PHY11044 Assignment

Group Members:

Trimal Accra USI: 1032430

Eric Grenion USI: 1031762

Imtiyaaz Khan USI: 10325342

 Temperature
Temperature is the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially as
expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch.

Importance of measuring temperature

Temperature plays a crucial role in medical care (both humans and animals), food, beverages,
and agriculture. Our overall health is often reliant upon temperature in many ways as well.

Maintaining proper temperature levels in medical cold storage areas is critical. Incorrect
temperatures can compromise the medications or vaccines stored in medical refrigerators. High
temperature and high humidity are the two most important factors in drug degradation. When
exposed to these conditions, the medications can weaken. Moreover, you can face fines or
penalties if your medical refrigerators are not performing properly.

The CDC conducted a study that highlighted the improper storage and handling of vaccines.
Unfortunately, 76 percent of the selected 45 providers in the study had some vaccines exposed to
temperatures that were not within the cold chain range for a period-of-time. This study triggered
the CDC to make changes and clarifications in guidance and requirements for vaccine care.

Three devices used to measure high temperature are:

 Pyrometer
 Infrared Thermometer
 Thermocouple

Operation Functions of these devices.

Pyrometer

Pyrometer, device for measuring relatively high temperatures, such as are encountered in
furnaces. Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to
be measured. Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material being
measured. Optical pyrometers, for example, measure the temperature of incandescent bodies by
comparing them visually with a calibrated incandescent filament that can be adjusted in
temperature. In an elementary radiation pyrometer, the radiation from the hot object is focused
onto a thermopile, a collection of thermocouples, which generates an electrical voltage that
depends on the intercepted radiation. Proper calibration permits this electrical voltage to be
converted to the temperature of the hot object.

In resistance pyrometers a fine wire is put in contact with the object. The instrument converts the
change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of the temperature of the object.
Thermocouple pyrometers measure the output of a thermocouple (q.v.) placed in contact with the
hot body; by proper calibration, this output yields temperature. Pyrometers are closely akin to the
bolometer and the thermistor and are used in thermometry.

Infrared Thermometer
Infrared thermometers typically work by sampling two different wavelengths from a hot object
and comparing them. In one common design, radiation from a sample passes through a lens on
the front of a pyrometer and an optical chopper (a rotating disc with alternating sections
containing different optical filters, driven by an electric motor). This interrupts the beam dozens
of times each second so the detector is alternately receiving two different wavelengths (that is,
colors) of light from the same sample. An electronic circuit attached to the detector can
accurately deduce the temperature of the object you're trying to measure using Planck's law (a
mathematical formula that shows how the radiation emitted by an object is related to its
temperature).

Other infrared thermometers, like the one illustrated here, compare the heat radiation from the
object whose temperature you're trying to measure with the radiation produced by an internal
heat source (whose temperature is precisely known) or the background level of infrared inside
the pyrometer's casing.

Thermocouple

The “Seebeck effect” is responsible for the behavior of thermocouples.

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar thermoelement wires A and B that are joined at one
end T1 (the “hot” junction). The wires are insulated from each other along their lengths. The
other end T2 (the “cold” junction) is maintained at a constant reference temperature (usually the
melting point of ice). The cold junction is where the thermocouple wire transitions to copper
wire for connection to a meter. Thermocouple wire can be connected directly to a meter or
readout that is equipped with internal cold junction circuitry. This configuration is typically less
accurate than when using an external cold junction maintained in a melting point of ice bath. The
difference between the actual temperature T1 and reference temperature T2 is corrected
electronically in the instrument measuring the thermocouple to indicate the actual temperature of
T1 This adjustment is referred to as cold-junction compensation (CJC).

A voltage (thermoelectric force) is generated between the cold junction wires (T2) when the hot
junction (T1) is exposed to a temperature that is different than the cold junction. An instrument
connected to lead wires from the cold junction is used to read the thermocouple voltage.

Theoretically, this voltage measurement depends only on the temperature difference (T1 – T2).
As T1 changes, the voltage output of the thermocouple changes proportionally to the change in
temperature, but not linearly. The voltage output ranges from about -10 to 77 mV (depending on
the thermocouple type and measurement temperature). The correlation of temperature versus
voltage establishes a relationship that is unique to the various thermocouple types. These
relationships are summarized in reference tables which provide the basis for thermocouple
calibration.
 Molecular Forces

Intermolecular forces refer to the forces which act between neighbouring molecules. These
forces arise due to the kinetic energy in atoms or the presence of positive and or negative
electrical charges on a molecule. It is this force which holds molecules together, but not atoms
together.(1)

These forces include:

1. London dispersion forces

2. Dipole-dipole interaction
3. Ion dipole interaction
4. Ion-ion interaction

Dispersion Forces:

London dispersion forces, explained by the German Physicist Fritz London in 1928, are
the weakest if the intermolecular forces. This force exists between any atoms or molecules in
proximity of each other, regardless of the phase of matter the object is, or the charge of the
molecule. (2)

These forces are generated by the electron shells of atoms or molecules which creates a
repulsion with the electron shells of other atoms or molecules when two or more molecules
approach each other. It is this force which makes it possible for nonpolar molecules to condense
to liquids or freeze to solids when its temperature is lowered. (3)

This force exist because electrons on atoms are in constant motion around the atom, and
at some points in time more electrons can be present at one side of an atom. Because of this
asymmetrical arrangement of electrons, an electric dipole can momentarily form in the atom as
shown in figure 1. (3) Though these molecules have slight polarity for a short period of time it
affects the way the molecules interact with other molecules.
 Figure 1 (2)

Dipole-dipole interactions:

Dipole-dipole interactions occur when two dipolar molecules interact with each other. In
this interaction, the negatively charged portion of one molecule is attracted to the positively
charged portion of another molecule.(figure 2)These dipoles are formed when atoms have an
unequal sharing of electrons in molecules. Atoms that are more electronegative pulls electrons to
itself, building up an area with high electron density, creating a region on the molecule that is
negatively charged. (4)

An example of a molecule with this characteristic is hydrogen chloride (HCl). In the HCl
molecule, the more electronegative Cl atom bears the negative charge, whereas, the less
electronegative atom H, contains the positive charge. This strong intermolecular force influences
the boiling and melting point of substances. Water is liquid at room temperature because it
intermolecular force is strong enough to hold its molecules together, unlike HCl which is a gas at
room temperature, though both compounds would have the same average kinetic energy. Water
also contains a strong type of dipole-dipole attraction known as hydrogen bonding. (2)

Figure 2 (5)
Ion dipole interactions:

Ion dipole interactions arise for from the interaction of a charged ion and a molecule with
a dipole. This interaction is common in solutions where ionic compounds are dissolved in polar
liquids (salt and water). In these solution, the cation, sodium, attracts the negatively charged side
of the water molecule, whereas, the anion, attracts the positively charged portion of the water
molecule. Ion dipole attractions can become stronger as the charge of the ion increases, or as the
magnitude of the dipole of the polar compound increases. (6) This accounts for the higher boiling
point of salt water, compared to pure water.

Ion-ion interactions:

Like dipole-dipole interactions, ion-ion interactions occur when the positively charged cation of
an ion molecule, attracts the anion of another ion molecule. The highly polarized (charged)
nature of ionic molecules is reflected in their high melting points. (NaCl has a melting point of
801 °C) (7). Because of this it is conclusive that ion-ion interactions are strong intermolecular
forces.
Applications of Molecular forces:

As these forces are present in all matter, all physical interactions, studies, or occurrences, are
directly or indirectly linked to them. Scientific knowledge and insight on the properties of these
forces and their sources have enable us to use these properties in substances for our benefit, or
for our own understanding of the physical world.

Some examples of these applications are:

1) Soaps and Detergents: The dipole-dipole attractions in water molecules that are used for
laundering tend to hold the molecules together by a force known as cohesion in form of
water droplets. Soaps and detergents work by lowering the strength of this cohesive force
when mixed with water, so that the water more easily soaks into the pores and dirty areas
of clothes. (7)
2) Food and packaging industry: Adhesion, another for force produced from an attraction of
molecules with opposite electric charges, are present in things known as adhesives. In the
food industry adhesives are essential for packaging ready to eat or instant foods as
adhesives make the manufacture of impermeable packages possible. Without adhesives to
seal of the packages, the food would not be safe from the environment in distribution. (7)
3) Liquid crystal displays: Screens which use LCD technology applies the properties of
intermolecular forces. The liquid crystals in these screens have permanent dipoles which
line up in the electric field in LCD monitors. By the electric current passing, the LCD
will display different colours based on the different polarizations of liquid crystals and
the specific structure of the LCD monitor. (8)
Differentiation between alternating current(a.c.) and direct current(d.c.)

To begin, both alternating current and direct current are forms of electrical current and deal
specifically with the flow of electrons. Electrons flow from a point of low electric potential to a
point of high electric potential. The difference in potential between these two points (potential
difference) is the driving force of these electrons and it is measured in volts(V). This is where the
fundamental difference between alternating current and direct current lies. Direct current utilizes
a constant voltage source, in other words, the potential difference never changes(ideally). This
means that the direction of current flow will not change. Whereas in the case of alternating
current, the voltage varies or ‘alternates’ as time passes. The alternation of voltage in a.c. is
sinusoidal, this means that the voltage becomes negative every half of a cycle. When the voltage
is negative,the direction of current flow reverses. So it can be said that the direction of current
flow reverses periodically (every half cycle) in alternating current. It should be noted that the
current also changes sinusoidally in alternating current whereas current stays at a constant value
in direct current(MIT School of engineering,n.d.).

Diagram showing graphical representations of the voltages of alternating and direct current with
respect to time(Elprocus,2016).
Both alternating current and direct current have their advantages and disadvantages, and which is
superior has been a topic of debate for many years. Firstly,alternating current is much easier to
produce than direct current because of the induction generator. Direct current loses power over
long distances but alternating current can be easily changed to have a high voltage and a low
current. This minimalizes power loss because power loss is dependent on current, not voltage.
This is why alternating current is easier to transmit over long distances and is the reason why
residential power is supplied in the form of alternating current. The voltage can be ‘stepped
down’ at a later time using a transformer. However, direct current is much easier to store.
Alternating current also has the issue of a drop in power every time it reverses direction. This
short drop in power is not noticeable, but it can affect most electronics we use today. This is why
the preferred current for electronics is direct current. Direct current is also more applicable when
delicate electronics that cannot withstand a wide range of voltage and/or current are being
used(Libretexts.org,2018).

References

1. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-intermolecular-force-605252
2. https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/10-1-intermolecular-forces/
3. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-london-dispersion-force-605313
4. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Propert
ies_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Intermolecular_Forces/Specific_Intera
ctions/Dipole-Dipole_Interactions
5. https://socratic.org/questions/are-dipole-dipole-forces-stronger
6. https://brilliant.org/wiki/ion-dipole-interactions/
7. https://vanderwaals.weebly.com/imfs-in-your-everyday-lives.html
8. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/how-pyrometers-work.html
9. https://www.britannica.com/technology/pyrometer
10. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howthermocoupleswork.html
11. https://us.flukecal.com/how-does-thermocouple-work
12.
-Elprocus. (2016). Difference between AC and DC. Retrieved from

https://www.elprocus.com/main-difference-between-ac-and-dc-currents/

-Libretexts.org. (2018, May 2). Alternating Current versus Direct Current. Retrieved

from

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/Book%3A_College_Physics_(

OpenStax)/20%3A_Electric_Current%2C_Resistance%2C_and_Ohm's_Law/20.5%3A_

Alternating_Current_versus_Direct_Current

-MIT school of engineering. (n.d.). What’s the difference between AC and DC?

Retrieved from https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/whats-the-

difference-between-ac-and-dc/