ETEGTRONIC$

FOR ETEGTRIGAI
TRADES
FOURTH EOITION
 ETEGTNONrcS
Ft|R ETEGTRIGAT
TRADES
FOURTH EDITIO]I

JAMES F. LIIIIUE
B.Ed.(TAFE), Dip. Teach., t.Eng., F.t.Etec.t.E., F.A.t.E.A.
Formerly Head of Division, Etectricat and tnstrument Trades,
^
School of Apptied Etectricity, NSW Depaftmeni ot ieinnicat
ana
Further Education

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 Fint published l9?l
Reprinted 1972, 1973, 197 4" 197 5, t976
Second edition 1977
leprinted 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982

Third edition 1983

Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1987 (twice)

Fourth edition 1989

Rcprintcd 1990 (twice), 1992 (twice), 1994 , tggs

Copyright o 1989 Mccraw-Hill Book Company Australia pry Limired

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452608

\ational Ubrary of Australia

data:
-+ataloguing-in-Publication
[.owc, Jamcs F. (James Fred).
Electronics for electrical trades.

4th ed.
Includes indcx.
ISBN 0 07 4s260q l.
l. Electronics. I. Title.

621.381

hoduced in Australia py McCraw-Hill Book Company Australia pty Limited

4 Barcoo Street, Ross/illg NSW 2069
Tlpcset in Australia by Midland Tlpesetters Pty lld
Printed in Australia by McPherson's Printing Group

Sponsoring Editor. Cillian Soutcr

Production Editor: paul Cliff
Designec i George Sirctt
Technical Illusrrarors:l Colin Bardill and Diane Booth

I
 Contents
Preface to the fourth edition... .............ix Unit 5 Filters g4
Acknowledgments . ......... "......ix 5.1 The nature of hlters ..."..34"
5.2 Filter types ........34
5.3 Power supply filters .. ....... .....35
Unit 1 Waveforms and the CRO 5.4 Filter circuits-capacitors ..... ..........3j
1.1 Alternating currents in electronics .. .. .. .
5.5 Filter circuits-chokes ...........39
1.2 Alternating current characteristics .,. ...
.
1.3 Unidirectional (dc) waveforms Unit 6 Bipolar iunction transistors
1.4 Periodic current reversal (PCR) .. ".......2 (BJTs) ' 40
1.5 RMS value of unidirectional 6.1 Development......"
waveforms .........3 6.2
.......40
The three layer device ........ ....40
1.6 Summary of waveforms...........".......3 6.3 Base, emitter and collector ..... .........41
1.7 Observing waveforms. .......".....3 6.4 BJT operation-current paths...........41
1.8 Cathode ray tubes ..........3 6.5 Theory of operation
1.9 Uses for cathode ray tubes ........4 6.6 Current control in the BJT.
......41
l.l0 The cathode ray oscilloscope... ..........4 6.7 Characteristic curves
.....43
l.1l ControlsoftheCRO ...............5 6.8
.....44
The BJT as a switch-cut-off .. ..... ....45
l.l2 Using the CRO .. ...........7 6.9 The BJT as a switch-saturation .......45
6.10 BJT switch circuits. .....46
Unit 2 Diodes 10
6.11 PowerratingsofBlTs ............46
6.12 List of terms connected with BJTs .....47
2.1 The perfect diode . .. l0 ... 6.13 DC current gain . .. " . ... . . .48
2.2 P-type and N-rype material ... ... .. .. l0
. .. 6"14 AC current gain .... . "... ..49
2.3 The PN junction... .......10 6.15 Comparison between dc and ac
2.4 Junction biasing .......... I I gam.. .".....50
2.5 The diode effect.. ........ I I 6.16 Effects of temperature on current
2.6 Practical diode characteristics ..........I2 gain.. ......50
2.7 Forward resistance. ......14 6.17 Input characteristic .......51
2.8 Reverse resistance .......14 6.18 Analysis of a simple circuit. .....51
2.9 Temperature effect on diodes ...........14 6.19 Powerratings of BJTs ...........53
2.10 Zenerdiodes ......15 6.24 HeatsinksforBJTs. ......53
2.ll Light emitting diodes (LED$...........15
2.12 Phorodiodes
2.13 Diodes as current guides (steering Unit 7 Voltage regulators 1-shunt 55
diodes) ........... 16 7.I Need for voltage regulators-basic
requirements....... ........55
7.2 Types of voltage regulators .....56
Unit 3 Rectifiers fs-single-phase 1g 7"3 Zener diode shunt voltage regulator ...5g
3.1 Rectification ......19
3.2 The rectifying acrion .. .. .. 19
.... .. Unit B Voltage regulators 2-series 62
3.3 Rectifier diode polarities................. l9 8.1 Series voltage regulator .........62
3.4 Single-phase half-wave rectifier ........21 8^.? Voltage and current relationships ......62
3.5 Single-phasefull-wavecentre-tap 8.3 The Darlington pair series voltige
rectifier ..........24
I regulator..
3.6 singre-pirase i;lt-;;;; ffi;; i
..........64
8.4 Feedback series voltage regulator .65
rectifier ........ "..25 .....

Unit 9 Voltage regulators 3-lC

,Unit 4 Rectifiers 2-three-phase 28 regutarors 67
4| Single-phase versus multi-phase. .......29 I 9.1 Fixed output IC voltage regulator ......67
4.2 Three-phase half-wave rectifier ........28 9.2 The current boost circuit.................69
4.3 Three-phase full-wave rectifier .........29 9.3 A variable output from an IC voltage
4.4 Six-phaserectifiers ......31 regulator. ..... .. ...0q
4.5 Rectifier reference tables . .......31 9.4 A dual-polarity regulator circuir. .......70
4.6 Batterycharging .........31 9.5 Precision IC voltage regulator ..........':0
vi
Contents

Unit 10 Switch mode voltage Unit 16 Thyristors 1-the silicon

regulators i - 74 controlled rectifier (SCR) 109
10.1 Switch mode power supplies . . .. . . . ...j 4 l6.l The thyristor family, and history
10.2 Basic step-down switching regulator 75 ofdevelopment.... ..... 108
10.3 A practical switch mode regulator ...j6 16.2 TheSCR ....... 108
10.4 Step-up switch mode voltage 16.3 Principleofoperarion ........109
regulator 16.4 SCR triggering ....1 l0
10.5 An inverting switch mode voltage 16.5 Forced commutation .................. I I 1
regulator .........77 16.6 SCR applications .. .... I l3
16;l Gate turn off SCRs (GTOs)......... .I l4
Unit'1 1 Amplifiers 1-basic concepts Zg 16.8 GTO operation,... .....115
11.1 The nature of hn amplifier..... ........78
ll.2 Amplifier symbols and functions .....78 Unit '17 Thyristors 2-the triac 117
t 1.3 Amplifier construction ... .. ... .j9
ll.4 The voltage gain of an amplifier. .. .80 ..
l7.I Triaccharacteristics. ........lI]-
I 1.5 The input resistance of an amplifier 8l 17 .2 Triac operation.... .....117
I 1.6 The output resistance of an I7 .3 Operating modes .....111.
amplifier I7 .4 Simple triac circuits .. l8
.......82 . 1

ll.7 The equivalent circuit of an l7 .5 Thyristor terminology .. .. 1 l8 . ..

amplifier. .......82

'12 Unit 1B
Unit Ampl ifiers 2-operatin g
characteristics 84
l2.l Amplifier biasing. .. . .. .84
12.2 Signal clipping. .. . .. .. .85
IZ.3 Input and output phase relationship 86
L2.4 Amplifier frequency response .. . . . . .. . SZ
12.5 Quiescent stabiliry .. ... .. ... .. .89
12.6 Effect of temperature on quiescent Unit 19 Controlled rectifiers
conditions .. ...89 126
12.7 Simple base resistor bias ...............89 19.1 Controlled rectification . ... .. "126
12.8 Collector bias ... ........90 19"2 The single-phase half-wave
12.9 Voltage divider bias... ....... ...90 diac/SCR controlled rectifier ........L27
19.3 The single-phase half-wave
UJT/SCR controlled rectifier ........I27
Unit 13 Operational amplifiers 1 19,4 The IC triggered SCR single-phase
concepts -basic 93 half-wave rectifier ........ .....127
l3.l The basics of an operational 19.5 A full-wave controlled rectifier. .."..128
amplifier ...... ...93 19.6 Rectified motor speed control ....... 128
13.2 A practical operational amplifier .....94
13.3 Using operational amplifiers .... ......94
Unit 20 Logic 1-digital concepts and
Unit 14 Operational amplifiers 2-using logic gates 131
op. amps 97 2A.l What is'digital'?. .....131
l4.l Non-invertingamplifiers ......9i 20.2 Introduction to logic ..........132
14.2 The voltage follower. ..........98 20.3 Logic notation..... ...132
14.3 Three operational amplifier 24.4 Logicsymbols....... ...........133
configurations compared ...... "99 205 Truth tables ...133
14.4 Applications of op. amp. circuirs. .....99 20.6 Circuits of logic families .....134
20.7 TTL logic ICs ... ......137
Unit 15
142 Unit 21 Logic2-using logic, and binary
ro2 counting f39

2t.2
21.3
Contents vii

UniI22 Logic 3-universal gates 144 27.81 Solarcells..

21.9 LEDs (light emitting
....176
diodes). ........1'77
22.1 NAND and NOR for NOT ...........144
22.2 The double negation .........144
223 The negated NOR and NAND. ......145 Unit 2B Optoelectronics 2-displays
22.4 NORs as universal logic gates .......145 and control 179
22,5 NANDs as universal logic gates.....l45 28.1\ The seven-segment display ..........179
28.2' The BCD decoder...... .....'180
Unit 23 Logic 4-further gates 148 283
28.4
Liquid crystal displays .. '... . 180
Fibre optics ....18i
23,1 Theinvertingbuffer .........148
28.5 Light activated SCRs .. ..... . 182
23.2. TheSchmitttrigger. ....'....148
23.9 The EXCLUSM OR [EX-OR) ....150 i

23.4 Logicmemory..... ...........151 Appendix A Conduction and

23.5 An application of logic gales ........151 semiconductortheory 184
A.1 Electrontheory ....184
unit 24 Loqic S-bistable devices and A.2 Conduction and conductors .... .........185
the-JK flip-flop 154 A.3 Semiconductors.... .....186
- 24.1 Bistable circuits and devices ...... - -.154 A.4 Impurities and doping ....186
24.2 TheRSflip-flop. .-....-154 A.5 N-type semiconductors.... .....187
24.3 Clocked flip-flops .....155 A.6 P-type semiconductors .... .....187
24.4 The JK flip-flop . .. . -. 155
A.7 Majority and minority carriers . ..... '.. 188

24.5 Counters ..... 156

Appendix B Semiconductor tYPe
Unit 25 Timers 1-the 555 timer 160 numbering 189
25.1 555 timerconfiguration ......160 B"1 American system .......189
25.2 555 timer internal operation ........ . I 6 1 8"2 European system .... ... 189
25.3 Timer pin functions .. ".......162
Appendix C Resistors 191
Unit 26 Timers 2-using the 555 C.l Preferredvalues ...........191
timer 164 C.2 Resistor colour codes .
C.3 Shortened resistor coding ..
.... 191
"-- -..192
26.1 Operating modes
26.2 The monostable RC timer.. ..........164
26.3 Using a monostable timer . ...165 Appendix D Boolean algebra 193
26.4 The astable RC circuit ........ 165 D"1 Why use Boolean algebra? ......193
26.5 A practical astable circuit ..".168
D.2 The theorems and laws of Boolean algebra ...I93
D.3 De Morgan's laws.. ......194
Unil 27 Optoelectronics and D.4 Application of Boolean algebra. .......195
electronics -light
1
170
2'7 .I colour
Light and .. . ".. 170 Appendix E Powers of 2 196
27.2 devices. .......171
Optoelectronic
27.3 Photodiodes ......."..171 Appendix F The GreekalPhabet 197
27 .4 Phototransistors .. .. ....172
2'l.5 Optocouplers....... '.-.174 Appendix G Metric prefixes 197
27 .6 Light dependent resistors (LDRs) ...174
27 .7 Characteristics of the LDR.. .........175 Index. ."....199
 Preface to the fourth edition
Although this book retains the same name as the three
previous editions, it presents the subject of electronics
(pertaining to the electrical trades) in an entiqely different
manner. The change in presentation, emphasis and
material is due to the requirement that educational
institutions meet the needs and desires of industry.
This book specifically follows the syllabrls laid down
by the NSW Department of Technical dnd Further
Education for students in Stage 3 of the Electrical Trades
Course. It does, however, go beyond the syllabus in certain
areas, so that a wider general knowledge of electronics
can be gained by the reader. As an example, on the subject
of amplification the characteristics and applications of
tl rperational amplifier are covered, as well as the
application of voltage regulators, timers and logic.
There is a summary at the end of each unit, but
no review questions or numerical problems have been
included. Problems and theory questions pertaining to
each unit have been included in a companion volume
entitled the Ebctronbs for Elcctrbal Trades Workbook.
In addition, practical 'hands on" exercises make the
workbook an extremely valuable complement to this
book.
Calculation examples in this edition use only
fundamental units, and answers are accurate to only three
significant figures. Moreover, any resistance values in
answers have been brought to the nearest El2 preferred
value.
Extra reading material has been included at the end
of some units; other material which may be useful has
been included in appendixes at the end of the book.
Being attuned to the requirements of present and
future electrical tradespeople, this book and its com-
panion workbook will be valuable aids in thB teaching
of electronics to electrical trades students.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank Gary Renshaw (Head of Division of
Electrical and Instrument Trades, School of Applied
Electricity, NSW Department of Technical and Further
Education) and Keith Brownlea (Head Teacher of
Electrical Trades, Newcastle Technical College) for their
advice and assistance in the preparation of this fourth
edition.
Thanks are also extended to the following
for technical information and the supply
organisations
of equipment or photographs:
Dick Smith Electronics
Elzctronb s Australia Magazine
ICL Australia Pty Ltd
National Semiconductor (Australia) Pty Ltd
Philips Electronic Components and Materials
Philips Scientific and Industrial
Power Electronics. A Division of Warman
International Ltd
Siemans Ltd
State Rail Authority of NSW
Tomago Aluminium Company Pty Ltd
lx

Waveforms and the
cRo
1.1 Alternating currents in
electronics
An electrical supply, or signal voltage, is said to be alter-
nating when it periodically changes polarity in a regulaJ
mannlr. Although we are familiar with alternating
currents-being the usual form of our power supply-
many forms of alternating currents are used in electronic
circuits, and for different purposes.
The power supply from the mains is invariably in
a sinwoidal waveform. This is for a variety of reasons,
some of which are that the sine form is:
. a fundamental waveform of nature;
. a simple one to treat mathematically;
. the only waveform that can be passed through a
transformer without changing its shape.
However, many other types of waveforms are used
in electronic circuits-of signal, control and power types.
Figure 1.1 shows, beside the sine-wave, three other
types of commonly encountered waveforms.
Later, in Units 3 and 4, we will consider rectification,
where the alternating sine-wave of the supply is changed
to a pulsating direct current and all calculations
simplified as they refer only to the sinusoidal waveform.
1.2 Alternating current
characteristics
The characteristic feature of a regular alternating current
is that it consists of a waveform which continually repeats
itself about a zero reference-axis. (As is usually it
considered symmetrical about the axis, the average value
is zero for a compl.ete cycle.)
maximum positive
value
wave
Sine wave Square wave
Ffg. 1.1 One complete cycle of four diflerent waveforms of alternating currenl
Unit 1
A number of terms are used to describe the features
of alternating waveforms. Some of these are:
Cycle One complete set of positive and negative values
of a symmetrical wave.
Periodic time (T) The time taken to complete one cycle,
usually measured in seconds (or electrical degrees).
Frequency The number of cycles completed in one
second. Frequency is measured in hem (Hz).
for a
Average value The average value complcte
alternating cycle is zero.
Effectiveor RMS (root-mean-square) value The rms
value of an alternating current is that value of the
waveform which will produce the same heating effect
as a steady state dc value.
Peak values The maximum iltstantancous value a wave
reaches in both positive and negative directions. (Illote
that for a square wave this value is maintained over each
half-cycle.)
Peak-to-peak values The value measured from the
positive peak to the negative peak. (Or, for a symmetrical
wave, twice either peak value.)
are
1.3 Unidirectional (dc) waveforms
As the definition of an alternating waveform is one that
changes polarity periodically in a regular manner, it
follows that a unidirectional waveform is one that at no
time changes polarity. (It may vary in amplitude, that
is height, with respect to time, in a regular or irregular
manner-but current is always in the one direction.)
Any variation in amplitude of a unidirectional
waveform is termed ripplc. The average value of any
unidirectional waveform is the steady-state current
Triangular wave Comolex wave
 Electronlcs for Electrical Trades I
I
vnlts
-
I
ldeal dc t Rectified sine wave t Rectangutar wave Ripple on steady dc

Fig. 1.2 An ideal or steady state dc, and three unidirectional dc waveforms
equivalent value. 'Steady-state', or'ideal' dc has no ripple
and does not vary with time. Figure 1.2 illustrates three
different unidirectional waveforms with a steady-state
dc.
Average value The average height or level represents
the dc component of the wave and is dependent on the
shape of the wave.
- Ripple The time-varying component of the wave and
its magnitude is the peak-to-peak value of the component.
Ripple frequency The number of ripple pulses per second.
I
1.4 Periodic current
reversal (PcR) I
It is possible to have an asymmetrical ac waveform. This
is a waveform in which the positive peak value and
negative peak value are different. Over the period of
the waveform there is a reversal of polarity but, depending
on the waveform, there may only be a small excursion
into the alternate polarity. Figure 1.5 shows a sinusoidal
PCR waveform. The average value of this waveform is I
not zero (unlike a symmetrical, or 'normal' ac wave)
but has a value dependent on the waveform.

RMS value The value of any waveform which produces

As there is a current reversal each regular period
it is referred to as a PCR waveform. Consider the I
the same heat as a steady-state dc" waveform in Figure 1.4. This is an asymmetrical, or PCR,
mark-space rectangular waveform" As it is rectangular
The average value of a unidirectional waveform is
that value which is registered on a moving coil instrument.
it is easy to determine its average value without using
complicated mathematics.
I
For a rectangular wave it is a simple matter to determine
the average height without resorting to instruments. Example 1.2
Determine the average value (the value read on a moving
Example 1.1 coil instrument) of the current in the waveform
Determine the expected reading on a moving coil represented in Figure 1.4.
instrument when measuring the current of the waveform
in Figure 1.3.
Over three complete cycles (a periodic time of
6 ms)
total area = 10 As x 3 x 10-3 I
: 30 x l0-3 As 4

Now as total periodic time is 6 ms z

current
(amperes) u
1ay (average currenr) = *iH
-2
:5A
Answer The average current is 5 amperes Fig. 1.4 Waveform lor Example 1.2

F-i*l
current
Iamperes)

Flg. 1.3 Waveform for Example 1.1

I
I
I Unit 1 Wavelorms and the CRO 3

I Over three complete cycles (a periodic time of

9 ms),
total area (positive) : 4 x2 As x 3
Voltages which arei asymmetrical about a zero axis,
usually
voltages"
in a regular nianner, are referred to as PCR
The average value of an alternating voltage is zero,
- 24As but the average value of a unidirectional or PCR voltage
total area (nesative) : o'" t is the area under the curve (considering both positive
_: ;J and negative) divided iby the time-either for a cycle
total area (net) : 24 - 6
or a total number of cycles. This is the value that is
read on a moving coil, or equivalent, instrument.
- 18As The rms value of an alternating, PCR or
Now as total periodic fime is 9 ms, unidirectional voltage is that value which produces heat
,= equivalent to the same ,Jalue of a steady voltage.
Iou
f
=24
1.7 Observing waveforms
Answer The average current is 2 amperes.
Whilst we may be able to measure average and also
rms values of alternating, PCR and unidirectional
waveforms (and even, with some instruments, the peak-
1.5 RMS value of unidirectional to-peak values), unless it is known that we are dealing
waveforms with a regular waveform, such as the mains supply, we
have no idea whatsoever of the form of the wave.
Earlier it was quoted that the rms value of a wave is The only instrument which may be used to observe
that value of the wave which will produce the same heat
a waveform is the oscilloscope. Early oscilloscopes were
as a steady direct current. Mathematically it is the square
mechanical and used revolving mirrors and mirrors
root of the squares of the means (averages) of that
attached to coils to produce an observable waveform.
particular waveform. The usual instruments used to
These mechanical monsters are now relegated to
measure dc values are moving coil instruments, or digital
museums and almost all modern oscilloscopes use
instruments which simulate moving coils, and so these
cathode ray tubes as the viewing devices. For this reason
readings always present average values.
they are referred to as cathode ray osciJloscopes, invariably
For magnetic circuits or electrolysis it is the average
shortened to CRO.
values that must be considered, but for heating effect
it is the rms value which is important. In a dc electric
motor the average value is performing the work of the
'motor but it is the rms value which'produces heating 1.8 Cathode ray tubes
in the motor windings. A cathode ray tube belongs to a special class of vacuum
rubes which use beams of electrons, in a vacuum, produced
by a heated cathode" The electrons are produced by
1.6 Summary of waveforms thermbnic emissian.
In electronic circuits electrical energy or signal voltages The cathode ray tube consists primarily of a cathode
can appear as many diverse regular waveforms. If these and a phosphor screen, together with electrodes which
are symmetrical about an axis they are referred to as are able to focus and deflect the electrons emitted from
alternating voltages. If they are of a varying nature, either the heated cathode. The simplified internal construction
random or regular, and at no time does the polarity of a cathode ray tube is shown in Figure 1.6.
reverse, then they are referred to as unidirectional Referring to Figure 1.6 we find on the left side a
voltages. heater which, when connected to a low voltage source

Fig. 1.5 A sinusoidal PCR wave. Note that atthough the positive and negative amplitudes are different, they both follow half of a sine cuNe

accelerating
anode
Fig. 1.6 lnternal construction of a cathode ray tube
(usually 6.3 volts), glows at a dull red heat. Surrounding
the heater, and insulated from it, is a small tube called
the cathode. The cathode tube is coated with rare earth
oxides which will provide a copious emission of electrons
when heated. Another cylinder with one end partially
opened surrounds the cathode. This is termed the grid
and when a suitable negative potential is applied to ihis
it restricts the emission to a thin beam.
The phosphor screen of the tube is made conductive
and is supplied with a high, positive potential (in the
larger tubes it can be many thousands of volts), which
attracts the electrons from the cathode. Because the
interior of the tube is sealed and operates at a very high
vacuum there is no impediment to the flow of electrons
across the space.
To assist the flow of electrons from the cathode to
the phosphor screen, another larger cylinder called the
accelerating anode (open at both ends) is placed in front
of the grid. This has a positive potential applied to it,
but less than that of the phosphor screen, ind attracts
the negative electrons. A further cylinder called the
fugusing anode, similar to the first and again in front
of it, also has a positive potential. This further attracts
the electron stream, in such a way that the stream is
converged to a small spot when it arrives at the phosphor
screen at the face of the tube" (Both these anodes behave
in a similar manner to a lens and a beam of light.)
The only control ebctrodes of a simple cathode ray
tube are the deJbction plates for horizontal deflection
* (named X plates) and for vertical deflection (Y plates).
By applying suitable potentials to these plates, the beam
of electrons may be focused at any position, as a small
spot on the face of the tube. The phosphor on the face
of the tube glows when under the influence of the beam.
This type of deflection is termed elcctrostatb deflection.
Figure 1.7 illustrates, the beam formation, focusing and
Flg. 1.7 Focusing and dellection of electron beam
Electronics for Electrlcal Trades
phosphor
screen
deflection, from cathode to phosphor screen in the
cathode ray tube.
1.9 Uses for cathode ray tubes
Although challenged by hq"id crystal displays in some
applications, notably portable lap-top computers, the
cathode ray tube is still supreme for a highly visible crisp
and clear display. The cathode ray tube forms the screeni
I
of CROs (see Fig. L8), the picture tubes of TV receivers,
the playing fields of video games and the output displays
of computers and data transmission terminals. I
No matter what application a cathode ray tube has,
its principle of is the same. The actuil physicai
-operation
construction of the tube, however, differs depending on
the use. Monochrome Olack and white) TV pitture tubes
I
have a large area of phosphor and use magneiic deflection
for the electron beam. Monochrome (green or amber)
computer visual dsploy rnils use a very high-quality
phosphor and special deflection circuits" Cotour fV
I
picture tubes use three electron guns and a phosphor
made up from a multitude of tiny segments of the three
primary colours, each excited by only one of the electron
beams; the highest quality computer colour VDUs (visual
display units) use a similar but much higher quality
construction.
1.10 The cathode ray oscilloscope
The CRO is used to observe waveforms of time-varying
signals and related data. CROs differ slightly i;
appearance in the simpler types but their controls all
perform much the sarne function. There are some very
i
I
I
I
I
 Unit 1 Waveforms and the CRO

t:u't"t'r i'
.:tluj"t4 :,,f'='r;'rqs':."" .';,""'!':!.

Fig. 1.8 A cathode ny tube forms the viewing screen of a CRO PHILIPS SCIENfIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL DIVISION

sophisticated CROs but they are not within the scope 1.11 Controls of the CRO
of this book.
The simpler CROs all have these features: As a CRO is a reasonably complex device it is wise
. a viewing screen fitted with a graticule; to refer to an instruction manual or receive guidance
. a shielded and an'earth' input terminal; before attempting to operate it. However, once a person
. an ac or dc input coupling; is proficient in operating a particular CRO it becomes
. a vertical or Y amplifier, with stepped attenuation; relatively simple to operate another-like a driver
. a vertical shift; adapting to different motor vehicles. The controls are
. a time-base with fixed and variable control: shown in Figure 1.10.
. a horizontal or X shift; In this section the general features of a CRO will
. a horizontal gain control; be outlined but it must be remembered that the lavout
. a trigger level and trigger sensitivity control of controls will differ with particular makes and many
. a brightness control; CROs have special features which may or may not be
. a focus control. required. Reference will be made to the features listed
in Section 1.10.
Viewing screen The viewing screen, as previously
explained, is the phosphor screen of the cathode ray tube.
On this screen the beam of electrons traces the waveform
to be observed. The phosphor of the screen glows (usually
green) when struck by the electron beam. In front of
the screen is placed a graticule, a piece of plastic material
(usually transparent green to improve the contrast)
engraved in centimetre divisions. (These divisions are of
assistance when viewing a waveform and are essential
when measuring it, as will be discussed later.) A full-
| | tl
I tt I | | tl tttl tttl ttl tt { I tl size representation of a CRO screen graticule is shown
in Figure 1.9. The fine engraved lines of the graticule
are often filled with a red dye which, when side-lit by
a lamp with an adjustablL intensity, highlights or
diminishes the effect of the graticule lines.

I Input terminals The input terminals consist of two types,

a shielded input and an 'earth' input. The shielded input
has a socket into which a orobe lead is connected. (Since
this lead may be connected to high impedance circuits,
Ftg. 1.9 A CRO screen graticute which could be affected by stray induced voltages, it
I
a
|!
ru
 6
is shielded.) The probe ar rhe end of the lead could be
marked 1:1, 10:l or have a switch, to switch between
these two ratios. All this means is that the incoming signal
may be attenuated or reduced by the particulai rltio.
If the circuit under test was of very low impedance
between the two connected points, a simple unihielded
le_ad could be used; however, as the shielding has no
effect on a low-impedance circuit, it is usual to always
use a shielded lead. The'earth'lead connects to a common
or
reference
_point in the particular circuit being
investigated. The input impedance of the CRO (th;
impedance between the two input leads) is usually quite
high and may vary ftom2 megohms to 10 megohmi.
Some CROs may have two shielded inpuiterminals
marked channel I and channel 2 (or A and B). These
are known as 'two-channel' CROs and may display two
signals simultaneously.
only,
If observing a single waveform
it is necessary to use only one of the inputs and
its associated controls.
\c or dc input Adjacent to the shielded input terminal,
most CROs have a two-position switch (usually marked
'AC' and 'DC'). In the DC position the input connects
directly to the internal circuits, but in the AC position
a capacitor is connected between the input and internal
circuitry. When switched to DC, the CRO will respond
to any dc level that may be present in a signal-in other
words, it will display the signal with reference to zero
potential. When switched to AC, any dc component in
the signal is ignored and the signal waveform is displayed
about the set mean position on the screen. When obs-ervlng
an ac waveform, the display will not be affected by the
switch position. However, when observing a 'uni-
directional waveform with a ripple (similar to that on
the right side of Figure 1.2), swiiching the input to AC
will only display the ripple and will ignore the dc contenr
below it. If the ripple content is high it is important thar
this facility is available, but it must be stressed that this
effect is similar to zero suppression in a graph.
Vertical (or Y) amplifier The vertical amplifier usually
_ as two controls, which may be concentric. They are
the volts/cm (or amplldiv) switch and the positian (or
vertical sftrf) control. These controls, also, are usually
placed adjacent to the shielded input terminal. The voltsT
cm switch may have twelve positions, each marked with
a number representing the voltage of the waveforrn per
centimetre (or between divisions on the graticule). fhe
range of these voltages could be 0.01-50 volts. This
switch can magnify or diminish the vertical size of the
displayed waveform. (It must be remembered that if usins
a l0:l probe,_all these readings must be multiplied b!
l0; some CROs may have a l:1 and l0:l switch rather
than using an attenuator probe.) The internal output of
the vertical amplifier is connected to the Y plates bf the
cathode ray tube and causes the beam to be deflected
vertically in accordance with the instantaneous values
of waveform to be observed.
The 'position' (or vertical shift) control can shift the
observed waveform vertically on the screen. This is often
Electronics for Electrical Trades
done so that the waveform may be placed in a convenient
position to facilitate measurementi on the graticule. For
example an ac.wave could be centred equally above and I
below the horizontal centre graticule line. When using
two inputs on a two-channef CRO one may be placed
above another for comparison purposes
superimposed for the same reason.
or even I
Time-base The time-base is the heart of a CRO, since "l
without this feature the screen could display only the
-be
maximum peak value of an input waveform-and of
no more value than an analogue yoltmeter. It is the time-
base that is able to display the waveform against a
horizontal (or .r-axis) with a time calibration-, as all
waveforms are a function of time.
I
The time-base circuit consists of a variable oscillator
connected to the X plates of the cathode ray tube which
pro-duces a saw-tooth waveform causing the beam to be I
deflected from side to side. The saw-tooth waveform has
a uniform rise and then a very quick fall. This moves
the beam across the tube face, from left to rieht-and
then at a very much relatively faster rate relurns the
I
beam to the left again" Special circuits cut off the beam
when the return is taking place. This backward and
forward movement of the beam will produce a single
horizontal line across the screen as the phosphoiis
I
excited. To show the waveform on the screen, the y
plates must deflect the beam up and down. This signal
must vary exactly as the voltage of the measured source, I
and since it is moving the beam across the screen at
th-e same relative speed it traces exactly the waveform
of the source.
The screen phosphor is made so that there is a slight
I
persistence of emitted light on the screen after the beim
has moved on. This, with the normal persistence of the
eye's vision, enables a steady trace to appear on the screen.
(It should be remembered that this trace is made up by
I
a very rapidly moving spot, as indeed is any display on
a cathode ray tube screen.)
The time-base control is usually in two parts, a
I
timelcm (or time/div) switch, and a v:ari.able (or-vernier)
control, which are sometimes mounted concentricallv.
The time/cm switch could be a twentv position switih
with calibrations from 500 millisecondi/ientimetre ro I
I
second/centimetre and an OFF position. The time-base
switch position is chosen so that the observed waveform
will display, across the screen, just enough cycles for
correct observation. This is at the discretion of the
I
operator. Whatever time-base position is chosen, it is'
possible to determine periodic time over a cycle by
observing the distance in centimetres between the start I
and hnish of a cycle and multiplying by the time-base
setting.
The variable control has a position marked'calibrate''
(or possibly 'CAL') and only in this position does the
I
time/cm reading of the time/cm switch hold true. If the
control is moved from this position, the frequency of
the time-base may be altered to obtain a better
observation of the waveform, but no lonser can the,
I
periodic time be determined from the sc.eenl
I
I
#g'&#;i#r..i!.;.alr*il;:;.:],-j;iiiij.]'!ii..1]i;].;.,]:j]l.:]'-i:!j;:...,;i]i.!i-'4.ti:!ii.iE,;i.!:],.l..:kre.-$:*|!;il];li*l:ji']. r lr ,iiejl a-I*,ii;

Unlt 1 Waveforms and the CRO

": ;'
!' ,1i,]
tiii a

l,: "jj#sffi:Tsrsrrr-E?ffi, ??1Ffl._,-fiitrf.t:1{?, ?}{Fqg:j,€r"qgwffiKig.!iryir:r4L,:::t:.:r,::I

Fig. 1.10 Conlrols o! a CRC sciEIii!t!:. : ,- .i:.isrfiiAl. irl!;.S'il

I{orizontal control The horizontal control {\r,ntctintcs ntaY consist of tri o pxrts: t-l.qgcr /r'i'c1 and //r,qgdr..k'/r.rirr\ rlr .

ternted thc X amplifier) can again consisl of two The trigge r le ve) de pe nds on \\'hat part of the u ale fonir
conccntric controls. u hich can be tcrnted ltori:otttol ihe observed \\'ave \\'ill comrrence being trace d. As u'cll.
ltositiott ( or ltori:cttttal .sltift I and ltttri:ctntul gein ( {\r it usuallt has a position rnarked 'auto' u'hen no particular
Itctri-rttttul na!ni.fitcttit,n. ol tcn irbbrcvirir.:J to HORIZ level is rccluire d. The trigcer sensitir itl' adjusts the trig-se r
N4AC ). Thc horizontal shrii control can mo\/c tirc control tbr dif icring leveis of inconring signal. lo ensure
observcd u,ar.'ef'ornt back and forth across the scrccn. reiiable triglcring.
so that thc commence ment of a cvcie can be positioned
at a qratrculc ntark to make measurentent on thc screcn Brightness and focus The hriglttttc.r.s control is similar
facc easie r u'hcn de te rmining the pcriodic tinc o1-a \\'avc. to thar on a television rr-ceiver and can be nrade to acliust
l'hc horizontal gain or ntatnificlLtion iontrol has u the brightne ss of'thc u 'avclornr tnrce on the scrccn. Sorlc
calibration position (arain lor accurate dcrerrnrnation of' obse rved u avci'orrns nrul requrre ac1-justnrent of the
pcnocirc tintc). and rihcn nrovcd i'ronr this po,ition can bririrtness control to !et xn casilr -s.'cn trace on thc
expancl thc w ar,cforr.Ir across the screcn (of ten up to fir'c scree n.
tttttcs cnlirrtcntanti to ntorc closclr studr a parlicular Tirc .iircrr-r control is usccl to obtain lr cJear shlrp
part of th.l obscrvcd \\'ll\ ufr)nl. 'l-ii,s c.,ntr,,l ina-\' lrppclrr liar:C ()n thc scrce n. On sonre CROs l chanSe in trrightncss
srrttilar to thc variablc conli-ol on tirc tinr';-basc. bul its rcquircs alr ulte ration ol'thc focus control.
opcration cicpencis on dif'fercnt intcrnal circuits. lnd its
operallon can be madc conrp)ctclv indcp:ndcnt of tirc
ltI))l'- hiL\a trtrJct Ct.rl,,rn - irCrrtrt:llrn.es.
1.12 Using the CRO
'friggcr control Thc tri!gcr cotrtrol is ntccssurl to \\;c rel-cr no\\'to a I'crr of tirc nrost c()ntrnon uscs oi'
s1'ne hronisc thc tintc-basc to tllc rncilnint u avc{-orrn. l CRO. Thc llrst is thr- nrclisurenrcn{ o1-a dc voitage.
\\Iithout thc tr-iit!er cirtuits r,,r if riru_r l,r]'inc<,rrr:ctlv If tire tinrc-basc rs set lo s()nrc convenicnt sctting
\ct )" tltc ribscrvcd u'avcfornt coulcl appcar as un (such as 5 nrstcnr) ancl the lcads ure -joined togcthc'r.
unrcco!ntsablc.iultlhle On thc scrccn. Thc tri-rtcr control a singlc line trace u ill appear rrcrr)ss the screcn. Tiris
 =

I Electronics for Electrical Trades

can be moved vertically by the Y shift control and
positioned on a horizontal line of the graticule. Now,
if the leads are placed across a dc potential (and the
V/cm switch is on a suitable setting), the line will move
vertically up or down depending on the polarity of the
leads position: if the shielded lead is placed on the positive
side of the potential the trace line will rise, if the leads
are reversed it will fall-
the first ,rertical centimetre line of the graticule,
measurement from the face of the screen is made easier.
From the screen, it can be seen that the peak-to-
peak measurement is 2.6 cm and tl,e width of one cycle
is 2.65 cm. From these measurements the answers can
be calculated.

Example 1.3
Figure l.l1 represents the screen of a CRO. The dashed
line represents the position of the trace when the two
leads are shorted together. The solid line represents the
trace when the leads are placed across a dc potential.
If the volts/cm switch is set to the 0.5 position, what
is the potential across the CRO leads?
ll
/
\ I tltl
\
I
'/" '
ttl

/ \ / \

ttrl
Fig. 1.12 CRO screen reprcsenhtion for Example 1.4, a sine wave
I r tl rtl tttl ttl tttl ltl

Now as the volt/cm setting is 2 V/cm and the

attentuation of the probe is 10: I , each centimetre on the
face of the tube represents
2xl0 : 20V
As the peak-to-peak (p-p) distance is 2.6 cm
p-p voltage : 20 x 2.6
Fig. 1.1 1 CRO screen reptesentation for Example 1.3, a dc : 52V
voltage
Now as it is obviously a sine wave, the positive peak
The vertical distance between the shorted position voltage is half the p-p voltage
and the measuring position is 3.1 cm. As the volts/cm
switch is set to 0.5 volts/cm
peakvoltage = Vzx52
measured voltage
: 26V
: ?.lJr?t Also because it is a sine wave, the rms value is 0.707
of the peak value, so
Answer The potential measured by the CRO is l.55 volts. :
rms voltage 0.707 x 26
The voltage measurement above could just as easily : 18.4 V
have been measured with a voltmeter-but with ac
waveforms not only can we observe the form of a wave, To determine the frequency (fl of the waveform we
we can also measure its peak value and determine its first find periodic time (7), and as the time-base is set
frequency as well. to I ms/cm and the measured distance of the period
or cycle is 2.65 cm
T : 0.001 x2.65
Example 1.4 : 2'65 x 10-3 s
Consider the waveform represented in Figure 1.12. lf
the volts/cm switch is on the 2 position, a 10:l attenuator Now as frequency equals the inverse of periodic time
probe is being used, the time-base is set to I ms/cm, (f:t t7);
and all other relevant controls are on the CAL position-
what are the peak-to-peak voltage, the rms voltage and "f: 2.65 x l0-r
the frequency of the observed waveform?
Since the waveform has been vertically positioned = 371H2
equally above and below the centre-line of the graticule Answen The peak-to-peak Voltage is 52 volts; the rms
and also so that a zero point on the wave is in line with voltage is 18.4 volts;and the frequency is 377 hertz.

I
 Unit 1 Waveforms and the CRO 9

Example 1.5 From the screen we can measure the amplitude of

Figure 1.13 represents an observed wavefqrm on the the ripple to be 0.3 cm and the period of the ripple to
screen of a CRO. The volts/cm switch is set to 5. a be 0.6 cm. Now using the settings given above
l0:1 probe is being used, the time-base is set to 5 ms/ ripple amplitude 5x10x0.3
ilf cm, and the other X controls are on CAL. What is the
amplitude of the ripple and what is the ripple frequency?
15V

t
T 5 x 1g-r ,. 6.6
0.003 s

{_ I
J_
0.003

T \rbl+ 333 Hz
Answen The ripple has an amplitude of 15 vblts and

t lr tl l rl r

r ti 'il'1- r I
-+-
-f-
I tll rlii
a frequency of 333 hertz.

t
t

t Ff g. 1.13 CRO screen representation lor Example 1.5, a rippte on

t a dc voltage

rl
t Unit 1 SUMMARY
Mains supply ac is a sinusoidal waveform, but in
electronics many other waveforms may be
The viewing screen of a CRO is the face of a cathode
ray tube.
encountered. A graticule is fitted to the screen of a CRO to assist in
|| When.dealing with alternating waves, the terms cycle, the accurate measurement of an observed waveform.
periodic time, frequency, avelage value, rms valu'e, The input probe lead of a CRO is shielded to prevent

I peak value and peak{o-peak value must be

understood.
The amplitude of a dc voltage may vary with time, and
the terms average value, ripple, riilple irequency ano
stray induced voltages from interfering with the
observed waveform.
The CRO input can be switched from ac to dc to

t
rms value must be understood.
A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument for
the observation and measurement of waveforms.
observe a waveform with a reference to zero.
The vertical or Y amplifier of a CRO determines the
height of the observed waveform on the screen.

t
I
t
t
t