5
Single-Flash Steam Power Plants 103

that is released from flash plants is not abated but constitutes a relatively minor source of
greenhouse gases: flash plants emit about 0.06 kg/kWh compared with 0.59 kg/kWh for
a natural-gas-fired gas turbine and 1.13 kg/kWh for a coal-fired plant [18].
The separated brine contains practically all the dissolved minerals that existed in
the geofluid in the reservoir but in higher concentrations. Some of the elements typi-
cally found in brines would adversely affect surface or groundwaters if allowed to mix
with them. These elements include:
Arsenic, As Lithium, Li
Boron, B Magnesium, Mg
Calcium, Ca Potassium, K
Chloride, Cl Silicon, Si
Fluoride, F Sodium, Na.
The main way to prevent water contamination is to reinject the waste brine back
into the reservoir. This is now the accepted means of disposing of geothermal waste
fluids at plants around the world. Reinjection has the added benefit of restoring some
of the fluid that was extracted during production and in providing pressure support in
the reservoir. Poor siting of the injection wells, however, can cause premature cooling
of the production wells; reservoir simulators can be used to avoid this problem (see
Chap. 4).
The noise associated with well drilling and the testing of wells occurs mainly during
the early phases of field development and later sporadically as makeup wells are
needed during normal operation. There are several effective methods to abate the noise
coming from movement of geothermal steam, including cyclone silencers and rock
mufflers that reduce the velocity of the steam being vented. An unabated, wide-open
geothermal well discharging vertically into the atmosphere produces a noise level of
71
83 dB(A) at a distance of 900 m; by comparison, a noisy urban area has a level of
80
90 dB(A) [18]. Unabated venting is a rare occurrence nowadays but was very
much in fashion in the early days of geothermal development to demonstrate the raw
power of the natural steam.
A single-flash plant is relatively economical in terms of land required to support the
operation compared to other means of generating electricity. A flash plant needs roughly
1,200 m2/MW, including well pads, pipe routes, power plant, and substation. By com-
parison, a nuclear plant needs about 10,000 m2/MW (power station only), a coal-fired
plant needs 40,000 m2/MW (power station plus area to be strip-mined for 30 years),
and a solar photovoltaic plant needs 66,000 m2/MW (power station only) [19].
Whenever large quantities of subsurface water are removed, there is the possibility
that the overburden may sink into the space previously occupied by the water. Most
geothermal reservoirs, however, reside in competent rock and the geofluid does not
materially contribute to the structural strength of the formation. The one exception is
Wairakei, New Zealand, where significant subsidence has occurred over the 45 years
of exploitation [2]. With the general adoption of reinjection at flash-steam plants, the
problem of subsidence has all but disappeared.
There is no question that commercial development of liquid-dominated geothermal
reservoirs has destroyed some natural thermal mainfestations, in particular, geysers
[20]. The hydrothermal and geological conditions that are necessary to produce a