Introduction to the IB Study Guide/Syllabus

The sub-topics are laid out as shown. below

Essential idea: This lists the essential idea for each sub-topic.
1.1 Sub-topic
Nature of Concepts and principles: International-mindedness:
design:  This section provides  Ideas that teachers can easily integrate into the
Relates the specifics of the content delivery of their lessons
sub-topic to requirements for each sub- Theory of knowledge:
the topic.  Examples of TOK knowledge questions
overarching Guidance: Utilization: (including syllabus and cross-curricular
theme of NOD  This section will provide links)
constraints on the  Links to other topics within the Design
requirements for the technology guide and to other DP courses
concepts and principles. Aims:
 Links to the design technology aims

Essential idea represents the overarching theme and focus of the sub-topic.

The table is divided into three columns. The left-hand column focuses on NOD.
Nature of design statement is a subject-specific example relevant to the statement and contents of
the sub-topic.

The middle column with concepts and principles and guidance makes up the required content of the sub-
topic.
Concepts and principles describe the content in terms of theoretical understanding. These may be
taught together or interspersed with other sub-topics. They can be taught in abstract theory or by applying
to contexts through the use of case studies. They can be taught through practical activities to develop the
understandings in context. This section may also include a compulsory area for practical investigation.
Guidance is designed to clarify aspects of the concepts and principles that were considered in need
of additional explanation in terms of depth or content.

The right-hand column consists of sections on international-mindedness, theory of knowledge, utilization

and aims. These sections are designed to put the sub-topic into the larger context and add interest and
variety.
International-mindedness draws attention to areas where an international approach has been or
could be beneficial to the pursuit of understanding.
Theory of knowledge looks at a subject-specific example to explore an underlying TOK question.
These discussions help the student to make connections with the issues covered in TOK, allowing them to
bring subject examples to their TOK classes, as well as bring their TOK thinking into their subject classes.
Utilization is intended to provide links to related sub-topics within the subject, but also with other
DP subjects where the same or related subject matter is covered, albeit from an alternative angle or
perspective. This cross-referencing allows for connections to be made within and between subjects,
making for a more holistic approach to the whole programme.
The final section on aims shows links to the design technology aims within the sub-topic. Although
the aims may refer to other applications and skills within this sub-topic, these references are suggestions
only and provide added opportunities for elaborating on the content.
 Design Technology Support Material
Further detail of the topics
The following sections are designed to act as further guidance for the teaching and learning of the
design technology syllabus. It is important to note that this guidance is not exhaustive and is supplemented
by teaching and research.
The theoretical framework of the new Design technology guide is based on the premise of “What
do students need to know to become good designers?” with the syllabus comprising the concepts and
principles students need to explore, understand and utilize in their design work.
These concepts and principles form the underlying knowledge base that can transfer from one
design situation to another.
NOD (Nature of Design) is the overarching theme for the course—over and above the concepts and
principles. NOD is intended to underpin the course and support the development of factual, procedural
and conceptual knowledge through the study of the syllabus topics and the design project (IA component).
The detailing of “What is design?” and exploration of “The role of science and technology in design”
and “Characteristics of a good designer” draw out the topics, sub-topics, concepts and principles that
students are required to understand in order to become good designers.

The theoretical base required to be a good designer does not comprise facts, but rather the
underlying concepts and principles that individuals need to understand to act as effective, principled,
balanced and knowledgeable designers. Rather than having a set factual knowledge base from which to
work, designers have to identify and learn new knowledge depending on the design situation that they
are working within. In this case, it is more valuable to know how to gain this knowledge and to be able to
draw from the concepts and principles that can apply across contexts than it is to be knowledgeable in
one specific area or have an unchanging knowledge base. Developing strategies to facilitate this
development and synthesis of knowledge is a key component to the success of a good designer.

To this end, the layout of the syllabus is significant. There are no assessment statements that can
be translated directly into examination questions; rather, the exploration of concepts and principles allow
students and teachers flexibility and transfer from one context to the next. For example, a particular topic,
such as classic design, may be explored in a more holistic fashion. Rather than identifying individual
assessment statements and addressing each individually within or without context, case studies may be
used that explore several concepts and principles at once. Once deep understanding of the underlying
concepts and principles is achieved, transfer from one context to another becomes easier and more
intuitive.
The guidance details the level of depth at which students need to explore and develop their
understanding of the concepts and principles. International-mindedness adds to the breadth of contexts
students should consider, leading to an understanding that design concepts and principles do not only
have an effect on a local scale, but potential effects on distant communities and ecosystems, that is,
globally.
The section entitled “Utilization” demonstrates the interdisciplinary nature of the new course—
allowing students to draw from other areas of study to inform their designing ability and to strengthen
their understanding of the concepts and principles that they are required to explore. These links form
connections with other DP subjects, the IA components and other topics of the design technology syllabus
that can deepen their understanding.
Finally, each sub-topic of the syllabus is linked to the aims of the course, explicitly stating the
connection between what the students are required to learn and how that contributes to meeting the aims
of the course.
 The following sections provide further guidance on each topic to
supplement/clarify the IB syllabus/study guide. They Should be used
WITH the IB Syllabus as there are sections of the syllabus NOT
mentioned in the following pages.

Topic 1: Human factors and ergonomics

All designed products and environments have users who interact with the finished product. It can
be argued that the easier and more “comfortable” this interaction is made, the better the product.

Anthropometrics

Anthropometric data can be considered Primarily in the following 2 ways.

 Static and dynamic data
 Structural and functional data

In regard to the above types of data, students need to demonstrate understanding of what they are, the
differences between them, how they can be used within context and how they are measured.

There is a great deal of anthropometric data available. Students are expected to be able to:
 interpret percentile tables in order to calculate dimensions related to a product and
 consider how products can be adaptable for different markets or adjustable to cater for most
 consider the 5th, 50th and 95th percentiles in particular, and percentile ranges such as 2.5th to
97.5th and 5th to 95th
 interpret percentile tables based on different national and international populations, gender and
age.
 (discuss Design Contexts where different percentile ranges are used)
This is not an exclusive list and cannot be considered as such.

(Other aspects of Anthropometrics include

 Primary data & Secondary data
 Range of sizes versus adjustability
 Clearance, reach, and adjustability)

Psychological factors

(Concepts & Principles

 Psychological factor data
 Human information processing systems
 Effect of environmental factors
 Alertness
 Perception)

Students should be able to map and analyse human information-processing systems, considering inputs,
processes (sensory, central and motor) and outputs.

A simple representation of a human information-processing system is below.

 Figure 1 Human information-processing system

Students should consider:

 how a breakdown in the system at any point will disrupt the whole system and be able to explain
common reasons for breakdown
 how the user responds to different environmental factors, for example, how warm or cold work
environments can affect the performance of an individual
 how environmental factors can affect different individuals in different ways
 the impact of perception on psychological factors data, in relation to accuracy and reliability.

Physiological factors

(Concepts and principles:

 Physiological factor data
 Comfort and fatigue
 Biomechanics)

When users interact with products, they may put stress on their bodies. Comfort and fatigue are
physiological factors that inform design decisions, and students should consider how these can affect users.

Students should develop an understanding of biomechanics that allows them to discuss its importance in
relation to the design of a given product. Students should consider muscle strength and age of the target
users, how users interact with a product (for issues such as handle size and surface textures), and torque
required to interact sufficiently with a product.
 Topic 2: Resource management and sustainable production
Materials play a key role in the design, manufacture and use of all products. The historical
development of materials should not only be considered in view of the scientific advances made during the
development of a particular material, but also how various developments in unrelated fields later converge
and lead to the development of new manufacturing techniques and materials. These developments should
be looked at for their technological impact as well as their social impact on the design and consumer
industries.

Resources and reserves

Students should be familiar with the following concepts.

 Renewable sources: A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time or does not
abate at all
 Non-renewable sources: A natural resource that does not replenish at a sustainable rate; a source
that will run out if the rate of extraction is maintained
 Resource reserves: A natural resource that has been identified in terms of quantity and quality
 Renewability: Relates to a resource that can be replenished over time or is inexhaustible, for
example, hardwood resources considered non-renewable could be renewed if all extraction of the
resource ceased and the hardwood resources were allowed to re-grow

An example of the economic and political importance of material and land/sea resources is the extraction
of oil. Students should consider the impact of resource security for nations and international treaties.

Often, multinational companies licensed to extract resources have limited consideration for the local
population. Governments need to balance the economic benefits and political impact of resource
extraction.

Waste-mitigation strategies

Designing out waste and designing for closed-loop recycling will be more important as resources
become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing products for product recovery
and dematerialization will become an essential element of innovation.

Dematerialization is defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as "the reduction of
total material and energy throughput of any product and service, and thus the limitation of its
environmental impact. This includes reduction of raw materials at the production stage, of energy
and material inputs at the use stage, and of waste at the disposal stage”—basically, using less
material. Dematerialization improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials
and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle: in material extraction; eco-design;
cleaner production; environmentally conscious consumption patterns; recycling of waste. It may
mean smaller, lighter products and packaging; the replacement of physical products by virtual
products (email instead of paper, web pages instead of brochures); home working, and so on.

The concept of a circular economy requires designers to consider the subsequent use of materials,
components and the embedded energy in a product. This can only be achieved by innovative design
and consideration of further cycles of development. Designers must ask themselves the question,
“How can this product be made to be made again?” There are three central strands to this concept:
cradle-to-cradle design thinking, design for disassembly, and design inspired by nature that favours
diversity and in which there is no waste (biomimicry). Innovative design techniques might include
the use of smart memory screws, adhesives and circuit boards that can be dissolved, the use of
clips rather than adhesives or screws, and biological materials that can be safely returned to the
 biosphere with no toxic dyes or other materials. Equally important are the systems in which the
product moves: How will the materials or components be recovered and made use of again? One
way forward is to develop different business models where users buy performance through leasing
rather than purchasing. This offers interesting job opportunities in creating reverse supply chains as
well as engaging design challenges and opportunities.

In the following diagram, the left side shows the current linear model. In the right-hand circular model,
biological and technical materials are kept separate. Note also the different approaches to sources of
energy.

Figure 2 The linear and circular models of the economy

(Ellen MacArthur Foundation) http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/

Energy utilization, storage and distribution

The embodied energy in a product accounts for all of the energy required to produce it. It is a valuable
concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or energy-saving device.

There are many methods of distributing energy including the use of national/international grid systems.
The distribution of charging point networks for electric vehicles should also be considered.

Batteries have had a great impact on the portability of electronic products and, as new technologies are
developed, they can become more efficient and smaller. Students should consider the relative cost,
efficiency, environmental impact and reliability of different types of batteries. The environmental
impact can be assessed using an environmental impact assessment matrix and life cycle analysis
(LCA).

Clean technology

Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by the local
community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing include:
 promoting positive impacts
 ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving natural resources
 reducing pollution and use of energy
 reducing waste of energy and resources.
The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the varied
perspectives in different countries.

Students should consider how legislation provides an impetus to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing
processes and also how manufacturers react to legislation.

Students should consider the use of international targets for reducing pollution and waste and the
difficulties of getting nations to agree to the targets.

On many occasions, agreeing targets proves difficult as many nations are at different stages in their
development. Is it ethical to prevent a developing country from producing high carbon emissions
through industrial development when developed countries have been the main generators of
carbon emissions through their own industrial revolutions and economic development?

Students will need to consider how this legislation is monitored and policed and how it can be promoted for
manufacturers.

Often, manufacturing processes are improved in terms of efficiency and amount of embodied energy over
time. This incremental development of a manufacturing process can require major refits and the
addition of new elements to a manufacturing process. Radical solutions can make a great and
sudden impact; however, they can require the replacement of a whole system.

Students need to consider approaches for cleaning up manufacturing and the advantages and
disadvantages of incremental and radical solutions. They will also need to discuss end-of-pipe technologies
and systems-level solutions.

Green design

Green design refers to the development of products to have a reduced impact on the environment.

Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the
environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of raw materials to final disposal.

Most strategies for green design involve focusing on one or two environmental objectives when designing
or re-designing a product, for example, the use of recyclable materials.

Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others. Environmental
legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific environmental issues,
for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency.

Most legislation for minimizing or reducing environmental impact of products is based on a green design
approach. It is effective because it usually involves incremental changes to a design and as such is
relatively easy to implement, for example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for
cars. The timescale for implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years) and
therefore cost-effective.

Design objectives for green products relate to three broad environmental categories: materials, energy and
pollution/waste. These objectives include:
 increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources
 minimizing damage or pollution from the chosen materials
 reducing to a minimum any long-term harm caused by use of the product
  ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in environmental terms and that
the product functions efficiently for its full life
 taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product
 ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and environmentally friendly use
 minimizing nuisances such as noise or smell
 analysing and minimizing potential safety hazards
 minimizing the number of different materials used in a product
 labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.

When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider:

 raw materials used
 packaging
 incorporation of toxic chemicals
 energy in production and use
 end-of-life disposal issues
 production methods
 atmospheric pollutants.

The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the
designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
 Prevention principle: The avoidance or minimization of waste production
 Precautionary principle: The anticipation of potential problems

Eco-design

Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts to focus on
all three broad environmental categories—materials, energy and pollution/waste. This makes eco-design
more complex and difficult to do.

When considering timescales for implementing eco-design, students should also understand the factors
that can influence it.

Students need to consider two philosophies related to eco-design.

 Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product all of the way from
manufacture to use to disposal.
 Cradle to cradle design is a key principle of the circular economy. Cradle to Cradle ® (C2C) is a holistic
approach to design popularized by Professor Michael Braungart and William McDonough.
Braungart and McDonough offer Cradle to Cradle ® certification to products that measure up to the
standards they set. According to their website (www.c2ccertified.org): “The target is to develop and
design products that are truly suited to a biological or technical metabolism, thereby preventing the
recycling of products which were never designed to be recycled in the first place.”

Students need to be able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its life cycle through
LCA. Students should consider the following five stages.
 Pre-production
 Production
 Distribution, including packaging
 Utilization
 Disposal

Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air contamination, noise,
energy consumption, consumption of natural resources, pollution and effect on ecosystems.
Another valuable tool for designers of eco-products and systems is the use of an environmental impact
assessment matrix. A simple example of this matrix follows.

Environmental area: Air pollution

Activity Risk impact rating
(circle one number in each row)
Pre-production: Transport of all materials to factory 5 4 3 2 1 0
Production: Manufacturing process waste output 5 4 3 2 1 0
Distribution: Transport of product to retailers 5 4 3 2 1 0
Distribution: Manufacturing of packaging 5 4 3 2 1 0
Utilization: Use of product during working life 5 4 3 2 1 0
Disposal: Disassembly and recycling of materials 5 4 3 2 1 0
Figure 3 Environmental impact assessment matrix

Environmental impact assessment matrices can be infinitely more complex, focusing on one particular
stage of LCA at a time and breaking processes down into individual steps, often focusing on an
output in terms of resources used, wasted and by-products generated and released.

The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the product life cycle
can be explored through LCA. LCA identifies conflicts that have to be resolved through
prioritization. It is not widely used in practice because it is difficult, costly and time-consuming. It is
targeted at particular product categories—products with high environmental impacts in the global
marketplace, for example, washing machines and refrigerators. However, in the re-innovation of
the design of a product or its manufacture, specific aspects may be changed after considering the
design objectives for green products, such as selecting less toxic materials or using more
sustainable sources. A product may be distributed differently or its packaging may be redesigned.

The complex nature of LCA means that it is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team with
different specialism is required. LCA is complex, time-consuming and expensive, so the majority of
eco-designs are based on less detailed qualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over
its life cycle. The simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during a
product’s design development stages.

For example:
 minimize the use of packaging
 optimize energy efficiency in use
 design for disassembly
 minimize parts/components
 use recyclable materials.

Students should be familiar with the UNEP Ecodesign Manual and be able to identify its major
considerations.

The emphasis of the guidelines will vary depending on the type of product to be designed and the target
market.

Students will need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of converging technologies. A typical
example of converging technology is the smart phone. Students could consider the smart phone as a
converging technology in terms of the materials required to create it, its energy consumption, disassembly,
recyclability and the portability of the devices it incorporates.
 Topic 3: Modelling
Conceptual modelling

A conceptual model is a model that exists only in the mind. Conceptual models are used to help us know
and understand ideas.

Graphical modelling

A graphical model is a visualization of an idea, often created on paper or through software. Students are
expected to develop graphical modelling skills that allow them to demonstrate competency with a number
of modes and media, including:
 sketching techniques
 formal drawing techniques including orthographic
 two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) perspective, projection and scale drawings
 part and assembly drawings including exploded diagrams.

Physical modelling

A scale model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. Scale models allow visualization, from
examining the model, of information about what the model represents. A good example of scale
models is seen in architecture, whereby a full-size building is modelled at a greatly reduced scale.
This enables designers to visualize the structure of the building, but also the exterior and interior
aesthetics and lines.

Unforeseen factors can be highlighted in the actual environment in which the product/system will be
utilized. The purpose of a smaller scale model may be to have a better overview, for testing
purposes.

The purpose of a larger scale model may be to see the structure of things that are normally too small to
see properly or to see at all, for example, a model of an insect or of a molecule.

Aesthetic models are developed to look and feel like the final product. They are used for many purposes
including ergonomic testing and evaluating visual appeal. Aesthetic models look like but do not
work like the final product. Aesthetic models can be relatively simple, consisting of solid chunks of
foam finished and painted to look like the real thing, or they can be more sophisticated, simulating
weight, balance and material properties.

Usually, aesthetic models are “for show” and are not designed to be handled excessively. They give non-
designers a good representation of the feel and look of an object. For example, production
engineers can take data to assess feasibility for matching manufacturing systems. Aesthetic models
are expensive to produce, as they need to have a good surface finish and be life-sized.

Mock-ups are used to test ideas. They are scale or full-size representation of a product used to gain
feedback from users. A mock-up can be considered a prototype if it includes some functionality.

A prototype is a sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as an object to be replicated
or learned from. A prototype is used to test and validate ideas and can be used throughout design
development. Prototyping can be used to provide specifications for a real, working product rather
than a theoretical one. Prototypes are developed to work from two perspectives: the point of view
of the development team, who can learn by creating the product, and the point of view of the user,
 from whom the development team can learn through user interaction and feedback. A prototype
can be developed at different fidelities within a range of user and environment contexts.

The range of fidelity is:

 low fidelity—conceptual representation analogous to the idea
 middle fidelity—representation of aspects of the idea
 high fidelity—mock-up of the idea, as close as possible to the final product

The range of contexts is:

 restricted—in a controlled environment
 general—any user, any environment
 partial—final user or environment
 total—final user and environment

A combination of fidelity and context provides validation of an idea and/or further insight for
development.

Instrumented physical models are equipped with the ability to take measurements to provide accurate
quantitative feedback for analysis. They can be used effectively to investigate many phenomena
such as fluid flows in hydraulic systems or within wind tunnels, stress within structures and user
interaction with a product. For example, an instrumented model of a keyboard can record the
actions of the user and provide data on how often keys are used and the number of errors a user
makes (that is, the number of times the backspace or delete key is used). These models can be
scaled in terms of both geometry and important forces.

Computer-aided design

Surface models are photo-realistic images of a product, offering some machining data but no data about
the interior of the product.

Solid models are clear representations of the final product. They provide a complete set of data for the
product to be realized including internal dimensions and volume.

A data model explicitly determines the structure of data or structured data. Typical data models include
databases and information systems. Developments in information and communication technology
(ICT) make a data model important to applications that use and exchange data.

Virtual prototyping involves the use of surface and solid modelling to develop photo-realistic interactive
models. These can be considered digital mock-ups.

When designing using a “bottom-up” strategy, the designer creates part geometry independent of the
assembly or any other component. Although some design criteria are often established before
modelling the part, this information is not shared between models. Once all part models are
completed, they are brought together for the first time in the assembly. For example, the process
by which the Mars rover Curiosity was created followed a “bottom-up” strategy.

“Top-down” design is a product-development process obtained through 3D, parametric and associated
CAD systems. The main feature of this method is that the design originates as a concept and
gradually evolves into a complete product consisting of components and sub-assemblies.
Digital humans are computer simulations of a variety of mechanical and biological aspects of the human
body. They can be used to interact with a virtual prototype. Human simulation in product design
enables a product to be developed more quickly, as there can be more design iterations in less
time. This results in higher product quality that meets human requirements more accurately. Digital
prototypes are cheaper to produce than physical prototypes. Products are safer as a result of more
thorough analysis of safety aspects. Improved productivity results from enhanced automation of
the development process.

Digital humans enable manufacturing plants to be developed more quickly and manual workflow to
be optimized. They improve worker safety and reduce compensation costs resulting from
accidents. Machines and other equipment can be positioned to optimize cycle time and
avoid hazards. Manufacturing processes can be designed to eliminate inefficiencies and
ensure optimal productivity. They can be used to: ensure that people can access the parts
and equipment needed to assemble products; check that workers can effectively use any
hand tools needed to perform manual tasks; and check that all tasks can be performed
safely without requiring inordinate strength or exposing people to risk of injury.

Using digital humans enables designers to ensure that there is sufficient space to perform
maintenance tasks, including space for hands, arms and tools, and space to install and
remove parts. Designers can check that technicians can see what they are doing when they
do specific maintenance tasks and that they can use the requisite hand tools. Digital humans
enable people to be trained in multiple locations without the need for physical prototypes
or actual equipment and so reduce the cost of training manufacturing and maintenance
personnel.

There are many ways that digital humans can be developed and used to interact with products.

Motion capture is the recording of human and animal movement by any means, for example, by video,
magnetic or electro-mechanical devices. A person wears a set of acoustic, inertial, LED, magnetic or
reflective markers at each joint. Sensors track the position of the markers as the person moves to
develop a digital representation of the motion.

Motion capture can reduce the cost of animation, which otherwise requires the animator to draw
either each frame or key frames that are then interpolated. Motion capture saves time and
creates more natural movements than manual animation, but is limited to motions that are
anatomically possible. Some applications, for example, animated super-hero martial arts,
might require additional impossible movements.

A motion capture session records the movements of the actor, not his or her visual appearance.
The captured movements are mapped to a 3D model (for example, human or giant robot)
created by a computer artist, to move the model in the same way. Capturing a number of
users’ movements will allow designers to design better ergonomic products. Motion capture
allows the designer to understand the users’ physiological requirements.

Haptic technology is a technology that interfaces the user via a sense of touch. Also known as force
feedback technology, haptic technology works by using mechanical actuators to apply forces to the
user. By simulating the physics of the user’s virtual world, it is possible to compute these forces into
real time. Haptic technology allows the user to become part of a computer simulation and to
interact with it, enabling the designer to observe the user’s performance and to design a better
outcome. It can also be used in situations where it is difficult to train in the real environment.
Haptic technology is also used in feedback devices used in home entertainment consoles.
Virtual reality is the ability to simulate a real situation on the screen and interact with it in a near-natural
way.

Animation is the ability to link graphic screens together in such a way as to simulate motion or a process.

Finite element analysis involves the calculation and simulation of unknown factors in products using CAD
systems, for example, simulating stresses within a welded car part.

Rapid prototyping

Stereolithography (SLA) (also known as optical fabrication, photo-solidification, solid free-form fabrication
and solid imaging) is an additive manufacturing (or “3D printing”) technology used for producing
models, prototypes, patterns and production parts.

Laminated object manufacture (LOM) takes the sliced CAD data from a 3D model and cuts out each layer
from a roll of material, using a laser or plotter cutter. These sliced layers are glued together to form
the model, which is either built on a movable platform below the machine or on locating pins when
using card.

Fused deposition modelling (FDM) works on an “additive” principle by laying down material in layers. A
plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil and supplies material to an extrusion nozzle
that can turn the flow on and off. The nozzle is heated to melt the material and can be moved in
both horizontal and vertical directions by a numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled
by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing technique that uses a high-power laser (for
example, a carbon dioxide laser) to fuse small particles of plastic, metal (direct metal laser
sintering), ceramic or glass powders into a mass that has a desired 3D shape.
 Topic 4: Raw material to final product

Properties of materials

Properties of materials are categorized as follows.

 (Physical properties: mass, weight, volume, density, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion and hardness)
 (Mechanical Properties: tensile and compressive strength, stiffness, toughness, ductility, elasticity,
plasticity, Young’s modulus, stress and strain)
 (Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, appearance and texture)
 (Properties of smart materials: piezoelectricity, shape memory, photochromicity, magneto-
rheostatic, electro-rheostatic, and thermoelectricity)

Physical properties
 Density is important in relation to product weight and size (for example, for portability). Pre-
packaged food is sold by weight or volume, and a particular consistency is required.
 Electrical resistivity is particularly important in selecting materials as conductors or insulators.
 Thermal conductivity is important for objects that will be heated or must conduct or be insulated
against heat gain or loss.
 Thermal expansion (expansivity) is important where two dissimilar materials are joined. These may
then experience large temperature changes while staying joined.
 Hardness is important where resistance to penetration or scratching is required. Ceramic floor tiles
are extremely hard and resistant to scratching.

Mechanical properties
 Tensile strength is important in selecting materials for ropes and cables, for example, for an
elevator.
 Stiffness is important when maintaining shape is crucial to performance, for example, an aircraft
wing.
 Toughness is important where abrasion and cutting may take place.
 Ductility is important when metals are extruded (not to be confused with malleability, the ability to
be shaped plastically).

Aesthetic characteristics
Some aesthetic characteristics are only relevant to food, while others can be applied to more than one
material group. Although these properties activate people’s senses, responses to them vary from one
individual to another, and they are difficult to quantify scientifically, unlike the other properties.

Smart materials
 Piezoelectricity. When a piezoelectric material is deformed, it gives off a small electrical discharge.
When an electric current is passed through it, it increases in size (up to a 4% change in volume).
These materials are widely used as sensors in different environments. Specific details of crystalline
structure are not required. Piezoelectric materials can be used to measure the force of an impact,
for example, in the airbag sensor on a car. The material senses the force of an impact on the car
and sends an electric charge to activate the airbag.
 Shape memory alloys (SMA) are metals that exhibit pseudo-elasticity and shape memory effect due
to rearrangement of the molecules in the material. Pseudo-elasticity occurs without a change in
temperature. The load on the SMA causes molecular rearrangement, which reverses when the load
is decreased and the material springs back to its original shape. The shape memory effect allows
severe deformation of a material, which can then be returned to its original shape by heating it.
Applications for pseudo-elasticity include eyeglasses frames, medical tools and antennas for mobile
 phones. One application of shape memory effect is for robotic limbs (hands, arms and legs). It is
difficult to replicate even simple movements of the human body, for example, the gripping force
required to handle different objects (eggs, pens, tools). SMAs are strong and compact and can be
used to create smooth, lifelike movements. Computer control of timing and size of an electric
current running through the SMA can control the movement of an artificial joint. Other design
challenges for artificial joints include development of computer software to control artificial muscle
systems, being able to create large enough movements and replicating the speed and accuracy of
human reflexes.
 Photochromicity refers to a material that can described as having a reversible change of colour
when exposed to light. One of the most popular applications is for colour-changing sunglass lenses,
which can darken as the sun brightens. A chemical either on the surface of the lens or embedded
within the glass reacts to ultraviolet light, which causes it to change form and therefore its light
absorption spectra.
 Electro-rheostatic (ER) and magneto-rheostatic (MR) materials are fluids that can undergo
dramatic changes in their viscosity. They can change from a thick fluid to a solid in a fraction of a
second when exposed to a magnetic (for MR materials) or electric (for ER materials) field, and the
effect is reversed when the field is removed. MR fluids are being developed for use in car shock
absorbers, damping washing machine vibration, prosthetic limbs, exercise equipment and surface
polishing of machine parts. ER fluids have mainly been developed for use in clutches and valves, as
well as engine mounts designed to reduce noise and vibration in vehicles.
 Thermoelectricity is, at its simplest, electricity produced directly from heat. It involves the joining
of two dissimilar conductors that, when heated, produce a direct current. Thermoelectric circuits
have been used in remote areas and space probes to power radio transmitters and receivers.

Students are expected to be able to interpret stress/strain graphs and material selection charts to identify
appropriate materials depending on the context.

Types of materials

Materials play a key role within the design, manufacture and use of all products. This topic
considers the historical development of materials not only in terms of the scientific advances made during
the discovery of a particular material but also in how various developments in unrelated fields later
converge and lead to the development of new manufacturing techniques and materials. These
developments should not only be looked at for their technological development but also for their social
impact on the design and consumer industries.

As the IB support material does not currently have additional guidance on the various materials the
syllabus requirements for each material (Metal, Timber, Glass, Plastics, Textiles, & Composites) has been
inserted. Students need to remember that the rest of the syllabus sections have NOT been included and
this support material is meant to be studied WITH the syllabus. In fact it is meant to function as
additional support and clarification for the syllabus. The Syllabus should be viewed as the top authority
on studying for the exams.

Metals
Nature of design:
Typically hard and shiny with good electrical and thermal conductivity, metals are a very
useful resource for the manufacturing industry. Most pure metals are either too soft,
brittle or chemically reactive for practical use and so understanding how to
manipulate these materials is vital to the success of any application. (2.2)
Concepts and principles:
 Extracting metal from ore
 Grain size
  Modifying physical properties by alloying, work hardening and tempering
 Design criteria for super alloys
 Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys
Guidance:
 An overview of the metal extraction process is sufficient
 Super alloy design criteria include creep and oxidation resistance
 Contexts where different metals and metallic alloys are used

Timber
Nature of design:
Timber is a major building material that is renewable and uses the Sun’s energy to renew
itself in a continuous cycle. While timber manufacture uses less energy and results in
less air and water pollution than steel or concrete, consideration needs to be given
to deforestation and the potential negative environmental impact the use of timber
can have on communities and wildlife. (3.6)
Concepts and principles:
 Characteristics of natural timber: hardwood and softwood
 Characteristics of man-made timbers
 Treating and finishing timbers
 Recovery and disposal of timbers
Guidance:
 Characteristics include tensile strength, resistance to damp environments, longevity,
aesthetic properties
 Design contexts in which different timbers would be used

Glass
Nature of design:
The rapid pace of technological discoveries is very evident in the manufacture and use of
glass in electronic devices. Different properties have been presented in glass for
aesthetic or safety considerations for many years but the future of glass seems to be
interactivity alongside electronic systems. The structure of glass is not well
understood, but as more is learned, its use is becoming increasingly prominent in
building materials and structural applications. (2.2)
Concepts and principles:
 Characteristics of glass
 Applications of glass
 Recovery and disposal of glass
Guidance:
 Characteristics include transparency, colour and strength
 Design contexts in which different types of glass are used

Plastics
Nature of design:
Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of oil reserves
and threat of global warming, bio-plastics are being developed. These plastics
degrade upon exposure to sunlight, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind
erosion and in some cases pest or insect attack, but in most cases this does not lead
to full breakdown of the plastic. When selecting materials, designers must consider
the moral, ethical and environmental implications of their decisions. (3.6)
Concepts and principles:
 Raw materials for plastics
  Structure of thermoplastics
 Structure of thermosetting plastics
 Temperature and recycling thermoplastics
 Recovery and disposal of plastics
Guidance:
 Properties of PP, PE, HIPS, ABS, PET and PVC
 Properties of polyurethane, urea-formaldehyde, melamine resin and epoxy resin
 Design contexts in which different types of plastics are used

Textiles
Nature of design:
The continuing evolution of the textiles industry provides a wide spread of applications from
highperformance technical textiles to the more traditional clothing market. More
recent developments in this industry require designers to combine traditional textile
science and new technologies leading to exciting applications in smart textiles,
sportswear, aerospace and other potential areas. (2.2)
Concepts and principles:
 Raw materials for textiles
 Properties of natural fibres
 Properties of synthetic fibres
 Conversion of fibres to yarns
 Conversion of yarns into fabrics: weaving, knitting, lacemaking, and felting
 Recovery and disposal of textiles
Guidance:
 Properties of wool, cotton and silk
 Properties of nylon, polyester and Lycra®
 Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the effect of temperature
 Design contexts in which different types of textiles are used

Composites
Nature of design:
Composites are an important material in an intensely competitive global market. New
materials and technologies are being produced frequently for the design and rapid
manufacture of high-quality composite products. Composites are replacing more
traditional materials as they can be created with properties specifically designed for
the intended application. Carbon fibre has played an important part in weight
reduction for vehicles and aircraft. (2.2)
Concepts and principles:
 Form: fibres/sheet/particles and matrix
 Process: weaving, moulding, pultrusion and lamination
 Composition and structure of composites: concrete, engineered wood, plywood,
particleboard, fibreglass, Kevlar®, carbonreinforced plastic, laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
Guidance:
 Fibres/sheets/particles: textiles, glass, plastics and carbon
 Matrix: thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, ceramics, metals
 Advantages and disadvantages of composite materials
 Design contexts in which different types of composite materials are used

End Syllabus Insert

Scales of production

When selecting an appropriate scale of production for a product, students must consider a number of
factors, including:
 product characteristics
 material characteristics
 size of market
 nature of market
 desired manufacturing processes
 desired production system.

Students should be able to explain the choice of scale of production and the advantages/disadvantages of
different scales of production.

Manufacturing processes

There are four classifications of manufacturing processes that are common across all manufacture.
 Additive techniques include: paper-based rapid prototyping, laminated object manufacture (LOM),
stereolithography
 Wasting/subtractive techniques include: cutting, machining, turning and abrading
 Shaping techniques include: moulding, thermoforming, laminating, casting, knitting, weaving
 Joining techniques include: permanent and temporary, fastening, adhering, fusing

Students should develop an understanding of the manufacturing processes sufficient for them to select
appropriate techniques for manufacturing products and components. They should be able to explain the
advantages and disadvantages of each and be able to identify where they have been used in different
design contexts.

Production systems

Students are expected to have a deep enough understanding of production systems to be able to make
sound decisions when determining which ones are appropriate for a specific job. This includes being able to
explain advantages and disadvantages of different production systems, the impact they have on the
workforce and environment, and the selection criteria.

 Craft production is a small-scale production process centred on manual skills.

 Mechanized production is a volume production process involving machines controlled by humans.
 Automated production is a volume production process involving machines controlled by
computers.
 Assembly line production is a volume production process where products and components are
moved continuously along a conveyor. As the product goes from one work station to another,
components are added until the final product is assembled.
 Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines,
permitting very high rates of production per worker.
 Mass customization is a sophisticated CIM system that manufactures products to individual
customer orders. The benefits of economy of scale are gained whether the order is for a single item
or thousands.
 Computer numerical control (CNC) refers to the computer control of machines for the purpose of
manufacturing complex parts in metals and other materials. Machines are controlled by a
 programme commonly called a “G code”. Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process.
The codes control X, Y and Z movement and feed speeds.
 Design for manufacture (DfM) means designers design specifically for optimum use of existing
manufacturing capability. There are four aspects of DfM.
o Design for materials: designing in relation to materials during processing
o Design for process: designing to enable the product to be manufactured using a specific
manufacturing process, for example, injection moulding
o Design for assembly: designing taking account of assembly at various levels, for example,
component to component, components into sub-assemblies and sub-assemblies into
complete products
o Design for disassembly: designing a product so that when it becomes obsolete it can easily
and economically be taken apart, the components reused or repaired, and the materials
repurposed or recycled
o (Adapting designs for DfM)

Robots in automated production

(Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope and load capacity)

 Work envelope: The 3D space a robot can operate within, considering clearance and reach
 Load capacity: Within this context, the weight a robot can manipulate

Students will need to be able to outline the differences between single- and multi-task robots and
distinguish between them.

 Machine to machine (M2M) refers to wired and wireless communication between similar devices.
 First-generation robots are a simple mechanical arm that has the ability to make precise motions at
high speed. They need constant supervision by a human operator.
 Second-generation robots are equipped with sensors that can provide information about their
surroundings. They can synchronize with each other and do not require constant supervision by a
human; however, they are controlled by an external control unit.
 Third-generation robots are autonomous and can operate largely without supervision from a
human. They have their own central control unit. Swarms of smaller autonomous robots also fit in
this category.

When addressing robots in automated production, students are expected to understand the contexts that
different robots are used in and the advantages and disadvantages of using robots in automated
production.
 Topic 5: Innovation and design

Invention

Invention is the process of discovering a principle that enables a technical advance in a particular field and
may result in a novel product.
There are many drivers for invention, including:
 a personal motivation to invent in order to express one’s creativity or personal interest
 scientific and/or technical curiosity
 constructive discontent with an existing invention/design
 desire to make money
 desire to help others.

Students are expected to be able to explain how an example of an invention can satisfy one or more of the
criteria listed above.

The benefits of intellectual property include:

 differentiating a business from competitors
 allowing sale or licensing, providing an important revenue stream
 offering customers something new and different
 marketing/branding
 establishing a valuable asset that can be used as security for loans.

Innovation

There are three categories of innovation.

 Sustaining innovation: A new or improved product that meets the needs of consumers and sustains
manufacturers
 Disruptive innovation: A product or type of technology that challenges existing companies to
ignore or embrace technical change
 Process innovation: An improvement in the organization and/or method of manufacture that often
leads to reduced costs or benefits to consumers

Students will need to be able to draw from examples of each category of innovation.

Innovation strategies for design

 Architectural innovation: The technology of the components stays the same, but the configuration
of the components is changed to produce a new design.
 Modular innovation: The basic configuration stays the same, but one or more key components are
changed.
 Configurational innovation: A change is made in both technology and organization.

Innovation strategies for markets:

 Diffusion is a process where a market will accept a new idea or product. The rate it accepts the new
idea or product can be increased by several factors.
 Suppression is a process where a new idea or adoption of a product by the market is actively
slowed. This may be due to difficulties competing with a dominant design, ambiguity over patent
ownership, competing companies actively petitioning against a new product it perceives as
threatening, or the natural resistance to an unfamiliar concept.
(Students should be able to discuss:
 Reasons why few inventions become innovations
 Examples of products within the categories of innovation
 Examples where innovation strategies have been used for products)

Strategies for innovation

 Act of insight: Often referred to as the “eureka moment”, a sudden image of a potential solution is
formed in the mind, usually after a period of thinking about a problem.
 Adaptation: A solution to a problem in one field is adapted for solving a problem in another field.
 Technology transfer: Technological advances that form the basis of new designs may be applied to
the development of different types of products/systems, for example, laser technology.
 Analogy: An idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for solving a problem in another
context.
 Chance: An unexpected discovery leads to a new idea.
 Technology push: Scientific research leads to advances in technology that underpin new ideas.
 Market pull: A new idea is needed as a result of demand from the marketplace.

(Students should be able to discuss: Design contexts where each strategy has been applied.)

Stakeholders in invention and innovation

The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to
the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or she is engrossed with ideas
that imply change and are resisted by others.
The product champion is an influential individual, usually working within an organization, who
develops enthusiasm for a particular idea or invention and “champions” it within the organization.
The entrepreneur is an influential individual who can take an invention to market, often by
financing the development, production and diffusion of a product into the marketplace.

On occasion, the inventor is also the product champion and/or entrepreneur. Students should be able to
explain the different skill sets and actions required to fulfill these roles and the reason inventors often take
on multiple roles.

Effective design draws from multiple areas of expertise, and this expertise can be utilized at different stages
of product development. Students should be able to draw from examples where multidisciplinary teams
have developed products. They should also be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of a
multidisciplinary approach to innovation.
Product life cycle

 Launch: There are slow sales and little profit as the product is launched on the market.
 Growth: The market gradually accepts the product, so diffusion starts and sales expand.
 Maturity: Sales peak but remain steady, so maximum profit is achieved.
 Decline: Market saturation is reached and sales start to reduce as well as profit.

Students should be able to analyse which stage a given product is at and identify products at each of the
key stages of the product life cycle, including those that are new to the market and are classic designs.

Figure 4 Product life cycle

Obsolescence can be considered in four ways.
 Planned obsolescence: A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a
continuing market or to ensure that safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into
later versions of the product.
 Style (fashion) obsolescence: Fashions and trends change over time, which can result in a product
no longer being desirable. However, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the cyclic
nature of fashion, products can become desirable again.
 Functional obsolescence: Over time, products wear out and break down. If parts are no longer
available, the product can no longer work in the way it originally did. Also, if a service vital to its
functioning is no longer available, it can become obsolete.
 Technological obsolescence: When a new technology supersedes an existing technology, the
existing technology quickly falls out of use and is no longer incorporated into new products.
Consumers instead opt for the newer, more efficient technology in their products.

Students should consider examples of products that have been subject to each of these types of
obsolescence.

(Product Versioning/Generations)
A company can maintain a pioneering strategy and consistent revenue flow by introducing new
versions or generations of a product to a market. Apple uses this strategy effectively, creating multiple
versions and generations of their iPod®, iPhone® and iPad® products.

(Students should consider: Length of the product life cycle considering the effect of technical development
and consumer trends AND Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing new versions and
generations of a product.)

Rogers’ characteristics of innovation and consumers

Rogers’ five characteristics that impact on consumer adoption of an innovation are:

(The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on consumer adoption of an innovation can be considered in terms of:)
 relative advantage
 compatibility
 complexity
 observability
 trialability.

Students are expected to consider product innovations for each of Rogers’ characteristics.
Consumerism has social roots. Students will need to consider the issues for companies in the global
marketplace when attempting to satisfy consumer needs in relation to lifestyle, values and identity.
(The social roots of consumerism include lifestyle, values and identity)

Consumers can influence diffusion of innovation. When considering the influence of social media in rallying
support for boycotting of some products/systems, students can explore the concepts behind organizations
such as Kickstarter, Sellaband, Seedrs and CrowdCube, which act as crowd-funding platforms for creative
products and projects. They can also examine the role of social networks such as Facebook®, LinkedIn® and
Twitter® as methods of raising brand awareness.

Students will need to consider how consumer choices are influenced by trends and the media, including
advertising through magazines, television, radio, sponsorship and outdoor advertising; product placement
through film and television; product endorsement; and so on.
Consider Rogers’ five categories of consumers in relation to their technology adoption.
 Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. They are willing to take risks.
 Early adopters are the second fastest category to adopt an innovation.
 Early majority, the third group, tends to take more time to consider adopting new innovations and
is inclined to draw from feedback from early adopters before taking the risk of purchasing new
products/systems.
 Late majority adopts the innovation after it has been established in the marketplace and is seldom
willing to take risks with new innovation.
 Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation. They tend to prefer traditions and are unwilling to
take risks.

Innovation, design and marketing specification

Marketing specifications relate to market and user characteristics of the proposed design and details.
 Target market: When determining the target market, market sectors and segments need to be
identified.
 Target audience: It is important to differentiate between the target market and the target
audience. When determining the target audience, characteristics of the users should be
established.
 Market analysis: An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a market
perspective, taking into account fixed and variable costs and pricing, is important. It is typically a
summary about potential users and the market.
 User need: A marketing specification should identify the essential requirements that the product
must satisfy in relation to market and user need.
 Competition: A thorough analysis of competing designs is required to establish the market need.

A design specification relates to the requirements of a product and details aspects of:
 aesthetic requirements
 cost constraints
 customer requirements
 environmental requirements
 size constraints
 safety considerations
 performance requirements and constraints
 materials requirements
 manufacturing requirements.

All of the requirements, constraints and considerations must be specific, feasible and measurable. The
design specification must be developed from the design brief and research.

(Students will need to consider: Research Methods; How market sectors and segments can be used
to establish target markets; How a target audience is used to establish the characteristics of users; Design
contexts for different target markets and audiences)
 Topic 6: Classic design

A design classic is an industrially manufactured object with timeless appeal. It serves as a standard
of its time and remains relevant to future generations and in this way has a lasting impact on society. The
design resists the vagaries of taste and fashion and once established as a “classic” it gradually acquires
further value. Design classics are usually innovative in their use of material and often unite technological
advances with beautiful design, for example, Apple products such as the iPod, the Coca-Cola® bottle and
soft drink cans. Classic designs can emerge from any sector of the market.

Characteristics of classic design

Students need to consider how a design classic is instantly recognizable and provokes a variety of different
emotional reactions in people, such as nostalgia or innovation.

Often referred to as “iconic”, the longevity of classic designs suggests quality and the continued demand
for such products is not dependent on heavy marketing or advertising, although this often takes
place to reinforce the status and remind new generations of consumers of the intrinsic value of the
classic design. The design is often widely imitated, usually with cheaper versions, so this reinforces
the status of the original design and its “pioneering” concept.

The classic design may no longer be needed as a functional object or it may become technologically
obsolete. However, it may still sell very small numbers although it may no longer be viable to
produce it commercially. In such circumstances the resale value of existing products increases
enormously as the number of products available lessens over time. Such products become very
collectable and have investment value, for example, classic cars. Other products may not
intrinsically be worth much money but are valuable to certain owners or collectors, such as toys
that have been used and are in poor condition.

For many centuries prior to the Industrial Revolution, “classic” evoked thoughts of artistry and craft skills,
for example, classical architecture and furniture. The advent of mass production and “designing for
the masses” often meant a reduction in quality of products and poor design. However, once mass
production techniques became more established some designers embraced the opportunities
offered by the new techniques and materials as a way of providing people with well-designed
products at an affordable price due to the cost-effectiveness of production. No longer was classic
design the preserve of the elite in society.

Design classics can reflect cultural influences. The culture concerned may be national or religious or it may
concern a sub-culture such as a particular youth culture.

A classic design often has a constant presence, or omnipresence, in a rapidly changing context.

Students will need to consider classic designs that have become dominant in the marketplace and the
difficulties for designers to change them.

Classic design, function and form

Classic designs are harmonious, well-proportioned in form and often restrained in style. To reinterpret a
classic design, the original form needs to be respected and the underlying structure of the form
understood before making changes. Decoration applied must be suitable for the form and take into
account the function of the object, although “classic” does not necessarily mean the style needs to
be minimalist in nature or lacking in decoration.
When considering form, students need to understand how it can be dictated by other functions such as
design for manufacture techniques, for example, design for disassembly.

Retro styling uses the form and decoration of classic designs from a particular period of time and/or style.
Retro styling builds on the classic image but can often involve the use of new technology, for
example, the Roberts range of digital radios based on the style of the original transistor radios.

(retro-styling a new product needs to respect and understand the original form and underlying structure
before making changes)

Another popular retro style includes the art deco style of the 1930s. It owed its origins to the exclusive
hand-made French decorative arts of the 1920s, but its popularity a decade later was due to the
cheap mass production of artifacts made from new variations of metals, plastic and glass. As a
decorative style it could be applied to the forms and surfaces of a wide variety of different objects.

In particular, art deco has created many classic designs within the fields of architecture and lighting.

Not all classic designs are based on aesthetic appeal as the primary generator for the idea. For example,
the designers of many early examples of mass production motor cars that are now considered
“classics” were more interested in function than form. The Volkswagen (VW) Beetle, designed by
Ferdinand Porsche in the 1930s, was aimed at ordinary people with a modest income and Porsche
economized on many features considered as standard and necessary today, such as a rear window.
Alec Issigonis designed the first Mini motor car to be as economical and functional as possible and
priced so it was affordable by the majority of working people in the late 1950s.

In order to explore the concept of function in relation to classic design, students could evaluate 21st century
designs of the VW Beetle and BMW Mini cars and compare the designs with the original production models
in relation to form versus function.

Many industrial design products are the result of teamwork by specialists such as ergonomists, electrical
engineers, materials engineers and product designers. For members of the team, form may dictate
function or function may dictate form.

In general, practical function is concerned with aspects of performance such as size and ease of use. Such
aspects are quantifiable and objective evaluation can take place. The psychological function of an
object, such as the different types of emotional attachments people have with mobile phones and
favourite items of clothing, relies more on subjective criteria. For some products the practical
function dictates the form, for example, the Anglepoise lamp designed by UK engineer George
Carwardine in 1947. Carwardine was interested in an apparatus that could move easily through
three planes but would be rigid when left free. It was many years before Carwardine worked on this
concept as a versatile “arm” for focusing light on an object. Although Carwardine made no
particular effort to make his lamp an object of beauty, its clean and functional form has established
the Anglepoise lamp as a design classic.

The Juicy Salif lemon squeezer, designed by Philip Starck in 1990 and produced by the Italian company
Alessi, is an example of how the psychological function dictates the form of an object. The design
was conceived on a napkin while Starck enjoyed a dish of squid in a restaurant and was squeezing
lemon over it. Starck is quoted as saying that his juicer is less concerned with squeezing lemons
than as a conversation starter. An example of Starck’s lemon squeezer is on display in the New York
Museum of Modern Art.
Students should explore other objects where either practical function or psychological function has been the
determining factor in the design.

The way in which humans need to interact with objects often dictates their form.
The interaction may be classified into three aspects:
 assembling the object either during manufacture or at home (self-assembly),
 using it, and
 repairing or maintaining it.

Students could consider different designs of mobile phones, for example, and assess the success of the
human-interaction interface for each example.