valley wind. The oceans create
convection currents, as well as they mountains or valleys. In the day, the hotter air is above the
same and the cooler air is above the ocean. The air heats up over the sand and rises above the
ocean and then cools, creating the convection current. At night, the cooler air is above the sand
and the warmer air is above the ocean, so the air heats up over the ocean and cools over the sand.
As you can clearly see, the time of day also affects the wind.

We know that for windmills to operate there must be wind, but how do they work? Actually
there are two types of windmills -- the horizontal axis windmills and the vertical axis windmills.
The horizontal axis windmills have a horizontal rotor much like the classic Dutch four-arm
windmill. The horizontal axis windmills primarily rely on lift from the wind. As stated in
Bernoulli's Principle, "a fluid will travel from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower
pressure." It also states, "as the velocity of a fluid increases, its density decreases." Based upon
this principle, horizontal axis windmill blades have been designed much like the wings of an
airplane, with a curved top. This design increases the velocity of the air on top of the blade thus
decreasing its density and causing the air on the bottom of the blade to go towards the top ...
creating lift. The blades are angled on the axis as to utilize the lift in the rotation. The blades on
modern wind turbines are designed for maximum lift and minimal drag.

Vertical axis windmills, such as the Durries (built in 1930) use drag instead of lift. Drag is
resistance to the wind, like a brick wall. The blades on vertical axis windmills are designed to
give resistance to the wind and are as a result pushed by the wind. Windmills, both vertical and
horizontal axis, have many uses. Some of them are: hydraulic pump, motor, air pump, oil pump,

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churning, creating friction, heat director, electric generator, Freon pump, and can also be used as
a centrifugal pump.

There are many types of windmills, such as: the tower mill, sock mill, sail windmill, water pump,
spring mill, multi-blade, us, savonis, cycle-turbine, and the classic four-arm windmill. All of the
above windmills have their advantages. Some windmills, like the sail windmill, are relatively
slow moving, have a low tip speed ratio and are not very energy efficient compared to the cycle-
turbine, but are much cheaper and money is the great equalizer.

There have been many improvements to the windmill over the years. Windmills have been
equipped with air breaks, to control speed in strong winds. Some vertical axis windmills have
even been equipped with hinged blades to avoid the stresses at high wind speeds. Some
windmills, like the cycle-turbine, have been equipped with a vane that senses wind direction and
causes the rotor to rotate into the wind. Wind turbine generators have been equipped with
gearboxes to control [shaft] speeds. Wind turbines have also been equipped with generators
which convert shaft power into electrical power. Many of the sails on windmills have also been
replaced with propeller-like airfoils. Some windmills can also stall in the wind to control wind
speed. But above all of these improvements, the most important improvement to the windmill
was made in 1745 when the fantail was invented. The fantail automatically rotates the sails into
the wind.

Most wind turbines start to generate power at 11 m/s and shut down at speeds near 32m/s.
Another variable of the windmill's efficiency is its swept area. The swept area of a disk--shaped
wind wheel is calculated as: Area equals pi times diameter squared divided by four (pi equals
3.14).

Another variable in the productivity of a windmill is the wind speed. The wind speed is
measured by an anemometer.

Another necessity for a windmill is the tower. There are many types of towers. Some towers
have guy wire to support them and others don't. The towers without guy wires are called
freestanding towers. Something to take into consideration about a tower is that it must support
the weight of the windmill along with the weight of the tower. Towers are also subject to drag.

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Scientists estimate that, by the 21st Century, ten percent of the world's electricity will come from
windmills.

Windmills have been used for many centuries for pumping water and milling grain. The
discovery of the internal combustion engine and the development of electrical grids caused many
windmills to disappear in the early part of this century. However, in recent years there has been
a revival of interest in wind energy and attempts are underway all over the world to introduce
cost-effective wind energy conversion systems for this renewable and environmentally benign
energy source. In developing countries, wind power can play a useful role for water supply and
irrigation (wind pumps) and electrical generation (wind generators). These two variants of
windmill technology are discussed in separate technical briefs. This brief gives a general
overview of the resource and of the technology of extracting energy from the wind.

The kinetic energy in the wind is a promising source of renewable energy with significant
potential in many parts of the world. The energy that can be captured by wind turbines is highly
dependent on the local average wind speed. Regions that normally present the most attractive
potential are located near coasts, inland areas with open terrain or on the edge of bodies of water.
Some mountainous areas also have good potential. In spite of these geographical limitations for
wind energy project sitting, there is ample terrain in most areas of the world to provide a
significant portion of the local electricity needs with wind energy projects ( Range et al., 1992).

The world-wide demand for wind turbines has been growing rapidly over the last 15 years.
During 2001 alone the wind energy industry installed close to 5,500 MW of new generating
capacity. More than 24,000 MW of wind energy capacity is now estimated to be in operation
around the world (Wind Power Monthly, 2001). Much of this demand has been driven by the
need for electric power plants that use “cleaner fuels.” Wind farms that use multiple turbines are
being constructed in the multi-megawatt range. Over the last decade, typical individual turbine
sizes have increased from around 100 kW to 1 MW or more of electricity generation capacity,
with some wind energy projects now even being developed offshore. The result of all this
progress is that, in some areas of the world, large-scale wind energy projects now generate
electricity at costs competitive with conventional power plants (e.g. nuclear, oil and coal).

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In addition to these larger scale applications, there are a number of other applications for wind
turbines, such as medium scale applications on isolated-grids and off-grid uses for pumping
water and providing smaller amounts of electricity for stand-alone battery charging applications.
Wind energy projects are generally more financially viable in “windy” areas. This is due to the
fact that the power potential in the wind is related to the cube of the wind speed. However, the
power production performance of a practical wind turbine is typically more proportional to the
square of the average wind speed. Aerodynamic mechanical and electrical conversion
characteristics and efficiencies of the wind turbines. This means that the energy that may be
produced by a wind turbine will increase by about 20% for each 10% increase in wind speed.
Wind energy project sitting is critical to a financially viable venture. It is important to note that
since the human sensory perception of the wind is usually based on short-term observations of
climatic extremes such as wind storms and wind chill impressions ,either of these “wind speeds”
might be wrongly interpreted as representative of a windy site. Proper wind resource assessment
is a standard and important component for most wind energy project developments.

1.2 India’s Market Overview of Wind Energy Overview

India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources. India has one of the world’s largest
programs for deployment of renewable energy products and systems 3,700 MW from renewable
energy sources installed Wind power is excellent alternative forms of energy that are efficient
and can save you a lot of money. These types of energy have been used successfully for decades,
performing very well separately. Recently, there have been great strides in wind technologies. It
is now possible for a home to be solely powered by wind electricity, saving the homeowner
money on electricity. Combining both wind and solar power into one system can save even more
money.

Wind power is the fastest growing form of renewable, clean energy. The most efficient design
for the wind turbine is the three-propeller design. When the wind turns the turbines, kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy, which is then converted into electrical energy
through a DC motor. Conductors connect to a system for storage, which is necessary because of
the erratic levels of energy production. Because the wind does not blow constantly, your

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electricity would be constantly flickering if you did not have this store of energy. Still, not all
areas are prone to all that much wind.

Table 1.1 States with strong wind Potential

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1.3 The power in the Wind
The power in the wind can be computed by using the concepts of kinetics. The wind mill
works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy. The
kinetic energy of any particle is equal to one half its mass times the square of its velocity,
or ½ mv2. The amount of air passing in unit time through an area A, with velocity V, is A.
V, & its mass M is equal to its Volume multiplied by its density  of air, or
m =  AV …………………..(1)
(m is the mass of air transverse the area A swept by the rotating blades of a wind mill type
generator )
Substituting this value of the mass in expression of K.E.
= ½  AV.V2 watts
= ½  AV3 watts ………………….. (2)
Second equation tells us that the power available is proportional to air density (1.225
kg/m3) & is proportional to the intercept area. Since the area is normally circular of
diameter D in horizontal axis aero turbines, then,
A=  D2 (Sq. m)
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Put this quantity in equation second
Then

Available wind power Pa = ½  D2 V


= 1/8  D2 V3 watt
“ wind machines intended for generating substantial amounts of power should have large
rotors and be located in areas of high wind Speed”.

1.4 The Source of Winds


In a macro-meteorological sense, winds are movements of air masses in the atmosphere mainly
originated by temperature differences. The temperature gradients are due to uneven solar heating.
In fact, the equatorial region is more irradiated than the polar ones. Consequently, the warmer
and lighter air of the equatorial region rises to the outer layers of the atmosphere and moves

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towards the poles, being replaced at the lower layers by a return flow of cooler air coming from
the polar regions. This air circulation is also affected by the Coriolis forces associated with the
rotation of the Earth. In fact, these forces deflect the upper flow towards the east and the lower
flow towards the west. Actually, the effects of differential heating dwindle for latitudes greater
than 30oN and 30oS, where westerly winds predominate due to the rotation of the Earth. These
large-scale air flows that take place in all the atmosphere constitute the geo strophic winds.

The lower layer of the atmosphere is known as surface layer and extends to a height of 100 m. In
this layer, winds are delayed by frictional forces and obstacles altering not only their speed but
also their direction. This is the origin of turbulent flows, which cause wind speed variations over
a wide range of amplitudes and frequencies. Additionally, the presence of seas and large lakes
causes air masses circulation similar in nature to the geo strophic winds. All these air movements
are called local winds. Unfortunately, the general availability and reliability of wind speed data is
extremely poor in many regions of the world. Large areas of the world appear to have mean
annual wind speeds below 3m/s, and are un suitable for wind power systems, and almost equally
large areas have wind speeds in the intermediate range (3-4.5m/s) where wind power may or may
not be an attractive option. In addition, significant land areas have mean annual wind speeds
exceeding 4.5m/s where wind power would most certainly be economically competitive.

Wind power is excellent alternative forms of energy that are efficient and can save you a lot of
money. These two types of energy have been used successfully for decades, performing very
well separately. Recently, there have been great strides in both technologies. It is now possible
for a home to be solely powered by wind electricity, saving the homeowner money on electricity.
Combining wind power into one system can save even more money.

Wind power is the fastest growing form of renewable, clean energy. The most efficient design
for the wind turbine is the three-propeller design. When the wind turns the turbines, kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy, which is then converted into electrical energy
through a DC motor. Conductors connect to a system for storage, which is necessary because of
the erratic levels of energy production. Because the wind does not blow constantly, your
electricity would be constantly flickering if you did not have this store of energy. Still, not all
areas are prone to all that much wind

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1.5 .WIND TURBINES

Wind turbine technology has reached a mature status during the past 15 years as a result of
international commercial competition, mass production and continuing technical success in
research and development (R&D). The earlier concerns that wind turbines were expensive and
unreliable have largely been allayed. Wind energy project costs have declined and wind turbine
technical availability is now consistently above 97%. Wind energy project plant capacity factors
have also improved from 15% to over 30% today, for sites with a good wind regime (Rangi et
al., 1992). Modern wind energy systems operate automatically.

The wind turbines depend on the same aerodynamic forces created by the wings of an aero plane
to cause rotation. An anemometer that continuously measures wind speed is part of most wind
turbine control systems. When the wind speed is high enough to overcome friction in the wind
turbine drive train, the controls allow the rotor to rotate, thus producing a very small amount of
power. This cut-in wind speed is usually a gentle breeze of about 4m/s. Power output increases
rapidly as the wind speed rises. When output reaches the maximum power the machinery was
designed for, the wind turbine controls govern the output to the rated power. The wind speed at
which rated power is reached is called the rated wind speed of the turbine, and is usually a strong
wind of about 15 m/s. Eventually, if the wind speed increases further, the control system shuts
the wind turbine down to prevent damage to the machinery. This cut-out wind speed is usually
around 25 m/s.

Wind turbines utilize the wind, which originates from sunlight due to the differential

Heating of various parts of the earth. This differential heating produces zones of high and low
pressure, resulting in air movement. The motion of the air is also affected by the earth’s rotation
.Many countries have turned to wind power as a clean energy source because it relies on the
wind, which is indefinitely renewable; it is generated “locally,” thereby providing a measure of
energy independence; and it produces no carbon dioxide emissions when operating. There is
interest in pursuing wind energy both on-land and offshore. For this report, however, the focus is
on land-based installations, and all comments will focus on this technology.

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The development of modern wind turbines has been an evolutionary design process, applying
optimization at many levels. This section gives a brief overview of the characteristics of wind
turbines with some mention of the optimization parameters of interest .The main features of
modern wind turbines one notices are the very tall towers, which are no longer a lattice structure
but a single cylindrical-like structure and the three upwind, very long, highly contoured turbine
blades. The tower design has evolved partly because of biological impact factors as well as for
other practical reasons. The early lattice towers were attractive nesting sites for birds. This led to
an unnecessary impact of wind turbines on bird populations. The lattice structures also had to be
climbed externally by turbine technicians. The tubular towers, which are now more common, are
climbed internally. This reduces the health risks for maintenance crews.

The power in the wind available to a wind turbine is related to the cube of the wind speed and the
square of the radius of the rotor. Not all the available power in the wind can be captured by a
wind turbine, however. Betz (van Kuik, 2007) showed that the maximum power that can be
extracted is 16/27 times the available power. In an attempt to extract the maximum power from
the wind, modern turbines have very large rotors and the towers are quite high. In this way the
dependence on the radius is “optimized,” and the dependence on the wind speed is “optimized.”
The wind speed is higher away from the ground due to boundary layer effects, and as such, the
towers are made higher in order to capture the higher speed winds. It is noted here that the rotor
radius may increase again in the future, but currently the largest rotors used on land are around
100 m in diameter. This upper limit is currently a function of the radius of curvature of the roads
on which the trucks that deliver the turbine blades must drive to the installation sites .Clearance
under bridges is also a factor. The efficiency with which the wind’s power is captured by a
particular wind turbine (i.e., how close it comes to the Betz limit) is a function of the blade
design, the gearbox, the electrical generator, and the control system. The aerodynamic forces on
the rotor blade play a major role. The best design maximizes lift and minimizes drag at every
blade section from hub to tip. The twisted and tapered shapes of modern blades attempt to meet
this optimal condition. Other factors also must be taken into consideration such as structural
strength, ease of manufacturing and transport, type of materials, cost, etc. Beyond these visual
features, the number of blades and speed of the tips play a role in the optimization of the
performance through what is called solidity. When setting tip speeds based on number of blades,

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however, trade-offs exist because of the influence of these parameters on weight, cost, and noise.
For instance, higher tip speeds often results in more noise. The dominance of the 3-bladed
upwind systems is both historic and evolutionary.

The European manufacturers moved to 3-bladed systems and installed numerous turbines, both
in Europe and abroad. Upwind systems are preferable to downwind systems for on-land
installations because they are quieter. The downwind configuration has certain useful features
but it suffers from the interaction noise created when the blades pass through the wake that forms
behind the tower. The conversion of the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy is
handled by the rotor nacelle assembly (RNA), which consists of the rotor, the drive train, and
various ancillary components. The rotor grouping includes the blades, the hub, and the pitch
control components. The drive train includes the shafts, bearings, gearbox (not necessary for
direct drive generators) ,couplings, mechanical brake, and generator.

The rotors are controlled so as to generate electricity most effectively and as such must withstand
continuously fluctuating forces during normal operation and extreme loads during storms.
Accordingly, in general a wind turbine rotor does not operate at its own maximum power
coefficient at all wind speeds. Because of this, the power output of a wind turbine is generally
described by a relationship, known as a power curve. Below the cut-in speed no power is
produced. Between cut-in and rated wind speed the power increases significantly with wind
speed. Above the rated speed, the power produced is constant, regardless of the wind speed, and
above the cut-out speed the turbine is shut down often with use of the mechanical brake.

Two main types of rotor control systems exist: pitch and stall. Stall controlled turbines have
fixed blades and operate at a fixed speed. The aerodynamic design of the blades is such that the
power is self-limiting, as long as the generator is connected to the electrical grid. Pitch regulated
turbines have blades that can be rotated about their long axis. Such an arrangement allows more
precise control. Pitch controlled turbines are also generally quieter than stall controlled turbines,
especially at higher wind speeds. Until recently, many turbines used stall control. At present,
most large turbines use pitch control.

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The energy production of a wind turbine is usually considered annually. Estimates are usually
obtained by calculating the expected energy that will be produced every hour of a representative
year (by considering the turbine’s power curve and the estimated wind resource) and then
summing the energy from all the hours. Sometimes a normalized term known as the capacity
factor (CF) is used to characterize the performance. This is the actual energy produced (or
estimated to be produced) divided by the amount of energy that would be produced if the
Turbines were running at its rated output for the entire year.

1.6 WIND TURBINE TYPES

Wind turbines can be classified in a first approximation according to its rotor axis orientation and
the type of aerodynamic forces used to take energy from wind. There are several other features
like power rating, dimensions, number of blades, power control, etc. that are discussed further
along the design process and can also be used to classify the turbines in more specific categories.

Rotor axis orientation

The major classification of wind turbines is related to the rotating axis position in respect to the
wind, care should be taken to avoid confusion with the plane of rotation .Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbines (HAWT): the rotational axis of this turbine Must be oriented parallel to the wind in
order to produce power. Numerous sources claim a major efficiency per same swept area and the
majority of wind turbines are of this type.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT): the rotational axis is perpendicular To the wind
direction or the mounting surface. The main advantage is that the generator is on ground level so
they are more accessible and they don’t need a yaw system. Because of its proximity to ground,
wind speeds available are lower. One interesting advantage of VAWTs is that blades can have a
constant shape along their length and, unlike HAWTs, there is no need in twisting the blade as
every section of the blade is subjected to the same wind speed. This allows an easier design,
fabrication and replication of the blade which can influence in a cost reduction and is one of the
main reasons to design the wind turbine with this rotor configuration.

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Lift or Drag type
There are two ways of extracting the energy from the wind depending on the main aerodynamic
forces used:
The drag type takes less energy from the wind but has a higher torque and is used for mechanical
applications as pumping water. The most representative model of drag-type VAWTs is the
savonius.
The lift type uses an aerodynamic airfoil to create a lift force, they can move quicker than wind
flow. This kind of windmills is used for the generation of electricity. The most representative
model of a lift - type VAWT is the Darrieus turbine; its blades have a troposkien shape which is
appropriate for standing high centrifugal forces.
The design idea is to make a lift type turbine, with straight blades instead of curved. This kind of
device is also called giro mill and its power coefficient can be higher than the maximum possible
efficiency of a drag type turbine, like Savonius (Claessens, 2006).

Power control
The ability to control the power output as well as stand worst meteorological conditions can be
achieved passively with stall control or active with pitch control; the majority of small wind
turbines use stall control in addition to some blocking device, the NACA44 series airfoils are
considered particularly useful for this type of control (Jha, 2011, p. 263) but they will not be used
for the cur13 rent design because there is not available data about its behavior depending on the
angle of attack.

The Stall control is a passive control which provides over speed protection, the generator is used
to electrically control the turbine rotational speed, when the rated conditions are surpassed (i.e. in
a windy storm). This kind of control mechanism should be the one appropriate for a simple,
reliable and low maintenance design because it doesn’t add any moving part to the structure nor
its associated bearings, which can affect the final cost of the turbine.
The Variable pitch control is achieved by varying actively the pitch (orientation) of the blade in
such a way it can adapt to the current airflow speed to take the maximum energy from the wind,
its efficiency is increased compared to a fixed pitch windmill and it increases the maximum

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power that can be extracted from wind. Its main drawback is the need to have a control system to
allow these pitch movements. For complex models its worth to have some electronics taking care
of that purpose but it is not the case of our design.

Rotor speed: constant or variable


A constant rotor speed maintains the same rotational speed while the windmill is generating
energy; they don’t need power electronics to adapt to grid frequency which makes them cheaper;
one of their drawbacks is that their optimum efficiency is only achieved at the design airspeed. A
stall-regulated wind turbine falls into this category as it maintains constant rpm once the rated
rotational speed is achieved.

VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE


Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to
be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for
example when integrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed
with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently
lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each
cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some
rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modeling the wind flow accurately and
hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct
drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility for
maintenance.

1.8 WIND DATA MEASUREMENTS


Wind data measurements over a period of ten-years are required to obtain an accurate assessment
of the wind regime of an area. The methodologies adopted to ultimately determine the annual
energy production potential of a site must be carefully determined and documented.
Methodologies on wind farm design rely on data from the nearest measuring station and careful
analysis of wind flow, which takes into account the topography and the roughness level of the

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surrounding land. Unless the data on wind speed, direction, topographical features and roughness
classes are accurate calculations may result in significant errors in estimating the wind speed,
which may lead to even greater errors in energy estimation especially in complex terrains. In all
of above cases, the first step is to estimate the mean value of the wind speed that is expected on a
site and afterwards, the wind energy that a proposed wind farm would produce in an average
year, is estimated. India has a gross wind power potential of over 45195 MW, and the technical
potential of 13390 MW depending upon land availability and grid penetration. India has made
rapid strides in harnessing wind power. The gross generation capacity towards the end of 2008
was
8757MW. Exploration of newer sites to assess the wind energy potential is an ongoing process
and many more wind monitoring stations are being installed to collect time series data on wind
speed and direction.

1.9 VERTICAL WIND SPEED GRADIENT


The wind speed at the surface is zero due to friction between the air and the surface of the
ground. The wind speed increases with height most rapidly near the ground, increasing less
rapidly with greater height. Measurement of wind speed at different heights is a prerequisite for
the extrapolation of wind speed to the desired hub height of the proposed wind turbine. The
power law equation is used to determine the value of α (power law index) which is subsequently
used for the extrapolation of wind speed to the desired height of hub.

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2.1 Literature Review
A technical study was presented by D.Ayhanet. al. About the wind speed variations and flow
characteristics in city area. The boundary layer in a city, effect of building geometry on the
boundary layer and the micro wind flow around the buildings were presented with the help of
CFD tools. Different types of turbines for harnessing the energy were also suggested in that
paper.
An experimental study was done by R. Howell et. al. 4. The airfoil analyzed in that study was
NACA 0022. The chord length of the turbine was 100 mm and the length was limited to 400
mm. they did experiment on both 2 bladed (solidity of 1) and 3 bladed turbines (solidity of 0.67).
The low speed wind tunnel where the tests were performed had a square test section of 1.2m X
1.2m dimension. The reason for that experiment was to get a set of experimental results to
compare with a CFD model. From the study it was found that the predicted performance from
the 2D study was much higher than the 3D experimental results. Dynamic behavior of vortices
over the tip of the turbine blade is responsible for that, according to the authors. A CFD study of
an unconventionally designed VAWT was presented by S. Mc Tavishet. Al. The authors made a
CFD model of a wind turbine of novel design for mainly micro scale power generation.
Several modifications of a VAWT are experimented and studied to improve the power
coefficient of the VAWT. One particular modification is incorporating a stator guide vane. A
CFD study on that is presented by K. Pope et. al. 6. A zephyr made VAWT was studied in that
paper.
One particular problem of a VAWT is, it is not self-starting. To eliminate this problem
asymmetric airfoils are used normally. An experimental study was performed on a VAWT with
asymmetric airfoil by M. Takao et. al. 7. The airfoil used in that study was NACA4518 with
stator guide vane.
In the 1970s and 1980s, when wind energy research was in its infancy, VAWTs were actively
developed as wind power generators. Although strange looking, they had a lot going for them:
They were simpler than their horizontal-axis cousins so they tended to be more reliable. For a
while, VAWTs held their own against HAWTs. But then wind turbines scaled up.

“HAWTs emerged as the predominant technology for land-based wind over the past 15 years
primarily due to advantages in rotor costs at the 1 to 5 megawatt scale,” Paquette said.

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In the 1980s, research focused more heavily on HAWT turbines, and many VAWT
manufacturers left the business, consigning VAWTs to an “also ran” in the wind energy
museum.

But the winds of change have blown VAWTs’ way once more.

Sandia is mining the richness of its wind energy history. Wind researchers who were among the
original wind energy engineers are going through decades of Sandia research and compiling the
lessons learned, as well as identifying some of the key unknowns described at the end of VAWT
research at Sandia in the 1990s.

The first phase of the program will take place over two years and will involve creating several
concept designs, running those designs through modern modeling software and narrowing those
design options down to a single, most-workable design. During this phase, Paquette, Borone and
their colleagues will look at all types of aero elastic rotor designs, including HVAWTs and V-
shaped VAWTs. But the early favorite rotor type is the Darrieus design.

In phase two researchers will build the chosen design over three years, eventually testing it
against the extreme conditions that a turbine must endure in an offshore environment. In addition
to rotor designs, the project will consider different foundation designs: Early candidates are
barge designs, tension-leg platforms and spar buoys.

The project partners will work on many elements.

Another partner, the University of Maine, will develop floating VAWT platform dynamics code
and subscale prototype wind/wave basin testing. Iowa State University will develop
manufacturing techniques for offshore VAWT blades and subscale wind tunnel testing. TPI
Composites will design a proof-of-concept subscale blade and develop a commercialization plan.
TU-Delft will work on aero elastic design and optimization tool development and modeling.
Texas A&M University will work on aero elastic design tool development.

“Ultimately it’s all about the cost of energy. All these decisions need to lead to a design that’s
efficient and economically viable,” said Paquette.

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Sandia National Laboratories is a multi-program laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a
wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed Martin company, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s
National Nuclear Security Administration. With main facilities in Albuquerque, N.M., and
Livermore, Calif., Sandia has major R&D responsibilities in national security, energy and
environmental technologies and economic competitiveness.

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3.1 WORKING OF J-BLADE WIND TURBINE

A J-blade, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a
shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. Wind turbines, like windmill are
usually mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. Wind turbines operate on a simple
principle. The energy in the wind turns two or four propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor
is connected to the main shaft which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are
mounted on a tower to capture the most energy .they can take advantage of faster and less
turbulent wind. A blade acts much like an airplane wing.

The wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-
pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The
force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade,
which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller,
and the turning shaft spin a generator to make electricity. Wind turbines can be used to produce
electricity for a single home or building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid for more
widespread electricity distribution .Wind speed and the height of the blades both contribute to
the amount of energy generate.

In Distribution of air to equalize energy in the atmosphere moving air from areas of high
pressure to areas of lower pressure. The energy of the wind is transferred to the windmill’s sails
where it is harnessed to perform. The cap of the windmill is turned with the winch attached to
the bottom of the tail pole until the sails face the direction of the wind. Depending on the wind
speed, wind boards are installed on the leading edge of the sails and canvas sail-cloths are
unfurled across the sail-frames. The Miller climbs the sail-frame using the sail-bars like rungs of
a ladder attaching the canvas to the cleats on the whip. High winds require less open sail than
low wind. The Miller determines the amount of sail surface required based on wind speed and
partially furls (reefs) the sails as required. The sails catch the wind and turn the wind-shaft.

The wind-shaft which is connected to the brake-wheel can be stopped with the brake which
consists of a band of friction blocks encircling the brake-wheel attached to the brake lever and

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controlled via a rope near the tail pole attached to the brake lever. The turning brake-wheel turns
the wallowed connected to the upright shaft on the fifth level. A wood wheel on the fourth level
is used to adjust any irregular shaft.

The upright shaft is connected to a large gear called the spur-wheel on the third level. Power to
run many things in the windmill is drawn from this wheel. Two stone-nuts turned by the spur-
wheel drive quant shafts in turn rotating the runner stones; the top stones of the grinding stone
pairs. The lower stone of the grinder is the bed stone; it remains stationary. The spur-wheel also
turns a third lantern gear (trundle) to drive power transfer belts, pulleys and shafts used to
operate the grain elevators, sifters, grain separator, and a vacuum system.

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FIG. 3.1 LAYOUT OF WIND TURBINE

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3.2. Principles in wind turbine

There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the wind; these
are through the boat creation of either drag or lift force (or through a combination of the two).
The difference between drag and lift is illustrated (see Figure1) by the difference between using
a spinnaker sail, which fills like a parachute and pulls sailing with the wind, and Bermuda rig,
the familiar triangular sail which deflects with wind and allows a sailing boatto travel across the
wind or slightly into the wind. Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion ,these
being the forces felt by a person (or object) exposed to the wind .Lift forces are the most efficient
means of propulsion but being more subtle than drag forces are not so well understood.

The basic features that characterize lift and drag are:

• Drag is in the direction of air flow

• Lift is perpendicular to the direction of air flow

• Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed with a good
aerofoil,

• The lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag

• Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices

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3.3. PROPERTIES

Young’s modulus

It is defined as the ratio of stress and strain, where the strain does not have units. Therefore
young’s modulus has the units of stress ,N/mm2 , Mpa , Gpa

The value for Mild Steel is 210*103 Mpa

Hooke’s Law.

This law states that stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit.

Yield Stress

It is the value of stress at which the material continues to deform at constant load conditions .The
value for Mild Steel is 323.62Mpa

Ultimate Stress

It is the maximum stress induced in the specimen & it occurs in the plastic region.

Fracture Stress

As the reduction in cross sectional area continues, the load bearing capacity of specimen reduces
gradually. At a certain stage cross sectional of specimen is so small that it cannot sustain the load
& hence it breaks. The stress at which the specimen breaks is known as fracture stress. It is
generally less than ultimate stress for ductile materials.

Hardness

It is the measure of resistance to penetration &abrasion, which is a function of stress required to


produce some specified type of failure. It is generally expressed as a number.

Toughness

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The ability of material to absorb energy in the plastic range is known as toughness. Toughness
per unit volume of the material is known as modulus of toughness.

Poisson’s ratio

The ratio between lateral strain and longitudinal strain is known as Poisson’s ratio. The value for
Mild Steel is 0.303

3.4 PROCESS INOVLVED IN FABRICATION

1. Gas Cutting

2. Spot Welding

GAS CUTTING

A cutting torch is used to heat metal to kindling temperature. A stream of oxygen is then trained
on the metal, and metal burns in that oxygen and then flows out of the cut.

The gases used in this process are

1. LPG

2. Helium

Advantages of the Gas Cutting.


 Environment friendly (reducing the emission of CO2)
 High quality of cut surface
 Reduction of man-hours for finishing after cutting
 High productivity by high-speed cutting

SPOT WELDING

Spot welding uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the
base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or

25
alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is
sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and/or an
evaporating filler material. The process of arc welding is widely used because of its low capital
and running costs

The following gauge lengths of electrodes are used in this process 8, 10&12mm. The number of
electrodes used in this fabrication is around 40-45 electrodes.

3.5 SPECIFICATIONS OF THE WIND TURBINE

BASE DIMENSIONS

Height 111.6cm

Width 91.44cm

Breadth 122cm

BLADE DIMENSIONS

Height 73cm

Diameter 122cm

Thickness 0.1cm

Angle 45 °

Angle b/w blades 60°

SHAFT DIMENSIONS

Diameter 2.54cm

Length 91.44cm

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PULLEY DIMENSIONS

Diameter 28cm

Hole Diameter 2.54cm

Total Height of the assembly 198cm

Center Distance of Pulley 33.5cm

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WIND POWER GENERATION

WIND WINDTURBINE WIND

Roter with gear

ENERGY STORAGE

LOAD UTILIZATION

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3.6 VARAIBLES

 Wind Speed

This is very important to the productivity of a windmill. The wind turbine only generates power
with the wind. The wind rotates the axis (horizontal or vertical) and causes the shaft on the
generator to sweep past the magnetic coils creating an electric current.

 Blade Length

This is important because the length of the blade is directly proportional to the swept area.
Larger blades have a greater swept area and thus catch more wind with each revolution. Because
of this, they may also have more torque.

 Base Height

The height of the base affects the windmill immensely. The higher a windmill is, the more
productive it will be due to the fact that as the altitude increases so does the wind speed.

 Base Design

Some base is stronger than others. Base is important in the construction of the windmill because
not only do they have to support the windmill, but they must also be subject to their own weight
and the drag of the wind. If a weak tower is subject to these elements, then it will surely collapse.
Therefore, the base must be identical so as to insure a fair comparison.

 Tip Speed Ratio

The tip speed ratio is very important. The tip speed ratio is directly proportional to the windmill's
productivity. It is how many times the blades rotate greater than the wind speed.

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3.7 THEORTICAL CALCULATIONS
The wind mill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to
mechanical energy. The kinetic energy of any particle is equal to one half its mass times
the square of its velocity, or ½ mv 2.

K.E=½ mv2 . ………………….. (1)


K.E = kinetic energy
m= mass
v = velocity,

M is equal to its Volume multiplied by its density  of air


M =  AV ………………….. (2)

Substituting equation (2) in equation (1)


We get,.
K E = ½  AV.V2
K E = ½  AV3 watts

 = density of air ( 1.225 kg/m 3 )

A =  D2 /4 ( Sq. m )
D = diameter of the blade

A = *(1.22)2/4
A = 1.16Sq.m

Available wind power Pa = (½  D2V3)/4

P = 1/8  D2 V3 watt

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TRAIL 1
FOR VELOCITY 4.5m/s
Pa = (½  D2 V3)/4

Pa = (½*1.225**1.222*4.53 )/4

Pa= 65.244watt

TRAIL 2
FOR VELOCITY 5.5m/s
Pa = (½  D2 V3)/4

Pa = (½*1.225**1.222*5.53 )/4

Pa = 119.12watt

TRAIL 3
FOR VELOCITY 7.5m/s
Pa = (½  D2 V3)/4

Pa = (½*1.225**1.222*7.53 )/4

Pa = 302.06watt

TRAIL 4
FOR VELOCITY 10m/s
Pa = (½  D2 V3)/4

Pa = (½*1.225**1.222*103 )/4

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3.8 COMPONENTS USED

1. BLADES

2. ROTER

3. GEAR

4. SHAFT

5. FILTER CIRCUIT

6. INVERTER CIRCUIT

7. BATTERY

MATERIALS USED FOR COMPONENTS

TIN
BLADES
MILD STEEL
ROTER
MILD STEEL
GEAR
MILD STEEL
SHAFT
PCB
FILTER CIRCUIT
PCB
INVERTER CIRCUIT

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3.9 DESIGN OF ASSEMBLY

DESIGNING OF WINDMILLS

A wind mill is machine for wind energy conversion. A wind turbine converts the kinetic
energy of the wind’s motion to mechanical energy transmitted by the shaft. A generator
further converts it to electrical energy. So it is necessary to keep in mind, while designing
the windmill’s structural part.

Design of Base

In this project there is a pole base which is made up of mild steel can be with stand, in
large force of wind. The base& its height are related to cost and transmission system
incorporated. So the height of our base is 115cm. & width at bottom is 128cm & at top is
122cm

Area of large base- 41×38 cm


Area of small base-15×20 cm
Design of blade

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Wind turbine blades have on j blade – type cross section and a variable pitch. While
designing the size of blade it is must to know the weight and cost of blades in the project
six blade with vertical shaft are used, it has a height &width of 73cm &122cm
respectively.. The angle between two blades is 60 0. So if one Blade moves other blades
comes in the position of first blade, so the speed is increases.

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DIAGRAM OF J BLADE

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Shaft Designing
While designing the shaft of blades it should be properly fitted to the blade. The shaft
should be as possible as less in thickness & light in weight for the six blade, the shaft used
is very thin in size are all properly fitted. So no problem of slippin g & fraction is created,
it is made up of hollow Aluminum which is having very light weight. Length of shaft &
diameter are 91.44cm& 2.54cm respectively. And at the top and bottom ends mild steel of
length 8cm and 15cm respectively are fixed to give strength to the hollow shaft.

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Filter circuit

Filter circuit is use to convert dc current to pure dc current .and gives constant current to circuit
and it is good repel factor. It consist capacitor diode and resistance

Resistance- 1 k (to glow led)

Capacitor- 100 micro farad(for filter)

Diode-no. 4007(for 12 v supply)

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Inverter circuit

In this project we use 45 watt inverter circuit (12 v dc).It is use to convert direct current into
alternative current.

37
Battery

We use 12 v battery to store energy.

38
Electric motor

A generator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. In
principal there is no physical difference between a generator and an electrical motor. The only
practical difference is in how it is operate die. if rotational energy is converted to electrical
energy or vice versa. This is a good feature in a wind turbine that is not aerodynamically self
starting – the direction of energy is changed and the generator can be used as a motor to start the
turbine. There are several types of generators; synchronous, a synchronous ,DC etc. with
different types of rotor configurations within the different types. However, all generators
considered in this work are three phase permanent magnet synchronous generators with cable
wound stator and surface mounted magnets .The induced electromotive force (emf), εa, of one
phase in a generator can be described as

εa= −NT d Φ B dt

Where, NT is the number of turns in the windings of the stator and


d Φ B dt is the time-dependent change of magnetic flux through the stator due to the movement
of the rotor. εa, also called the internal voltage of the generator is proportional
to the rotational speed of the generator.
However, the stator windings that are induced in have some internal resistance and inductance,
which results in that the generator output voltage, is affected by the current through the starter.

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.

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Fig 3.10 Photo of final project

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SUMMARY

J-Blade wind turbine is the turbine that rivals any other turbine in terms of noise reduction,
durability & efficiency. They are capable of generating electricity regardless of the prevailing
wind direction, making it ideal for locations in which the wind direction varies according to the
season or the time of day.

The J-blade wind turbine is Quiet, Safe and Compact , these J-Blade turbine are easy to install
and maintain. The main aim of the J-Blade wind Turbine is to reduce cost, to overcome location
problem ,which we face in case of wind mill and to overcome the wind directional problem and
low speed rate of wind which we face in case of wind mill.

CONCLUSION

The main objective of this project is to design and build an J-type, vertical axis wind turbine that
has the capability to self-start. In addition, this turbine will be designed to allow a variety of
modifications such as blade profile and pitching to be tested.

The first part of the design process, which included research, brainstorming, engineering
analysis, turbine design selection, and prototype testing has been completed. Using these results,
the final full-scale turbine has been designed. Construction of the turbine will begin in early
January, with the goal of finishing the final product by the end of February.

This will allow for a month of testing and data analysis, as well as provide time for making any
design alterations that arise during testing. As a course requirement, the design project must be
finished and tested by April, so that presentations and final reports can be completed.

The group is excited about the effects that test results could have on vertical axis wind turbine
technology. There is vast potential for improvements in the vertical turbine field, and test results
will no doubt impact the industry in a positive manner. Efficient performance of our VAWT
could lead to a change in the standard thinking of how wind energy is harnessed, and may spur
future VAWT design and research. As the popular wind harnessing technology used today is the

42
horizontal axis turbine, the vertical design offers many advantages and is a cost effective option
for capturing larger amounts of environmentally friendly energy.

43
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[1] J. F. Man well , J. G. McGowan, and A. L. Rogers. Wind energy explained. John
Wiley and Sons Ltd ., Amherst, USA, 1st edition, 2002.

[2] S. Arrhenius. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature
of the ground. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 41(5):237–276,
April 1896.

[3] K. Aleklett, M. Hook, K. Jakobsson , M. Lardelli, S. Snowden, and


B. So derbergh. The peak of the oil age – analyzing the world oil production
Reference scenario in world energy outlook 2008. Energy Policy,
38(3):1398–1414, March 2010.

[4] J. Ribrant and L. M. Bertling. Survey of Failures in Wind Power Systems With
Focus on Swedish Wind Power Plants During 1997-2005. IEEE Transactions
on energy conversion, 22(1), March 2007.

[5] G. J. M. Darrieus. Turbine having its rotating shaft transverse to the flow of the
current. United States Patent Office, Patent no. 1835018, December 1931.

[6] J. German. The end of an era, Sandia’s 17-meter Vertical Axis Wind Turbine
comes down after two decades. Technical report, Sandia Lab News, 1997.
LN11-21-9.1

[7] D. R. Smith. The wind farms of the Altamont Pass area. Annual Review of
Energy, 12:145–183, 1987.

[8] P. J. Musgrove. Wind energy conversion: Recent progress and future prospects.
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[9] Google, Wikipedia, Science Direct etc.

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