Australian Shale

Valve Engineering Root Cause Of

Gas Development For Recip Compressors Piping Failures

May 2015

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 Page
4
CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane

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Publisher ..................................... Brent Haight
Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
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Deputy Editor .............................. Mark Thayer

Profits Over People

Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke
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Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
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Graphic Artist ........................Brenda L. Burbach
Graphic Artist .............................Carla D. Lemke
ayoffs due to low oil prices is a ing activity due to weak crude pricing
Graphic Artist ........................... Amanda J. Ryan reoccurring topic these days. A environment. However, with the favor-
Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope
March article in Forbes maga- able earnings result, Halliburton rose
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220 zine titled, “Itemizing The Oil Bust: more than 3% in market trading.
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Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175 75,000 Layoffs And Counting” pro- Shares of Schlumberger Ltd., the
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS vides a detailed breakdown of which world’s largest oil field services com-
Norm Shade – Cambridge, Ohio
Mauro Belo Schneider – Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil companies have laid off workers — pany, gained more than 2% after the
HOUSTON, U.S.A. including specific job reduction totals company posted first-quarter earnings
Brent Haight, Publisher
Angela Jarrell, Managing Editor
— as of March 2015. that beat Wall Street expectations.
Mark Thayer, Deputy Editor For now, most of the pain is limited Schlumberger, per the Forbes list,
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225
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Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager continues as low oil prices linger. Wall Street expectations, Schlum-
Gabriele Dinsel, Advertising Manager
Niemöllerstr. 9 Major players like Halliburton and berger outlined plans to cut an addi-
73760 Ostfildern, Germany Schlumberger quickly moved to lay- tional 11,000 workers.
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UNITED KINGDOM
offs causing smaller companies to fol- “As a result of the severe fall in activ-
Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor low suit (see the Forbes list). ity in North America combined with the
Linda Cameron, Advertising Manager
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Ashbourne, Derbyshire,
DE6 1LH, United Kingdom will soon be felt far beyond the oil and to customer budget cuts driven by lower
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Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher
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Via Fitta, 21a
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Layoffs in the oil and gas sector mean roughly 15% of its workforce.
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CHINA Halliburton reported better-than- haps a positive ripple would move
S.H. Mok, Branch Manager expected first-quarter 2015 results, toward the shore. CT2
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Myung-Shin Lee, Sales Manager
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May 2015

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40 Unlocking Stranded Bakken Shale Gas
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8 Global Perspective — Australian Shale Gas Development
10 Events & Meetings
12 About The Business — Glut Of Oil And Gas Forces Spending Cuts
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Global Perspective
Australian Shale Gas
By Roberto Chellini
Associate Publisher Development > Great potential faces a
challenging environment
T
he success of North American shale gas production
and the abundance of shale gas resources through-
out the world have encouraged a number of coun-
tries to begin exploration and development of their own
shale gas resources. According to the U.S. Energy Infor-
mation Administration (EIA), Australia ranks seventh in the
world’s scale for estimated recoverable reserves with
437 Tcf (12.37 x 109 m3) (2013 data).
However, Australia’s short-term hopes of becoming the
next big shale gas market have been dashed following
Chevron’s decision to exit from its shale gas search. Ac-
cording to a statement by partner Beach Energy, shale gas
exploration in Australia “does not align strategically” with
Chevron’s portfolio. This is yet another sign that the steep
fall in oil prices is hurting investments in the oil and gas
industry, particularly in higher cost exploration activities in
Asia. Chevron’s pullout from Australia’s shale play follows
the exit of other players, including ConocoPhillips, Statoil
and Hess.
Australia’s Northern Territory province could hold as
much as 236.61 Tcf (6.7 x 109 m3) of shale gas resources,
and is home to several prospective shale basins such as
the Georgina and Beetaloo basins. While concerns about
the safety of fracking led to a nine-month inquiry into the
practice, the resulting report approved of the activity so
long as a robust regulatory and monitoring framework is
in place.
However, doubts about its commercial feasibility will stall
further exploration and production (E&P) developments.
E&P, particularly in Northern Territory, will fare better if a
proposed cross-country gas pipeline project materializes in
Australia. The country is looking to construct a pipeline that
will link gas from the Amadeus Basin in Northern Territory
to gas markets in southern and eastern Australia, which
is estimated to cost AU$900 million to AU$1.3 billion. The
pipeline has received support from the provincial govern-
ments involved: Northern Territory, Queensland and South
Australia. Four companies out of 11 have been shortlisted
by the Northern Territory government to bid for rights to
MAY 2015 8 Compressortech2
this project — APA Group, Duet Group, Jemena and Merlin
Energy Australia — and results of this auction should be
available by 2016.
Should the pipeline go ahead, it will open East Coast
markets to gas from the resource-rich but underdeveloped
parts of central Australia, thereby supporting E&P in North-
ern Territory. With fears of a gas crunch as gas begins to
flow out of eastern Australia via liquid natural gas (LNG)
terminals in Queensland, supplies from Northern Territory
would help appease these fears without forcing states such
as New South Wales to relax their environmental regula-
tions to encourage local gas production.
As such, BMI Research notes that a decision on the pipe-
line poses upside risk to their production forecast. However,
the effect of this will kick in only toward the tail end of their
forecast period from 2021. Assuming that the winner is
picked for the pipeline in 2016, it would take at least three
years for the pipeline to be completed. The need to iron
out specifics regarding the pipeline, particularly the route
it will go through and the impact of its construction on the
environment, will delay construction and push the pipeline’s
start-up date closer to 2021.
Nonetheless, a successful auction for the pipeline by
2016 could see some return of exploration interest to Aus-
tralia, especially in Northern Territory. This could translate
into new production from 2021, and push up gas output
from what BMI Research currently forecasts. The incentive
for E&P in Australia will be further weakened by poor-mar-
ket access in a weak oil price environment. Shale resourc-
es locked in Northern Territory, which consumed less than
1% of Australia’s gas in 2013, will find difficulty accessing
both international and domestic markets unless infrastruc-
ture developments move ahead.
However, the short-term prospect of gas exports from
Northern Territory appears bleak. LNG projects in Australia
are being put on hold not only because of high development
costs, but also an uncertain market for LNG in Asia. This
underscores BMI Research’s forecast for gas production to
plateau in Australia. CT2
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Events & Meetings

Boldface indicates shows and c
­ onferences in which Compressortech2 is participating

MAY +44 20 7596 5000 +1 (617) 219-8375

May 4-7 www.turkmenistangascongress.com www.sensorsmag.com/sensors-expo
Offshore Technology Conference
Houston JUNE June 15-19
+1 (972) 952-9494 June 1-5 Achema 2015
www.otcnet.org WGC World Gas Conference Frankfurt, Germany
Paris +49 69 7564 100
May 12-14 www.wgc-paris2015.com www.achema.de
Oil & Gas Uzbekistan
Tashkent, Uzbekistan June 2-5 June 15-19
+44 207 596 5144 Caspian Oil & Gas ASME Turbo Expo
Baku, Azerbaijan Montreal, Quebec, Canada
www.oguzbekistan.com
+44 207 596 5000 +1 (404) 847-0072
www.caspianoil-gas.com www.asmeconferences.org/TE2015/
May 19-21
Eastern Gas Compression June 9-11 June 23-25
Roundtable Power-Gen Europe Developing Unconventional Gas East
Pittsburgh Amsterdam Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
+1 (412) 372-4301 +44 1992 656 617 +1 (713) 260-6492
www.egcr.org www.powergeneurope.com www.dugeast.com
May 19-21 June 9-11 June 24-25
Sensor+Test Global Petroleum Show Energy Exposition
Nuremberg, Germany Calgary, Alberta, Canada Billings, Montana
+49 5033 9639 0 +1 (403) 209-3555 +1 (307) 234-1868
www.sensor-test.de www.globalpetroleumshow.com www.energyexposition.com

May 19-21 June 9-11 JULY

Turkmenistan Gas Congress Sensors Expo & Conference July 20-22
Avaza, Turkmenistan Long Beach, California Southern Gas Association

MAY 2015 10 Compressortech2

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For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com/events/

Operating Conference Houston +54 11 4514 1400

Nashville, Tennessee +1 (979) 845-7417 www.aogexpo.com.ar/en
+1 (972) 620-8505 http://pumpturbo.tamu.edu
www.southerngas.org Oct. 26-29
Sept. 15-17 HHP Summit
AUGUST Wyoming Oil & Gas Fair Dallas, Texas
August 18-20 Casper, Wyoming +1 (888) 993-0302
Power-Gen Natural Gas +1 (307) 258-4708 www.hhpsummit.com
Columbus, Ohio www.wyogasfair.org
+1 (918) 831-9160 Oct. 27-29
www.power-gennaturalgas.com Louisiana Gulf Oil & Gas
Sept. 15-17
Exposition (LAGCOE)
Gas Compressor Short
SEPTEMBER Lafayette, Louisiana
Sept. 1-3 Course Conference +1 (337) 235-4055
Power-Gen Asia Norman, Oklahoma www.lagcoe.com
Bangkok +1 (405) 325-3891
+44 1992 656 634 www.ou.edu/outreach/engr/ Oct. 27-30
www.powergenasia.com gascompressor_home.html Gastech
Singapore
Sept. 14-16 OCTOBER +44 (0) 203 615 2847
SPE North Africa Technical Oct. 4-7 www.gastechsingapore.com
Conference and Exhibition Gas Machinery Conference
Cairo Austin, Texas NOVEMBER
+971 4 457 5800 +1 (972) 620-4026 Nov. 2-5
www.spe.org/events/natc www.gmrc.org International Seminar Rotor
Dynamics & Bearings
Sept. 14-17 Oct. 5-8 Cologne, Germany
Turbomachinery Symposium/ Argentina Oil & Gas Expo +49 2267 6585 0
Pump Users Symposium Buenos Aires, Argentina www.arla-online.com

MAY 2015 11 Compressortech2

About The Business
Glut Of Oil And Gas Forces
Spending Cuts And Project
By Norm shade Setbacks > Compressor cylinder structural repair
is not a safe place to cut corners
A
n April report by the Potential Gas Committee said
that U.S. natural gas reserves have grown 5.2%
over the past two years to a record 2515 Tcf (7.12 x
1013 m3). That’s equivalent to 94 years of consumption at
2014 levels. With an over-supply of gas and with storage
levels recovering from the cold winter, MYMEX prices are
struggling to stay above US$2.50/Mcf.
Oil prices remain in the tank, too, although some analysts
feel that U.S. crude oil production may now be approaching
its peak amid a decline in output from new and legacy wells.
Despite a 50% drop in the well count since October, Reuters
reported that output has been increasing due to at least six
months of delay between well count changes and output
changes reported to regulators. Even if production peaks
this month or next, it will not be visible in the statistics until at
least July or August, and maybe later. Goldman Sachs fore-
casts that U.S. oil production will rise by 700,000 bbl/d this
year, preventing spending cuts and inventory declines from
bringing a substantial recovery in oil prices. In mid-April, WTI
crude prices were just over US$50/bbl, better than the low
US$40s a month ago, but far off last year’s price level.
In spite of the oil price slump, ConocoPhillips said that
it would boost its North American shale spending by 50%
throughout 2017. The company plans to shift its focus from
big projects to low-cost and immediate shale wells, as many
of the shale projects start production and begin to generate
revenue quickly.
Budget cuts, project delays and cancellations are having
a trickle-down effect as producers, equipment manufactur-
ers and service providers are feeling the pinch. Layoffs are
continuing as companies adjust to lower business levels by
finding ways to reduce cost.
Speaking of reducing cost, every spring a number of
operators find water-jacketed compressor cylinders with
cracks from winter freeze-ups. Many times, operators
“save” money by having no spare cylinders, which leaves
them seeking emergency fixes to avoid purchasing new
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI
Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 45-year veteran of the gas
compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is
active in the major industry associations.
May 2015 12 Compressortech2
cylinders. When it comes to repairing pressure-containing
components, such as compressor cylinders and heads,
there are few safe alternatives. Repair companies have be-
come very proficient and artful with metal stitching and/or
welding. But, unless approved by the original manufacturer
or other engineering entities with the capability of analyz-
ing the failure and its effect on the structural integrity, these
types of mechanical repairs carry an unreasonable risk
when it comes to the repair of pressure-containing parts,
especially gray or ductile iron castings. It is best to avoid
such repair challenges by keeping spares on hand.
A related question, of course, is the fundamental need for
liquid-cooled cylinders. Although API 618 [1] requires them,
there are arguably some process situations where water-
cooling (or heating) is beneficial. However, the majority of
compressor cylinders in use today operate just fine with no
water jackets at all. This is a subject of debate that can-
not be fully vetted here, but it is always prudent to review
the need for cylinder water jacket cooling. If required, care
should be taken to prevent cooling system freeze-ups that
will damage cylinders and other system components.
With companies limiting discretionary spending, it will
likely impact attendance at the Eastern Gas Compressor
Roundtable (EGCR) May 19-21. After several years of sub-
stantial growth, the EGRC moves into the bigger Pittsburgh
Convention Center this year.
A comprehensive new EGCR training course, Guidelines
for High-Speed Reciprocating Compressor Packages, is being
launched June 16-18 in Houston. It provides a comprehensive
and detailed guideline for designing and building high-speed
compressor packagers that meet customer and equipment
original equipment manufacturer (OEM) expectations. For
more details, visit http://www.gmrc.org/gmrc-training.
Those interested in engine and compressor history should
not miss the Coolspring Power Museum’s Summer Expo,
June 18-20. With more than 230 operable engines, the mu-
seum is open the third Saturday each month from April to
September. See www.coolspringpowermuseum.org. CT2
References
[1] API 618, “Reciprocating Compressors For Petroleum,
Chemical, And Gas Industry Services,” Fifth Edition (Wash-
ington, D.C.; American Petroleum Institute [API], 2007).
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Proprietary STASSKOL Materials
▪ Protected After Market Strategy for all OEMs
▪ German Engineering

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info@stasskol.de
www.stasskol.com
Skidded Microturbine Packages
Power-Up Marcellus And Utica
Gas Facilities > E-Finity
custom packages
reduce installation time from
T
he rapid development of the Mar-
cellus and Utica Shales through-
out the Appalachian Basin has
driven the need for more infrastructure.
Central gas-gathering, gas-processing
and separation, and gas-transmission
facilities continue to be built or ex-
panded throughout the region. Often,
the availability of electric power in the
region is a constraint that limits the size
or timing of a facility expansion. Micro-
turbines are a common solution that
provides the incremental electric power
required for new and expanded facilities
in remote Marcellus Shale locations.
E-Finity Distributed Generation LLC,
the exclusive distributor for Cap­­­­­­stone­­
may 2015 14 Compressortech2
weeks to hours
By Norm Shade
Turbine Corporation in the Mid-­Atlantic
and southeastern United States, has in-
stalled more than 400 Capstone micro-
turbines since 2007, many of them in
Appalachian Basin natural gas facilities.
Standard Capstone microturbines
are available in 40, 87 and 268 hp (30,
65 and 200 kW) frame sizes. Products
based on the 268 hp (200 kW) turbine
frame are also available in 804, 1072
and 1340 hp (600, 800 and 1000 kW)
configurations. Capstone microturbines
produce ultralow emissions and can run
on a variety of fuels including methane,
rich natural gas with high heating values
up to 1275 Btu/scf (47.5 MJ/m3) or die-
sel oil. The Capstone microturbine elec-
n E-Finity’s customizable
skidded packages provide
multiple Capstone micro-
turbines in a factory-built
and commissioned system
that includes the E-Finity
mTIM microturbine inter-
face module shown at the
left end of the package.
tric generator is a small modular design
with just one moving part, patented air
bearings that require no lubricating oil or
coolant, and integrated utility synchro-
nization and protection. In aggregate,
Capstone units have accumulated tens
of millions of operating hours.
The ability to listen to customer needs
and respond in a way that meets the
demand of the industry is key to a com-
pany’s success. “As the top distributor
of the Capstone product line, E-Finity’s
success in both the commercial indus-
trial and oil and gas markets has given
continued on page 16
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it the ability to fully understand what a
customer needs,” said Jeff Beiter, man-
aging partner. This is seen in E-Finity’s
most recent new product offering.
In the Appalachian Basin, it has
been common practice to install multi-
ple C30 (30 kW) or C65 (65 kW) micro-
turbine units in parallel to provide the
required block of site power. Although
the Capstone microturbines are self-
contained modules, the on-site con-
figuration and installation of multiple
parallel units can be labor-intensive
and time-consuming. E-Finity solved
this problem in October 2014, when
it began packaging Capstone’s stan-
dard C30 and C65 microturbine units
into one compact, customizable, skid-
mounted package.
E-Finity’s skid package offering was
created in response to a request from
a gas-gathering and production cus-
tomer in southwest Pennsylvania.
With sites in the heart of the wet gas
region of the Marcellus Shale, the
customer was faced with the issue
of bringing their compressor stations
online quickly to take advantage of
market prices and demand. They also
wanted to reduce construction and
start-up costs, while increasing the re-
liability of their power systems.
To achieve these goals, E-Finity de-
signed and assembled a system that
incorporates gas piping and electri-
cal components that were specified
by the customer. To meet the urgent
may 2015 16 Compressortech2
n When E-Finity’s skidded package of
multiple Capstone microturbines ar-
rives on-site, it is ready for a single
fuel gas connection and electrical con-
nection at a single marshalling cabinet,
which can reduce installation time to
just a few hours.
need of the customer, the system was
pre-commissioned to verify that the
control system and the power system
were properly connected. All con-
struction and pre-commissioning was
done in-house at E-Finity’s production
facility in Wayne, Pennsylvania, just
outside of Philadelphia.
When the skidded package of four
C65s arrived on-site, it was ready for
final fuel gas and electric power con-
nections. E-Finity said that this al-
lowed the customer to quickly, safely,
and cost efficiently generate power at
a remote compressor site. The bene-
fits of the skid include a single fuel gas
connection and electrical terminations
at a single marshalling cabinet. The
skid also allowed all four C65s to be
factory-tested and pre-commissioned.
The customer reported that the on-
site installation time was reduced
from more than three weeks to a sin-
gle day. In fact, once the multiple-unit
skidded system arrives on-site, it can
be powered up in a matter of hours.
Since each skid is customizable,
weight and dimensions can differ de-
pending on what each customer re-
quires at their site. Each skid has a
width of 8 ft. (2.4 m), a height of ap-
proximately 7.5 ft. (2.3 m) and length
of up to 44 ft. (13.4 m), depending on
the number of microturbines. Optional
silencers, which help meet stricter
noise requirements, can be added,
increasing the height by 2 ft. (0.6 m).
Each E-Finity skid-mounted mi-
croturbine system includes a fuel
header with a 10 µm filter, regula-
tion and individual disconnects at
each microturbine. The header is
welded and pressure-tested to meet
the customer’s specifications. The skid
package also contains the full control
system normally present in any mi-
croturbine array and an outdoor-rated
programmable logic controller (PLC)
control system mounted next to the
power distribution panel with 480 V
disconnects for each unit. Power
disconnect devices and fuel isolation
valves allow the lockout and tagout
of individual microturbines without
shutting down the array. If lower volt-
age systems or single-phase power
is required, this can be added to the
skid as well.
E-Finity plans to supply these cus-
tomizable and scalable skids to many
oil and gas sites within the Marcellus
and Utica Shale regions and expand
the product into the company’s com-
mercial and industrial CHP (combined
heat and power) and CCHP (com-
bined cooling, heating and power)
product offerings. The CHP and CCHP
systems will be assembled with com-
bined heat and power or chilling and
heat systems mounted on the skids
with the microturbines. These sys-
tems will reduce the construction cost
on commercial applications as well.
“Regardless of the application, the E-
Finity skid-mounted units are helping
and will continue to help customers
meet the increasing demands of their
facilities,” concluded Beiter.
The skidded packages are not E-
Finity’s first example of responding to
customer needs. “Earlier, customer
need resulted in E-Finity develop-
ing its microturbine interface module
(mTIM),” said Jerry Todd, senior sales
engineer for E-Finity’s Oil & Gas Di-
vision. The mTIM is a PLC-based
controller that performs turbine and
system diagnostics, while allowing for
remote connectivity for 24/7 off-site
monitoring and maintenance by E-
Finity. Developed and manufactured
in-house, the mTIM controller is now
a standard and integral part of every
E-Finity microturbine installation. CT2
 MACHINERY ANALYSIS

Keeping it running smoothly since 1967

BETAMACHINERY.COM
 Smoking Out Safety A
s many offshore platforms and
other assets are aging, the em-

Risks > Dry

phasis on managing the risks
deluge testing could ease associated with them is now, more than
ever, critical to operators.
corrosion concerns Continuous low oil prices means off-
By Ian Cameron shore exploration companies are less
likely to invest in new platforms or in-
frastructure and be more enthusiastic
about ensuring the cost-effective main-
tenance of existing equipment and ex-
tending its operational lifetime.
Offshore platforms normally have del-
uge fire protection systems, which have
sprinkler heads and are connected to a
fire water supply. Their valves are opened
automatically by the activation of the plat-
form fire and gas-detection system.
Such deluge systems are vital on
platforms where there is often the po-
tential for risk and the presence of com-
plex, large-scale pieces of equipment,
Photo courtesy of Siron

such as gas turbines, compressors and

electrical plants.
Offshore platform operators have
mandatory “wet” testing of deluge sys-
tems built into their performance stan-
dards to prove reliability and align with
n Two nozzles on an offshore deluge system, showing a blocked nozzle and current statutory requirements.
an open nozzle. These tests are often frequent, costly
and time-consuming. As wet testing in-
volves using seawater to check the sys-
tem and sprinkler heads, the resultant
deposits of salt can ultimately cause
severe corrosion to pipework and other
parts of platforms along with the potential
to cause an expensive production shut-
down due to water ingress.
However, an alternative way of testing
for faults within deluge systems such as
cracks or blocks or inefficient sprinkler
heads was developed by Dutch fire pro-
tection company Siron B.V. and is called
dry deluge testing.
Now, Siron has entered into an ex-
clusive agreement with Clearwater Fire
Solutions, based in Aberdeen, Scot-
Photo courtesy of Siron

land, to cover offshore platforms work-

n Dry deluge testing taking place. According to Clearwater, such dry test-
ing is set to dramatically cut the frequency of mandatory wet testing while
presenting significant cost savings.
ing around the United Kingdom.
According to Clearwater, the technol-
ogy is the only dry smoke fire deluge test-
ing service offered in the U.K. market and
is set to dramatically cut the frequency of
mandatory wet testing while presenting
significant cost savings. The ease of test-
ing means that Siron Dry Deluge Testing
(DDT) can be conducted while live and

May 2015 18 Compressortech2

online without disruption, preventing the
need for operational shutdown, while also
allowing for “on the spot” repair work to
be conducted, Clearwater said.
Lee Morgan, a director at Clearwater
Fire Solutions, said that the frequency of
wet testing currently presents operators
with a multitude of challenges long term,
where accelerated corrosion, salt crust-
ing or growth of organisms in flow pipe-
work occurs, subsequently exacerbating
the issue of deluge nozzle blockages.
“With dry deluge smoke testing, an in-
tems are being rapidly deteriorated be-
cause steelwork starts to corrode and
ultimately pipes have to be replaced,
which is very expensive.
“The benefits of the dry testing are
that it blows away water, it dries the pipe
and almost eliminates corrosion. Instead
of doing four or five wet tests a year to
prove the system is blockage-free, an
operator can do one smoke test a year
followed by a wet test the year after.
Pump
“Dry ad new_Layout
testing 1 4/15/2015
is quicker and it3:53
re-PM
quires less preparation work to use
smoke as opposed to water, because,
normally, to do a deluge test platform
operators first have to fit water ingress
protection, which requires putting wa-
ter proofing over all of the electrical
equipment, in any plant that is running
and instrumentation because when a
wet deluge is set off over a wide plant
the potential is there to shut the plant
down, which has both operational and
Page 1
financial impacts.” CT2

Summit
ert pressurized smoke travels through the
deluge system and allows us to visually
identify the system or nozzle blockages

NGL Series
instantly, significantly reducing the overall
time taken to verify each systems condi-

protects your
tion, Morgan said.
“Entire platforms can be tested in days

reciprocating
rather than weeks due to the less prepa-
ration work required with setting up of the

compressors
system for test. There is also no require-
ment for complicated electrical sensors

from
used to pick up airwaves to be installed
to the system that will impede the flow

washing
path of firewater into the protected area
like with other dry testing technologies.
“Any residual water from former wet
tests will also be blown out of the sys-

Free
tem, effectively drying the flow pipes
and extending the life of the deluge
system itself, which can be exception- Technical Support &
ally expensive to replace. Used Oil Analysis
“Where other deluge testing systems

If you’re having problems with ”washing” in your high-pressure

might take up a lot of space, Siron DDT is

reciprocating compressors, the lubrication feed rates to the

conducted via a fully equipped container

washed cylinders could increase as much as 8 times the baseline

on- or offshore, which includes its own
independent vacuum compressor, as
well as all our own tools and equipment rate. This over-lubrication can result in hydraulicing, early valve
failure and excessive carryover to downstream.
required for immediate repair.”
Clearwater Director Steve Nickerson
said dry deluge testing is not a replace-
A possible solution to your washing problem is Summit’s NGL Series
synthetic lubricants. We want to help. Call Summit today and talk
ment for wet testing because most opera-

to one of our technical support staff to select the right synthetic

tors have wet performance tests built into

Summit
lubricant for your compressor application.....it’s free.
their performance standards and there is
a statutory requirement to prove flows,
pressures and density application rates
of the firewater into the protected area.
“They still have to do the wet testing,

Industrial Products
but smoke testing gives the operators
the opportunity to prove the system is

800.749.5823
not blocked and gives them justifica-
tion to extend the period between the
wet tests,” Nickerson said. “A company
may have to do a wet test every three www.klsummit.com
months, which means that deluge sys-

MAY 2015 19 Compressortech2

 UnaE&C Receives West Qurna
Rehabilitation Contract > Local expertise provides
international standards
U
naE&C Iraq, an engineering and construction
subsidiary of Unaoil Group, has recieved a
contract for the rehabilitation of Iraq-based
Basrah Gas Co.’s (BGC) West Qurna compressor
stations CS7 and CS8.
Approximately 706.29 MMscfd (2 x 107 m3/d)
of gas is being flared south of Iraq. According to
UnaE&C, this represents 170,000 bbl/d equivalent
of raw gas. The rehabilitation project will consist of
collecting, compressing and dehydrating flared as-
sociated gas generated from the degassing stations
before being sent by pipeline to the North Rumaila
natural gas liquids (NGL) plant, a downstream gas
treatment facility.
A phased approach will achieve the project’s comple-
tion. The initial rehabilitation phase plans a safe, working
facility from the existing non-operational condition. The
rejuvenation phase will return the assets to reliable and
efficient operation. The expansion phase will develop
additional gas-gathering (compression), gas-processing
and power generation facilities. Future opportunities
to export the processed gas will create a new income
stream for Iraq’s economy and increase the potential for
reliable domestic energy infrastructure.
“This is an excellent opportunity for Unaoil to utilize
our local capabilities and deliver this important proj-
Photo courtesy of Unaoil Monaco SAM
MAY 2015 20 Compressortech2
By Angela Jarrell
ect to the high international standards expected by
BGC,” said Cyrus Ahsani, CEO of Unaoil Group.
Headquartered in Dubai, UnaE&C projects focus
on pipelines, pumping and compressor stations, early
production facilities and medium-sized power plants
in challenging environments. Unaoil provides local
expertise at international standards using leading
technology. With operating centers in Dubai and Bas-
rah, Unaoil will support the West Qurna compressor
station rehabilitation project.
BGC is a joint venture between South Gas Co. of
Iraq (51%), Shell (44%) and Mitsubishi (5%). Over
time, the joint venture will gather, treat and process
raw gas produced within Basrah and sell the pro-
cessed natural gas and associated products such as
condensate and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for
use in the domestic and export markets. CT2
n Basrah Gas Co.’s West Qurna
compressor station CS7.
THINK GERMAN,
ACT LOCAL.
HAS AN EXPENSIVE BLUESTROKE
COMPRESSOR
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DUE TO NON-OEM REPAIR?

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and maybe resulting in damages and production losses.
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parts by checking repairs as stringently as stipulated in
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NEA GROUP Headquarters in Germany

Development And Testing Of A
Timed Power Cylinder Lube-Oil TECH
Injection System > Reducing oxidation catalyst poisoning,
lube-oil consumption and wear rate
By Daniel B. Olsen, Matthew R. Luedeman,
Editor’s Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma-
chinery Research Council’s (GMRC) meeting in Nashville,
Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014.
Abstract
More than 6000 integral natural gas compressors are
located along America’s natural gas pipelines. These com-
pressors are powered primarily by two-stroke, large-bore,
natural gas engines. A substantial amount of research
has focused on optimizing efficiency and reducing fuel-
derived emissions for this class of engine. Little research
has focused on the lubrication system and its effects on
emissions and performance. This work is driven by two
concerns: excessive cylinder lubrication of two-stroke en-
gines and the poisoning of oxidation catalysts by lube oil.
These concerns can be addressed by the development of
an advanced lube-oil injection system.
A retrofit lube-oil injection system was designed with
the capability of injecting oil through two lube ports on
each cylinder at any time during the engine cycle. The
system was installed and tested on a Cooper-Bessemer
GMV4 engine. Variations in the number of skip cycles,
average lube rate, and injection timing were evaluated.
Lube-oil carryover was quantified using a dilution tunnel
and standard particulate matter gravimetric measurement
technique. Cylinder wall lubrication was quantified using
a custom-designed fixture that was inserted into the fuel
valve port between data points when the engine was shut
down. The best lube-oil carryover results for nominal lube
rate were obtained for a skip cycle setting of four and in-
Dr. Daniel B. Olsen is an associate professor in the mechanical
engineering department at Colorado State University. He car-
ries out research on new technologies for industrial engines
and teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in the ther-
mal sciences. He holds a PhD in mechanical engineering from
Colorado State University. Contact him at: daniel.olsen@colo-
state.edu. Matthew Luedeman is an engineer at John Deere. He
holds a MS in mechanical engineering from Colorado State
University. Contact him at: luedemanmatthewr@johndeere.
com. Cody Lanham is a field service engineer at Dresser-Rand
Enginuity. His responsibilities include tuning air-to-fuel ratio
controllers, carburetors, and ignition systems and measuring
emissions from large-bore, natural gas engines. He holds a
BS in mechanical engineering from Colorado State University.
Contact him at: cody.d.lanham@gmail.com.
MAY 2015 22 Compressortech2
corner
and Cody D. Lanham
jection timing corresponding to the time just before the pis-
ton rings passed the lube ports during expansion.
Introduction
Recent research has shown that lubricant-derived emis-
sions in large-bore, natural gas engines are significant [1].
This includes lube-oil carryover into the exhaust, which
can poison oxidation catalysts. The primary objective of
this research was to reduce oxidation catalyst poisoning.
Other potential benefits of the technology are reduced
lube-oil consumption and reduced wear rate. Previous
and continuing research performed by Colorado State
University (CSU) in this area is funded by the Compressor
and Pump Station Technical Committee (CAPSTC) of the
Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI).
Power cylinder lubrication
Lubrication between the piston and power cylinder liner
is essential for engine operation. Large-bore, natural gas
engines utilize lubrication ports, typically located midway
up the cylinder, to provide oil to the piston and cylinder.
These ports are not present on small, two-stroke engines,
which utilize an oil/fuel mix to lubricate the cylinder. Lubri-
cation of the cylinder/piston may be the most critical of all
lubrication points in an engine. Many researchers credit
the piston/cylinder interaction as the primary frictional loss
in the internal combustion engine [2]. Large-bore, natu-
ral gas engines provide lubrication to the cylinder/piston
through the use of mechanical lubricators. The lubricator’s
purpose is to regulate and deliver oil into the power cylin-
ders via the lubrication ports on the engine.
Mechanical lubricators are of the force-feeding style.
These lubricators operate entirely mechanically. The lubri-
cator is primarily composed of two components, a positive
displacement pump and a divider assembly. The positive
displacement pump drives off of the crankshaft. Therefore,
the lubricator flow rate is rpm-dependent. Many lubricator
pumps also offer manual flow rate adjustment. This adjust-
ment alters the oil output/shaft speed ratio of the pump.
The divider assembly, located downstream of the pump,
distributes the pumped oil equally to each of the lubrica-
tion ports. Secondary components of the force-feed sys-
tem are a filter, pressure-relief valves and check valves.
Check valves are located at each lube port entrance to
prevent backflow and protect the lubrication system from
the combustion events occurring in the power cylinders.
 Although the force-feed lubrica- tion systems essentially operate the reviewed, including qualitative, elec-
tor proves to be a reliable system for same. The systems are composed of trical and fluorescent.
cylinder lubrication, the lubricator has positive displacement pumps, sole- Qualitative methods are the sim-
drawbacks. Oil flow rate at constant noid controlled lubricators and injec- plest and most economical methods
engine speed is independent of the tion nozzles [3-5]. for verifying cylinder lubrication. How-
load on the engine. Several compa- ever, these methods provide the least
nies have shown that the lubrication Cylinder lubrication measurement amount of insight to cylinder lubrica-
requirements of power cylinders are Verifying cylinder lubrication is an tion. One qualitative method is the
dependent on engine load [3-5]. Oil important and challenging task. Sev- cigarette paper method. This method
is delivered into the lube ports inde- eral verification methods have been continued on page 24
pendent of piston position in the cyl-
inder with mechanical lubricators. Oil
delivery is not likely to occur at opti-
mal times in the piston cycle; timing
is passively controlled by the divider
assembly and check valve. If oil de-
livery occurs after the piston has
passed the lube port toward top dead
center (TDC), oil may be scraped di-
rectly into the exhaust on the piston’s QUALITY LUBRICANTS YOU CAN DEPEND ON.
downstroke. If this scraping mecha-
nism occurs, it may drastically impact
emissions. If oil delivery occurs dur-
ing scavenging with the piston below
the lube port, the scavenging air may
sweep the oil into the exhaust.

Electronically controlled
lubricators
Electronically controlled lubrica-
tors for power cylinders can likely ad-
dress the shortcomings of force-feed
lubricators. Recent advances in fast-
response solenoid technology make
it possible to control high-speed in-
jection. Precisely controlling power Stocking
cylinder oil injection to occur only at locations in
the most optimal time in the piston the U.S. &
cycle is believed to increase lubri-
cation efficiency (decrease friction)
Canada
between the cylinder and piston, de- SERVICES
crease lubricant-derived emissions Customized Lubricant Application Selection
and reduce lube-oil consumption. In
Oil Analysis • Lab and Problem Application Support
addition to precise injection, electron-
ically controlled lubricators enable re- New Product Development
mote lubrication adjustment, load-de- PRODUCTS
pendent lube rates and different lube
Semi Synthetics • Synthetic Polyalkylene Glycols (PAG’s)
rates during start-up and shutdown.
There are at least three manufac- Synthetic Polyol Esters (POE’s) • Synthetic Diesters
turers in the large-bore, two-stroke Synthetic Polyalphaolefin (PAO’s)
diesel industry that utilize electroni-
cally controlled lubricators. Each mar-
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injection 866.366.5699 • Fax: 281.367.5685 • Synthosol.com
system specifically for large marine mpe@mastersprocess.com
shipping engines. All of these lubrica-

MAY 2015 23 Compressortech2

MasterSynthetics.indd 1 1/15/13 10:02 AM
requires the removal of a cylinder
head directly after engine operation.
After the head removal, cigarette pa-
per is placed upon the cylinder liner
in numerous locations. If the cigarette
paper saturates and sticks to the cyl-
inder wall, the cylinder is considered
well lubricated. If the cigarette paper
does not saturate and does not ad-
here to the cylinder wall, the cylinder
is considered under-lubricated. Al-
MAY 2015 24 Compressortech2
though only qualitative, the cigarette
paper method economically estab-
lishes whether an engine cylinder is
lubricated sufficiently.
Electrical methods for verifying cyl-
inder oil film thickness have several
advantages over qualitative methods.
The primary advantages are that the
oil film thickness can be quantified and
the lubrication can be verified while
the engine is in operation. Three elec-
tronic methods that have been used
for cylinder lubrication verification are
the resistance, the inductance and the
capacitance methods. The resistance
method involves electrically insulat-
ing the whole, or part, of a piston ring
from the rest of the piston and passing
a current through the ring to the liner
[6-9]. The intention of this method is
to correlate changes in the resistance
of the ring/liner junction with the thick-
ness of the intervening oil film [10]. In-
ductance methods utilize the principle
that the inductance of a coil decreases
as the distance between the coil and
a magnet increases. Self-­inductance
proximity transducers have been used
to measure cylinder oil film thickness
[11]. Transducers mounted on oppos-
ing sides of the piston, behind a com-
pression ring, monitor the distance
between the piston and the back of
the ring. Cylinder oil film thickness is
deduced by monitoring the distances
between the piston and ring while the
engine is in operation. Capacitance
methods utilize the principle that the
capacitance of two parallel plates var-
ies inversely with plate separation.
Capacitance methods for lubrication
verification have utilized a custom-
constructed transducer either mount-
ed to the cylinder liner [12] or piston
ring [13]. The capacitance transduc-
ers are composed of a thin, electroni-
cally insulated electrode wire.
Fluorescent methods for cylinder
lubrication verification utilize a liquid’s
inherent properties to absorb radia-
tion of a certain wavelength and then
emit radiation of a different wave-
length. The intensity of the fluoresced
wavelength relates to thickness of
the liquid film. Although many liquids,
including engine oil, have inherent
fluorescence, dyes are usually added
to the fluid to increase fluorescent in-
tensity. Two devices commonly used
to induce fluorescence are ultravio-
let (UV) emitters and high-frequency
pulse lasers. UV-induced fluorescence
is most commonly used in the auto-
motive industry for leak detection. UV-
induced fluorescence also has been
used to quantify fluid film thickness
[14]; however, laser-induced fluores-
cence (LIF) is generally regarded as having a higher ac-
curacy for quantifying film thickness. LIF has been used in
engine research to image fuel film thickness [15] and lu-
bricant film thickness [16]. A charge-coupled device (CCD)
camera or a photomultiplier tube is commonly used to pick
up the fluoresced light between laser pulses. Lubricant film
thickness has been quantified by LIF in research engines
that utilize optical cylinders constructed from fused silica or
quartz [17]. In addition to optical engines, LIF, utilizing opti-
cal fiber probes installed into cylinder liners, has success-
fully quantified oil film thickness in operating engines [18].
Optical fibers composed of single or multiple optical strands
act as a medium for the emitted and fluoresced light. The
optical fibers can be installed flush with the cylinder liner
and attach to a laser.
A more comprehensive introduction and literature re-
view can be found in the thesis by Luedeman [19].
Baseline lube-oil carryover
As noted earlier, reduction of lube-oil carryover to mini-
mize catalyst poisoning from lube oil is the focus of this
research. Early in the development of the lube-oil injection
system, lube-oil carryover was measured for the mechani-
cal lubricator. All experimental work reported in this paper
was performed on a Cooper-Bessemer GMV-4 large-bore,
two-stroke cycle, natural gas engine. The engine was
nominally equipped with a mechanical force-feed lubrica-
tor on the power cylinders. The metering pump was a Tra-
bon model MVB-PUMP. The lube rate monitor was a Sloan
Brothers Watchman Wizard III monitor, donated specifi-
cally for this research. The lubrication rate was varied by
an adjustment screw on the pump and read on the lube
rate monitor. The cylinder lube oil was Mobil Pegasus 701,
supplied from the crankcase oil return line that comes from
the filter and oil cooler. Lube-oil carryover was measured
using standard gravimetric particulate matter quantifica-
tion techniques with a mini dilution tunnel. A more detailed
description of the GMV-4 and associated instrumentation
can be found elsewhere [19-20]. For all testing reported in
this work, the engine operating conditions were 300 rpm,
440 bhp (328 kW) (100% load), 7.5 in.Hggauge air manifold
pressure, and 5.0 in.Hggauge exhaust manifold pressure.
Figure 1 shows the lube-oil carryover (PM) for a lube-rate
sweep. In previous work it was established that the mass
being measured using the gravimetric PM measurement is
collected oil droplets [1]. The original equipment manufac-
turer (OEM)-recommended lube rate is indicated on the plot.
The lube rate was varied from slightly lower than the OEM-
recommended rate to more than double this rate. The lube-
oil carryover increases linearly with the lube rate. These data
show the direct correlation between lube rate and lube-oil
carryover. The data show that at low lube rates approximate-
ly 30% of delivered oil is carried over into the exhaust. About
20% of the delivered oil is carried over into the exhaust at
high lube rates. This represents a significant contribution to
oil consumption and a source for catalyst poisoning.
MAY 2015 25 Compressortech2
0.160
0.140
R2 = 0.9907
PM Emissions (g/bhb-hr)
0.120
0.100
100% Load
0.080
OEM -
Recommended
Lube Rate
0.060
0.040
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Lube Rate (g/bhp-hr)
n Figure 1. Variation of lube-oil carryover (PM) with lube rate for
mechanical lubricator. OEM-recommended lube rate is 8 pints/day
(2.6 mL/min), which corresponds to 10,600 bhp-hr/gal at 100% load.
Timed lube-oil injection
System design
The timed lube-oil system design developed through an
iterative process. An initial design was tested that mini-
mized changes to the lube-oil system, utilizing the stock
check valves at the lube ports. Miniature solenoids were
used upstream of the check valves. This system did not
provide the required crank angle resolution to time the
lube-oil injection. It behaved essentially the same as the
conventional mechanical system regardless of the crank
angle timing for solenoid actuation. It was concluded that
the standard ~0.25 in. (6.35 mm) lube port was too large
and oil was running out of the port when the pressure was
low in the cylinder. Although the solenoid injection was
timed, it was simply refilling the lube port after the oil flowed
into the cylinder at a time unrelated to solenoid actuation.
This lead to the development of a new design, described
later. The initial design will not be discussed further.
The system schematic for the timed lube-oil injection sys-
tem is displayed in Figure 2. It utilizes a pressure control
system composed of a pump (Beinlich ZPDA), servo motor/
driver (Pacific Scientific PMA23B/PC830), pressure trans-
ducer (Omega PX309) and proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) controller (National Instruments PXI). A filter, accumu-
lator and bleed valve are used for removing heavy particu-
lates in the oil, reducing pulsations in the lines and removing
air from the system, respectively. The design utilizes elec-
tronic injectors on each lube port. The injectors are prototype
Hoerbiger XperLUBE injectors (Figure 3). These injectors
are custom-designed and built specifically for power cyl-
inder lube-oil injection. The injectors are designed for fast
response (<1 ms open/close), low injection volume 3.17 x
10-7 gal (1.2 µL minimum), substantial backpressure (100 psi
[6.89 bar]), and high oil injection pressure (2200 psi [150 bar]).
These injectors are actuated by the Hoerbiger/Altronic SDM
driver, a spike and hold current driver. Positioning an injector
at each lube port eliminates the check valves, ensures equal
continued on page 26
 CPU And
Engine n Figure 2. Timed lube-oil
Motor Cylinder
Drive
DAQ
Output
Injector Injector injection system schematic.

CPU And
Encoder DAQ
Input Accumulator

Pressure Bleed
Pressure Gauge Valve
Thermocouple Thermocouple Transducer

Motor Filter
Oil
Reservoir

Pressure
Relief Valve
Gear Pump

flow to each port and significantly reduces dead volume in the

system. A timer and electronic mass scale was used to evalu-
ate oil flow rate. The scale is an A&D EJ4100 mass scale,
Insert End Cap Tapped Holes
which has a 145 oz. (4100 g) capacity, 0.004 oz. (0.1 g) read- (Injector Mounting)
ability, 1 s stabilization time, and a RS-232 interface. Injector Housing

Reamed Bore

n Figure 3. Hoerbiger XperLUBE injector. Female Threaded

Connection To
Exterior dimensions: axial main body length Insert Capillary
O-Ring Groove
= 2.3 in. (58.4 mm); main body diameter = Male Threaded
1.1 in. (27.9 mm); nozzle end diameter = Connection To
Injector Housing
­­0.5 in. ­­(12.7 mm). Insert Capillary

n Figure 4. Lube port insert assembly.

The dead volume between the injector nozzle and the A jam nut locks the insert capillary in final position. An O-ring
inner cylinder wall was minimized. A key feature to mini- set against the jam nut and fitting seals the cylinder with the
mize the dead volume is a capillary that is inserted into insert. The insert capillary threads into the injector housing
each lube port. The capillary also prevents the oil between and compresses an O-ring against the injector tip for sealing.
the injector nozzle and inner cylinder wall from running An O-ring groove is located at the end of the insert capillary.
out of the tube in between injection events. The capillary continued on page 28
inside the lube port has an outer diameter equal to that
of the original lube port (0.21 in. [5.33 mm]) and an inner
diameter of 0.04 in. (~1 mm). With nominal injections oc-
curring at intervals of one injection per every four cycles,
the dead volume equates to less than 12 injections. The
calculated volumetric compression of the oil equates to
less than 4% of the injected volume.
The capillary insert provides mounting and sealing from the
injector to the lube port (Figure 4). A male National pipe thread
taper (NPT) to straight thread fitting threads into the 0.125 in.
(3.175 mm) NPT cylinder lube port. Axial adjustment of the in-
sert is performed via straight threading on the insert capillary
to ensure the capillary tip is flush with the inner cylinder wall. n Figure 5. Insert assembly cylinder integration.

MAY 2015 26 Compressortech2

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The injector compresses into the injector housing using bolts
and an insert end cap. A model of the engine cylinder with the
lube port inserts is shown in Figure 5.
On each engine cylinder, one of the lube ports is posi-
tioned directly behind the pushrod for the fuel rocker arm.
With only a 1 in. (25.4 mm) clearance, the injector position
interferes with the pushrod. To accommodate the posi-
tion of the new valves, each pushrod was adapted with a
notch. Figure 6 shows the current rocker arm configura-
tion and a solid model of the notched configuration.
Lube-oil carryover
The objectives of this testing were to evaluate the opti-
mum timing for lube-oil injection and to compare lube-oil
carryover with the timed system to the conventional me-
chanical system. For the first test, lube-oil injection tim-
ing was varied while measuring lube-oil carryover. For
the second test, the optimum lube-oil injection timing was
used for three different lube rates. Subsequently, the same
three lube rates were used with the conventional mechani-
cal lubricator and lube-oil carryover was measured.
600 16
Lube-Oil Carryover (PM)
Stroke
14
550

12
500
Rings Passing
Lube Port
10

Stroke (in.)
450

PM (µg)
8
Scavenging Scavenging
400
6

350
4

300
2
Zero Lube Level

250 0
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Crank Angle (degree)

n Figure 7. Lube-oil carryover (PM) vs. lube-oil injection timing.

Skip cycle = 4, lube rate = 2.6 mL/min, injection duration = 12.6°,
injection pressure range = 30 to 100 psig.
Rocker Arm Positioning Notched Rocker Arm
600
Piston
n Figure 6. Modified rocker arm geometry: (left) rocker arm posi- Motion
Piston
550
tioning and (right) notched rocker arm. Motion

500

Experimental evaluation
A series of bench tests and preliminary engine tests 450
PM (µg)

were performed to understand the system response and

400 Rings Passing
optimize injector-operating parameters. Bench testing was Lube Port

carried out to evaluate the dependence of injection pressure, 350

Scavenging
backpressure and duration on injected volume. After bench
testing it was decided to fix the duration at 7 ms (12.6° angle 300
Zero Lube Level
at 300 rpm) and control the flow rate by increasing or de-
250
creasing injection pressure. This duration is less than the 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

crank angle duration for the compression ring pack to pass Crank Angle (degree aTDC)

the lube port, which is 18° angle at 300 rpm. Therefore,
if optimal, the oil could be injected entirely into the ring
pack. The skip-cycle parameter was evaluated during pre-
liminary engine testing. Skip-cycle refers to the number of
cycles skipped in between lube-oil injection events. A skip
cycle of 0 indicates that oil is injected every cycle. The
lube-oil carryover measurement was used as the metric
to evaluate different skip-cycle values. At the nominal lube
rate 8 pints/d (2.6 mL/min) lube-oil carryover was insen-
sitive to the skip cycle for values ranging from 0 to 16.
For large lube rates (~2x nominal), an increase in lube-oil
carryover was observed for skip cycles less than four and
greater than 10. A skip cycle value of four was chosen for
subsequent engine tests.
n Figure 8. Lube-oil carryover (PM) vs. lube-oil injection timing.
Same data as Figure 7 but with different x-axis.
Lube-oil carryover data for varying injection timing are
presented in Figures 7 and 8. Figure 7 is plotted such that
TDC occurs at the center of the plot. Figure 8 contains the
same lube-oil carryover data, referenced after TDC such that
scavenging occurs at the center of the plot. The PM is in mi-
crograms, which are the raw masses of lube oil collected on
Teflon filters in the dilution tunnel. The dilution tunnel and en-
gine conditions were held constant throughout the test. The
lube-oil masses were collected over periods of 15 minutes,
with the dilution ratio held between 20 and 21. The injection
continued on page 30

MAY 2015 28 Compressortech2

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parameters are a skip cycle of four, injection duration of 7 ms
(12.6° at 300 rpm), and lube rate 2.6 mL/min. The injection
pressure varied between 30 and 100 psig (2.1 to 6.89 bar),
depending on the cylinder pressure at the location of the lube
port in the cylinder. Injection pressure was varied to control
the lube rate to 2.6 mL/min. The crank angle locations for the
ring pack passing the lube ports on the way up and down and
beginning and end of scavenging are indicated on the plot.
The horizontal “error bars” indicate the valve injection dura-
tion of 12.6°. Timing values discussed later correspond to the
center of the injection duration. The horizontal line on both
plots labeled “zero lube level” indicates the lube-oil carryover
when the lube system was turned off. This result shows that
there is significant splash lubrication from the crankcase that
contributes to lube-oil carryover.
The highest lube-oil carryover occurs when the oil is
injected during scavenging. This makes sense intuitively
since the exhaust ports are open and scavenging air is flow-
ing through the cylinder from the intake ports to the exhaust
ports. The injected oil could easily be swept out the exhaust
ports and into the exhaust system. The lube-oil carryover is
highest when injected early in the scavenging process. Oil
injected early in the scavenging process encounters hot-
ter gas, which would more readily atomize the oil. Addition-
ally, oil injected earlier during scavenging is exposed to the
scavenging flow for a longer period of time, providing more
opportunity for the oil to be swept into the exhaust.
The lube-oil carryover is also high when the oil is injected
just before the exhaust ports open or just after the exhaust
ports close. For both of these cases, the oil is injected above
the piston while the piston is below the lube port. The data
point at 268° after top dead center (aTDC) displays relatively
low lube-oil carryover (Figure 8); it is below the general data
trend. Injecting oil into the ring pack when the piston is on its
way up produces relatively high lube-oil carryover. The point
at 302° (aTDC) is above the general data trend.
There is a relatively wide range of low lube-oil carryover,
from -22° to 53° (Figure 7). The lowest lube-oil carryover point
occurs at 43°. For this timing, the oil is injected just before the
ring pack passes the lube port on the way down. Injecting the
oil at a timing of 53° puts the oil into the ring pack as the piston
moves downward. Although this is not the lowest lube-oil car-
ryover point, this timing is likely to achieve lower wear since
the oil flows directly into the ring pack. The other three low
lube-oil carryover points correspond to other injection timing
values when the piston ring pack is above the lube port. Two
of these points occur while the piston is moving upward.
Both minimum lube-oil carryover points (-92° and 43°) on
the plots were repeated during subsequent testing, yielding
similar results. The low lube-oil carryover point at 43°, when
the piston is on the way down, has relatively low lube-oil
carryover points on either side. Therefore, there is a lower
chance for error in using this timing. Consequently, a timing
of 43° was chosen for subsequent testing. For this injec-
tion, timing an injection pressure of approximately 45 psig
(3.10 bar) was required.
MAY 2015 30 Compressortech2
Figure 9 compares timed lube-oil injection and the con-
ventional mechanical lubricator for three different lube
rates. The data are expressed in brake specific units. The
data show that lube-oil carryover with the mechanical sys-
tem is consistently higher than the timed lube-oil system.
Both data sets show an increase in lube-oil carryover as
the lube rate increases. The average reduction in lube-oil
carryover with the timed lube-oil system is 27%.
0.1
0.09
PM Emissions (g/bhp-hr)
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
Injector System
0.02
0.01 Mechanical System
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
PM Emissions (g/bhp-hr)
n Figure 9. Lube-oil carryover (PM) as a function of lube rate for
mechanical and timed injection.
Cylinder wall lubrication
The lube-oil carryover data demonstrate that lube-oil
carryover can be reduced using timed lube-oil injection,
and that optimal injection times exist. In this section, the
cylinder wall lubrication is examined. The objective was to
determine whether the timed lube-oil injection system im-
proves or worsens cylinder wall lubrication. The nominal
parameters for timed lube-oil injection are used for this test-
ing, which are a skip cycle of four, injection duration of 7 ms
(12.6° at 300 rpm), lube rate of 2.6 mL/min, and injection
timing of 43° (aTDC). Lube rate is varied for some tests.
The cylinder wall lubrication tester is shown in Figure 10.
It contains four arms that extend outward to contact the cyl-
inder walls. Each arm has an absorbent pad attached to an
end piece. The end piece is connected to an inner metal
tube that slides inside an outer tube. The end piece moves
in the tube axial direction and is spring-loaded to apply a
n Figure 10. Cylinder wall lubrication measurement device.
fixed force against the cylinder wall. After removing the fuel the uncertainty bars shown in Figure 13 and subsequent
valve, the device is inserted through the fuel port (Figure figures. In general, more oil is absorbed onto the pads
11) and bolted to the fuel valve flange. A cable attached to when the lube rate is higher. The only exception is at 7 in.
the end pieces is tightened from a screw on top, which ex- (177.8 mm) from the piston crown. In this case the mea-
pands the arms outward to contact the cylinder wall. Once sured oil weight was lower at 11 pints/d (3.6 mL/min) than
the arms are extended and contacting the cylinder walls, the nominal rate of 2.6/min, which is non-intuitive. The
the fixture is rotated 360°, wiping oil from the cylinder cir- reason for this is unclear. The cylinder lubrication weights
cumference at four different heights, as shown in Figure 12. are significantly higher for the upper cylinder locations at
All wall lubrication testing is performed on cylinder No. 4. 10 and 11.5 in. (254 to 292 mm) above the piston crown.
For each data point the engine is brought to stable operating
conditions and run at steady state for 15 min. The engine is 3500
Lube Port
then shut down and barred over until cylinder No. 4 piston 3000 Location Zero Lube
is at bottom dead center (BDC). The fuel valve is removed,
2500
the lubrication tester is deployed, and the measurements are
Injector
taken. The time between engine shutdown and measurement 2000 1.6 mL/min

Oil (µg)
(15 min) was kept consistent for all data points. The lubrication
1500 Injector Baseline
tester is removed and the absorbent pads replaced with new, 2.6 mL/min
pre-weighted absorbent pads. The fuel valve is reinstalled 1000
Injector
and the process repeated for the next point. The absorbent 3.6 mL/min
500
pads are weighed at a later time (post-test) and compared
to the pre-weights to determine the amount of oil absorbed. 0
11.5 10 8.5 7
Location In Cylinder From Top Of Piston At BDC (in.)

n Figure 13. Cylinder wall lubrication for timed injection at differ-

ent axial locations and lube rates.

3500
Lube Port
3000 Location Zero Lube

2500
n Figure 11. Measurement process for cylinder wall lubrication. Mechanical
1.6 mL/min
2000
Oil (µg)

Mechanical
1500 Baseline
11.5 in.
11.5” 2.6 mL/min
1000
10 in.
10” Mechanical
500 3.6 mL/min
8.5 in.
8.5”
0
7 in.
7” 11.5 10 8.5 7
Location In Cylinder From Top Of Piston At BDC (in.)

n Figure 12. Axial
location of measure-
ment locations, refer-
enced to top of piston
crown at BDC.
Cylinder wall lubrication results for the timed lubrication
system are shown in Figure 13. Data are presented at four
different lube rates, including zero cylinder lube, and four
different heights. Lubrication is measured in micrograms
of oil absorbed. The 2.6 mL/min data points were repeated
three times each. From these three points a coefficient of
variation (COV) is computed for each height. The COVs
varied from 3.5 to 16%, with the largest COV occurring
just below the lube port and the lowest COV occurring
just above the lube port. The average COV for the data
is 7.5%, which is applied uniformly across the data for
n Figure 14. Cylinder wall lubrication for conventional mechanical
lubricator at different axial locations and lube rates.
The conventional mechanical lubricator results are dis-
played in Figure 14. For the mechanical lubricator the rela-
tionship between lube rate and cylinder lubrication oil weight
is weak. In contrast to the timed lubrication system the me-
chanical lubricator is more effective at lubricating below the
lube ports and less effective at lubricating above the lube
ports. The initial 2.6 mL/min lube rate point produced a value
of 4000 µg (1.41 x 10-4 oz.) at 7 in. (177.8 mm) above the
piston crown, which is extremely high compared to other
data. This data point was repeated to yield a more reason-
able value of about 1.4 x 10-6 oz. (1350 µg), which is shown
on the plot. The repeated data for other heights were simi-
lar to the initial point, so an average of the two points was
continued on page 32

MAY 2015 31 Compressortech2

used for heights 8.5, 10 and 11.5 in. (216, 254 and 292 mm).
Figure 15 provides a direct comparison between timed
and conventional lubrication at 2.6 mL/min. The figure
highlights the improved upper cylinder lubrication with the
timed lube-oil system.
2500
Lube Port
Location
2000
1500
Oil (µg)
1000
500
0 2000
11.5 10 8.5 7 2.6 mL/min
Location In Cylinder From Top Of Piston At BDC (in.)
n Figure 15. Cylinder wall lubrication comparing timed injection
and conventional mechanical lubricator at different axial locations
and nominal lube rate.
3500
3000
2500
2000
Oil (µg)
1500
1000
500
0
11.5 10
Location In Cylinder From Top Of Piston At BDC (in.)
n Figure 16. Cylinder wall lubrication comparing timed injection
and conventional mechanical lubricator for upper cylinder loca-
tions at different lube rates.
Figure 16 plots the data from the two locations in the up-
per cylinder. In the upper cylinder the timed lubrication sys-
tem is more effective at wetting the wall for all lube rates.
The upper cylinder lubrication is critical for several reasons:
• The ring force against the cylinder wall is highest in this
region because the cylinder pressure is highest when
the piston is close to TDC, early in the expansion pro-
cess. Consequently, improved lubrication in the upper
cylinder is expected to substantially reduce wear.
• Ring sealing is critical just after combustion, early in
the expansion process, and effective ring lubrication im-
proves ring sealing. This is the part of the cycle when
work is being generated. Ring blowby can cause a re-
duction in engine efficiency.
Figure 17 plots total lubrication, a summation of the weights
from all four locations. The timed lubrication oil injection weight
is higher at every lube rate. Across all three lube rates the over-
all cylinder wall lubrication is increased by 50% with the timed
lube-oil injection system. The upper cylinder wall lubrication is
increased by 200% across all lube rates. The increased cylin-
der wall lubrication provides an opportunity to achieve further
MAY 2015 32 Compressortech2
reductions in lube-oil carryover. For example, the cylinder lube
rate could be reduced for the timed lube-oil injection case such
that the cylinder wall lubrication level is similar to the mechani-
cal system. If only the upper cylinder lubrication is considered
and cylinder wall lubrication is assumed to scale with lube rate,
the lube rate could be reduced by 33%.
8000
Zero Lube
7000
Zero Lube Mechanical 1.6 mL/min
6000
Mechanical Mechanical Baseline
5000 2.6 mL/min
Baseline
Total Oil (µg)
2.6 mL/min Mechanical 3.6 mL/min
4000
Injector Baseline 3000 Injector 1.6 mL/min
2.6 mL/min
Injector Baseline
1000
Injector 3.6 mL/min
0
n Figure 17. Total cylinder wall lubrication comparing timed injec-
tion and conventional mechanical lubricator for different lube rates.
Zero Lube
Mechanical 1.6 mL/min Conclusions
Mechanical Baseline A new timed lubrication system for large-bore, natural
2.6 mL/min
gas engine power cylinders has been developed. A proto-
Mechanical 3.6 mL/min
type system design was fabricated and tested in the labo-
Injector 1.6 mL/min ratory on a Cooper-Bessemer GMV-4 engine at the CSU
Injector Baseline
Engines and Energy Conversion Laboratory. The system
2.6 mL/min
used electronic valves with capillary tubes connecting the
Injector 3.6 mL/min valve nozzle to the inner cylinder wall, achieving crank an-
gle resolution of lube-oil injection. Based on the test data
the following conclusions were made:
• The crank angle range, -22° to 53°, is the best timing for
lube-oil injection because of the low lube-oil carryover
over a relatively wide crank angle range. This range cor-
responds to the timing when the compression ring pack
is primarily above the lube port.
• For the nominal lube rate of 2.6 mL/min, the best set of
injection parameters found were:
o Center of injection timing = 43° aTDC
o 45 psig injection pressure
o 12.6° injection duration
o Skip cycle = 4
• The timed lube-oil injection system reduces lube-oil car-
ryover compared to the conventional mechanical lubri-
cator by an average of 27% over the lube-rate range
from 4.9 to 11 pints/d (1.6 to 3.6 mL/min).
• Over the lube-rate range from 1.6 to 3.6 mL/min, imple-
mentation of timed lube-oil injection increases the cyl-
inder wall lubrication compared with the conventional
mechanical lubricator. The overall cylinder wall lubrica-
tion is increased by 50% and the upper cylinder wall
lubrication is increased by 200%.
• Since the cylinder wall lubrication is improved with timed
injection, there is a potential to reduce lube-oil carryover
further by reducing the lube rate.
continued on page 34
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Booth 2B8
Booth 1416

www.hilliardcorp.com
Elmira, New York · Since 1905
Future work
The approach that was used in the
laboratory is being implemented on a
Cooper GMVA-10 field engine near
Charleston, West Virginia. Installation
was completed in December 2014.
The system has operated for more
than 1000 hours. The same basic timed
lube-oil injection design is being used,
with some improvements. The engine
pushrods were modified with a notch
section for the laboratory system to
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MAY 2015 34 Compressortech2
provide clearance for the lube-port in-
sert assembly. A new lube-port insert
assembly design was fabricated for the
field engine. The injector assembly was
modified to include an elbow, so that
the push rods did not need to be modi-
fied. The field system design utilizes
the same Hoerbiger prototype injectors
that were used for laboratory testing.
Production injectors are not expected
to be available until mid-2015. The field
design utilizes a Sloan Brothers divider
On-Site Machining
Preventative Maintenance
Controls & Ignition Systems
Thermal Sprayed Coatings
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block flowmeter to precisely monitor the
lube-oil flow in real time.
Two timed lube-oil injection cylinders
and two control cylinders with conven-
tional mechanical lubricators are being
evaluated. The cylinder and compres-
sion ring dimensions for these four
cylinders were documented prior to in-
stallation. During the field test, detailed
measurements will be performed on
these four cylinders. Cylinder wall lubri-
cation tests are performed after running
a few hours, 1000 hours, and at each
wear test. Wear tests will be performed
at 4000, 8000, and 16,000 hours. Wear
evaluation measurements consist of
bore diameter measurements: two dif-
ferent axes, in line with the crankshaft
and at 90° to the crankshaft, and at
three different heights. Ring wear will
also be monitored by measuring ring
end gap and side clearance.
Acknowledgments
This work was solely funded by the
Compressor and Pump Station Techni-
cal Committee of the Pipeline Research
Council International. In-kind support
was provided by Hoerbiger and Sloan
Brothers. Kirk Evans, engineering man-
ager, oversaw the test program. CT2
References
[1] Olsen, D.B., Arney, G., and Rein-
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[9] Dow, T.A., Schiele, C.A., And
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[10] Sherringtion, I. And Smith, E.H.,
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Liner Of A Small Diesel Engine,” Proc.
IMechE 188, 53 (1974).
[13] Shin, K., Tateishi, Y., And Fu-
ruhama, S., “Measurement Of Oil-
Film Thickness Between Piston-Ring
And Cylinder,” SAE Technical Paper
830068 (Warrendale, PA: SAE Interna-
tional, 1983).
[14] Johnson, M.F.G., Schluter, R.A.,
And Bankoff, S.G., “Fluorescent Imag-
ing For Global Measurement Of Liquid
Film Thickness And Dynamic Contact
Angle In Free Surface Flows,” Rev. Sci.
Instrum., 68, 11 (1997), pp. 4097-4102.
[15] Jeremy, M.C., Noel, T., And
Doherty, W.G., “Laser-Induced Fluo-
rescence Measurements Of The Thick-
ness Of Fuel Films On The Combus-
tion Chamber Surface Of A Gasoline SI
Engine,” DAMSE, School Of Engineer-
ing, Cranfield University, U.K., 2004, #1O30
[16] Arcoumanis, C., Lindenkamp, H.,
And Preston, H., “Measurements Of Lu-

MAY 2015 35 Compressortech2

 Two-In-One > GE Oil & Gas debuts new high-pressure
compression ratio compressor
G
E Oil & Gas has launched its
high-pressure ratio compres-
sion (HPRC) project as an
extension of its “power density” com-
pressor program.
This program, tailored to the cen-
trifugal compression of medium and
low molecular weight gases, allows the
compression ratio previously handled
by two or more compressor casings
to be reached in only one compressor
casing. This evolution implies an aver-
age reduction of 50% in footprint, 30%
in weight and 5% in installed power of
the compression train, as well as saving
in capital expenditures (CAPEX), trans-
portation, maintenance time and cost.
These characteristics are particular-
ly appreciated in offshore applications.
The HPRC compressors have been
designed primarily for natural gas in
upstream applications, but its charac-
teristics also can be applied to mid-
stream and downstream applications.
The key factor of the project lies
in the change of the rotor structure,
which allows the increase of the im-
peller’s tip speed, increasing substan-
tially the compression ratio of each
impeller. These compressors make
use of technologies by GE Oil & Gas
May 2015 36 Compressortech2
n HPRC compressor, GE Oil & Gas facility in Florence, Italy.
itself and by GE Aviation for the devel-
opment of their aero engines.
While the impellers are shrunk onto
a central shaft creating stresses in the
impeller hub area on conventional, in-
line rotors used in barrel-type compres-
sors, in the HPRC units the impellers,
provided with Hirth joints in the hub, are
stacked together and tied by a central tie
rod, eliminating any undesired stressed
area. The impellers can be unshrouded
types, shrouded types or a mixture of
the two. The combination of the latest
generation of high-performance impel-
lers with the higher rotating speed dou-
bles the compression ratio obtained in
only one compressor casing. As an ex-
ample, when handling natural gas with
a molecular weight of 20, it is possible
to obtain a 30:1 compression ratio.
Apart from the rotor architecture,
all other compressor components are
of the conventional type, including
oil-lubricated hydrodynamic bearings,
shaft end gas seals, coupling, etc.
The high rotating speed of HPRC
compressors implies the use of a step-
up gearbox between the compressor
and the driver (electric motor, gas or
steam turbine). The tight collabora-
tion between the compressor and gear
manufacturer, both belonging to the GE
Oil & Gas family, ensure an unmatched
synergy of the overall system.
The HPRC compressors are de-
signed for delivery pressures up to
5801 psi (400 bar) and gas flows up
to 10 MMcfh (300,000 m3/hr). These
compressors can be tailored to cus-
tomers’ needs without requiring pro-
cess modifications.
Prototype test
At the time of writing, the HPRC pro-
totype was being tested at the GE Oil &
Gas testing facilities of Florence. This
compressor is designed for a delivery
pressure of 3770 psi (260 bar). The
first stage has two 3-D unshrouded
impellers, which perform the job nor-
mally achieved by five or six conven-
tional impellers. The compressor is
driven by a 21,456 hp (16 MW) elec-
tric motor with a variable frequency
drive (VFD) through a step-up gear.
Natural gas is circulated in a loop
provided with the necessary cooling
system. The complete test program
will demonstrate the functionality and
potentiality of the new technology that
GE Oil & Gas sees as an evolution of
turbomachinery for the industry. CT2
PRIME
Movers
Holt Cat
Holt Cat, the Cat-
erpillar equipment
and engine dealer
for 118 counties in
Texas, has appoint-
ed Robert “Bert”
Fulgium vice presi-
dent of product sup-
port for its machine
R. Fulgium division.
In his new role, Fulgium will oversee
all Cat heavy equipment parts and ser-
vice operations throughout Holt Cat’s
operating territory. Holt Cat provides
parts, service, maintenance and repair
and rebuild services for Cat machines,
engines and trucks.
Fulgium began his career at Holt
Cat in 2002. Prior to his new position,
he served as the vice president of
product support for Holt Cat’s Power
Systems Division.
Altenesol LNG Colombia
IAHL Corp. announced that its
subsidiary, Altenesol LNG Colombia
S.A.S., has finalized a 15-year take-or-
pay agreement for its first LNG train.
The company has also increased its
Canacol gas supply contract from
17.5 to 35 MMcfd (0.49 x 106 m3/d
to 0.99 x 106 m3/d) for 15 years for a
second LNG train that will start oper-
ating 14 months after the commission
of the first train.
Adventus Fuel Inc. (AFI) has also
executed a US$800 million contract for
14,000 MMBtu per day of LNG from the
first train of the Nataly 1 site. The LNG
from the second train (180,000 gpd
[681,374 L/d]) is committed to AFC.
According to AFI, the LNG expansion
will allow Altenesol to have a substan-
tial presence in South America, Central
America and the Caribbean.
The contract secures gas supply for
the second train, which brings the total
capacity of the Nataly 1 LNG Plant to
360,000 gpd (1.3 million L/d). When the
contracts are finalized, the estimated
total production value will be more than
US$1.6 billion over a 15-year term.
The initial agreement was broad-
MAY 2015 38 Compressortech2
ened in scope following a significant
gas find in the Clarinet discovery from
the VIM5 E&P contract. The pre-drill
best estimate for recoverable gas at
Clarinet is 540 Bcf (15.3 x 109 m3).
Spectronics Corp.
Spectronics Corp. has named Daniel
Cooper as general manager of Op-
erations. In his new
role, Cooper will
oversee prototype
design, research &
development, mar-
keting and custom-
er satisfaction. He
will also be respon-
sible for ensuring
D. Cooper the quality and reli-
ability of Spectronics’ products.
Spectronics manufactures ultraviolet
equipment and fluorescent materials.
The company’s Spectroline fluorescent
dyes are used to check for fluid leaks in
pipelines, power plants and industrial
facilities worldwide.
Hipower Systems
Hipower Systems, a manufacturer
of power generation and power dis-
tribution equipment in the U.S. and
Canada, has signed RDO Equipment
Co. to be a distributor in North Da-
kota, South Dakota, Minnesota and
eastern Montana.
Already a John Deere distributor in
several equipment categories, RDO
Equipment will now represent all of
Hipower Systems’ product lines from
rental generators to power distribution
products. In addition to selling HiPower
Systems’ equipment and accessories,
RDO Equipment will open a rental divi-
sion to service its oil and gas custom-
ers in the Bakken oilfields.
With the deal complete, RDO Equip­­­­
ment will send six of its technicians
to the Hipower Systems’ facility to
complete a three-week training cur-
riculum. The program covers informa-
tion from basic generator engine and
controller operation to troubleshooting
and system maintenance of Hipower
Systems equipment.
Circor Energy
Erik Wiik has
joined Circor En-
ergy as group
president. Wiik pre-
viously worked at
Aker Solutions for
24 years, where he
managed groups
of businesses de-
E. Wiik livering advanced
subsea technology to the global oil and
gas industry. He replaces Wayne Rob-
bins, who is retiring.
Circor Energy is a global provider of
integrated flow control solutions spe-
cializing in the manufacture of highly
engineered valves, fittings, pipeline
products and services, and associated
products for critical and severe service
applications in the oil and gas, power
generation and process markets.
Chesapeake Utilities
Chesapeake Utilities Corp. com-
pleted the merger of Gatherco Inc. into
Aspire Energy of Ohio, LLC, Chesa-
peake Utilities’ newest wholly owned
subsidiary. The transaction is valued at
US$59.2 million.
Gatherco, located in Orrville, Ohio,
was established in 1997 when it ac-
quired Columbia Gas Transmission’s
natural gas gathering assets in its
home state. Gatherco has operations
in 40 counties throughout the state.
Gatherco’s assets include 16 gathering
systems and over 2000 mi. (3219 km)
of pipelines and right-of-way in central
and eastern Ohio.
With the merger complete, Aspire
Energy will use these assets to pro-
vide natural gas midstream services,
processing and transportation services
to over 300 producers, and wholesale
natural gas supply to over 30,000 end
users in Ohio. Aspire Energy will re-
port to Elaine B. Bittner, Chesapeake
Utilities senior vice president of Strate-
gic Development.
The definitive merger agreement
was announced on Feb. 2 and ap-
proved by Gatherco shareholders on
March 20.
LVIT Inductive Linear
Sensors > Alliance Sensors Group introduces
SS-7 series LVIT

N
ew Jersey-based Alliance Sen- rather than the user having n The SS-7 series can be submerged to a depth
sors Group (ASG) has intro- to scale the sensor’s ba- of 12,000 ft. (3657 m) or installed in a pressure-
duced the SS-7 series LVIT sic output in an associated balanced oil-filled chamber.
(linear variable inductive transducer), control system. CT2
targeting subsea environments and the
demands of oil and gas exploration.
According to the company, the
SS-7 is designed to be embedded
into a hydraulic cylinder and utilizes
the gun-drilled piston rod as a target,
sensing its position without the need
for a magnet. The SS-7 series can be
submerged 12,000 ft. (3657 m) deep
or installed in a pressure-balanced
oil-filled chamber to provide position
feedback on blowout preventers, re-
motely operated vehicles (ROVs) and WHEN
MACHINES
relief valves.
The SS-7 features type 316 stain-
less steel 1 in. (25 mm) diameter

STOP,
housing; measurement ranges from
1 to 24 in. (25 to 600 mm); operat-
ing enviroments to 5200 psi (358 bar)
or 12,000 ft. (3657 m) depth; and dc
voltage or current analog output. PROBLEMS
START.
SS-7 sensors use a coil design
rather than “time-of-flight” technology
or resistive film, the company said.
They are based on contactless LVIT
inductive-sensing technology that uses
a solid probe construction style, which For over 90 years, Sloan Lubrication Systems has provided
requires only a conductive tubular tar- the most dependable, accurate and comprehensive
get or a small-diameter, gun-drilled lubrication solutions for your reciprocating and rotary
hole in the cylinder rod for operation equipment. So when you can’t afford downtime (and frankly,
rather than needing a permanent who can?), put our generations of expertise into designing
magnet ring or some other type of and applying the ideal components for your systems.
special target.
The SS-7 series, and its sister prod-
ucts ME-7, MR-7 and MHP-7, can
withstand intense shock and vibra-
Protection is peace of mind.
tion, and operating temperatures up Optimize your systems with Sloan.
to 221°F (105°C) with the extended
range option, the company said.
The SS-7 and all ASG LVITs are of-
1.800.722.0250
fered with ASG’s proprietary SenSet
Sales@SloanLubrication.com
calibration feature, which permits the
user to match the analog output of
SloanLubrication.com
the sensor to the motion of the actua-
tor or cylinder on a stand-alone basis

MAY 2015 39 Compressortech2

 n The Torrent Energy Systems skidded package
takes gas from the producer’s treaters and separa-
tors into a pre-boost compressor. The compressed
By Norm Shade
gas goes next to refrigeration and stabilizer units

Unlocking
that extract and stabilize NGLs, which are then
stored for pickup. The system has a turndown ca-

Stranded Bakken
pability of more than 90%, making it well-suited
for the rapid decline rates of associated gas pro-

Shale Gas
duction that is typical of Bakken Shale wells.

Torrent Energy Services and

Worldwide Power Products team
up to provide shale gas NGL liquids
capture, flare elimination and
volatile organic compound
emissions reduction

T
he Bakken Shale has become one of the most prolific oil-producing
areas of the United States over the past three years. Although the
Bakken is principally an oil play, there is a substantial amount of
associated gas produced along with oil. Because the oil wells are scat-
tered over a large geographical area that lacks gas-gathering infrastruc-
ture, a large amount of gas is flared.
For the past year, Texas-based companies Torrent Energy Services
and Worldwide Power Products, have teamed up to provide a portable
system that can eliminate most of the volatile organic compound (VOC)
emissions associated with the flaring of stranded gas, while generating
n The Torrent/Worldwide stranded gas
incremental revenue from the recovery of natural gas liquids (NGL).
recovery system includes a modular NGL
Utilizing gas upstream of traditional gathering/processing systems is
refrigeration and stabilization unit (left)
difficult because of the distributed and transient nature of flared associ-
and onsite NGL storage tanks (right). The
ated gas. The location of flares changes as new wells are drilled and
skid-mounted, stackable systems can be
gathering pipelines are installed. Additionally, associated gas produc-
mobilized and demobilized in days, mak-
tion rates can drop as much as 65% during the first year. This dramatic
ing it practical to move them when well
output declines below practical levels of
operation. The systems are rented and op-
erated by Torrent Energy Systems and are
proving to be especially attractive in the
Bakken Shale.

MAY 2015 40 Compressortech2

 n The Torrent/Worldwide system converts stranded gas into valuable NGLs, fuel gas for powering the
system’s engine generator sets, and a significant reduction or elimination of flared gas.
change makes selecting appropriately
scaled compression and processing
equipment difficult, and the econom-
ics do not favor equipment that is not
portable and flexible.
Gas-gathering and processing infra-
structure has grown in North Dakota,
and, because of stricter regulations by
the North Dakota Industrial Commis-
sion, flaring is continually decreasing.
Yet, it still hovers around 22%. With
the rapid production decline rate and
with most wells spaced far apart, it is
not practical or cost effective to put
in gathering lines. With lower diesel
costs, most gas capture and process-
ing alternatives, such as compressed
MAY 2015 41 Compressortech2
natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natu-
ral gas (LNG), have not proven to be
cost-effective either.
The Energy and Environmental
Research Center (EERC) at the Uni-
versity of North Dakota estimates that
41% of the well locations (2189) flare
less than 1 Mscfd (28 m3/d), account-
ing for less than 1% of the total gas
flared in North Dakota. Another 54%
of locations (2827) flare an average of
40 Mscfd (1133 m3/d), accounting for
41% of the total gas flared. About 2%
of locations (104) flare an average of
360 Mscfd (1.0 x 104 m3/d), account-
ing for 15% of total flaring. About 1%
of locations (62) flare an average of
710 Mscfd (2.0 x 104 m3/d), or 18% of
the total gas flared, and 41 more loca-
tions flare an average of 1.64 MMscfd
(4.6 x 104 m3/d), accounting for 26% of
total gas flared.
Even with natural gas prices be-
low $3/Mcf, the presence of valuable
NGLs creates an economic incentive
to gather and process the associ-
ated gas from the 200 to 300 higher
volume flaring sites that, collectively,
account for nearly 60% of the total
gas flared. The Torrent/Worldwide
systems focus on these larger volume
wells and pads, which have the great-
est effect on reducing the total volume
of gas flared. continued on page 42
n Worldwide Power Products generator set engines are specifically customized to geographical location and application. Trailers, heavy-duty skids
and enclosures are provided, along with fuel gas scrubbers and filtering. Winterized trim is provided for cold weather regions including heat tracing
(left) and thermal blankets (right) on the inlet filter/separator and fuel gas control system.

The systems provide NGL recovery,
flare and VOC emission reduction, gas
conditioning and natural gas genera-
tor sets that can operate on the vari-
able heating value levels present in
the associated gas stream. “Our sys-
tem is ideal for the Bakken because
we can handle large volumes of the
very rich Bakken gas,” said Michael
L. Chiste, executive vice president of
Torrent Energy Systems. “Each unit
can handle 2.0 to 3.0 MMscfd (5.6 to
8.5 x 104 m3/d), and they are stack-
able for even larger volumes. The
units have exceptional turndown ca-
pability to 0.2 to 0.3 MMscfd (5.6 to
8.5 x 103 m3/d).”
The system takes gas from the
producer’s treaters and separators
into an Ariel or GE Gemini recipro-
cating compressor, which is driven
by a 200 hp (149 kW) or larger elec-
tric motor or a Caterpillar or Cum-
mins natural gas engine. This pre-
boost compressor increases the gas
pressure from typically 35 psig up to
400 psig (2.4 to 27.6 bar).
The compressed gas then feeds
into the modular refrigeration and sta-
bilizer units that extract and stabilize
NGLs, which are then stored on-site
for pickup. The Freon or propane re-
frigeration systems utilize electric mo-
tor-driven Mycom, Copeland, Carlyle
or Bitzer rotary screw compressors or
reciprocating compressors.
Residue gas from the process is con-
sumed by a Worldwide Power Products
custom-designed natural gas engine
generator set, which provides elec-
tricity to the plant. The engine can
also operate on rich, compressed
gas for start-up.
The generator set includes a versa-
tile Murphy Engine Integrated Control
System (EICS) engine controller used
in conjunction with low compression
and high compression, rich-burn en-
gines rated from 114 to 1340 hp (85 to
1000 kW). The custom-programmed
engine controls have the ability to ad-
just the engine ignition timing to en-
sure safe, detonation-free operation,
as well as the ability to run on propane

continued on page 44

MAY 2015 42 Compressortech2

 YOUR BENEFIT:
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LABY -GI
LNG BOG . BALANCED
OFFSHORE DESIGN FOR YOUR
LNGC, FSRU AND LNG FPSO
No vibrations due to elimination
of unbalanced forces and moments
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®
Simple compressor system for easy
operation, maintenance and control
Extremely flexible solution for a
wide range of discharge pressures
(6 to 350 bara / 87 to 5’070 psia)
and flows
Fuel gas system for ME-GI with
various reliquefaction options
Unique piston sealing technology for
maximum reliability and availability
→ www.recip.com/laby-gi
n Worldwide Power Products generator sets for stranded gas applications include a versatile Murphy
EICS engine controller used in conjunction with both low compression and high compression, rich-
burn engines rated from 114 to 1340 hp (85 to 1000 kW). The custom-programmed engine control
has the ability to adjust the engine ignition timing as the fuel gas heating value changes to ensure
safe, detonation-free operation, as well as the ability to run on propane fuel backup.

fuel backup. The system includes an
air/fuel ratio controller (AFR), oxi-
dation catalysts and O2 sensors for
emissions control. Additional sen-
sors can be provided for monitoring,
if needed. The engines have dual-fuel
capability, for example, propane and
natural gas. This provides versatility
for starting the system and for opera-
tion when there is insufficient residue
gas of acceptable quality for safe en-
gine operation.
“Load banks are a great option that
can be custom-installed on the gen-
erator set package to keep the engine
operating at an appropriate load fac-
tor as gas volumes vary,” said David
Vennie, VP of sales and engineer-
ing for Worldwide Power Products.
When gas volumes and loads drop,
instead of changing out to different
engine and generator sizes, utilizing
the load bank allows continued opera-
tion above typically a 30% load factor,
where the engines are best suited.
The generator set engines are
specifically customized to geographi-
cal location and application. Trailers,
heavy-duty skids and enclosures are
provided, along with fuel gas scrub-
bers and filtering. Winterized trim is
provided for cold weather regions. On-
board paralleling allows multiple mod-
ules to be operated in parallel when
larger power blocks are required.
“Founded in 2008, Worldwide Pow-
er Products today is a top provider of
power-generation equipment to com-
mercial and industrial clients, world-
wide,” Vennie said. “Our reputation for
responsive customer service, meticu-
lous quality control and dedication to
100% satisfaction has made us a rec-
ognized leader in generator sales and
rentals and an established resource
for engineering, maintenance and re-
pair services.”
Worldwide Power Products custom-
ers are able to choose from a variety
of major brands including Caterpillar,
Cummins, Waukesha and Hipower.
Generator sets range in size from 20 to
2500 kW, with engines ranging in size
from 150 to 4000 hp (112 to 2983 kW).
Engineering and manufacturing are
based at the company’s facility in
Houston, Texas.
Dallas, Texas-based Torrent Energy
Services provides both upstream and
midstream gas-processing solutions
for NGL recovery, fuel gas condition-
ing and hydrocarbon dew point con-
trol. “Torrent Energy Services is able
to oversee all areas of processing and
recovery, from equipment rental and
installation to ongoing operations,”
said Lance Perryman, president/CEO.
“Torrent’s skid-mounted mechanical
refrigeration unit (MRU) plants are ca-
pable of processing very rich natural
gas and have the mobility to rapidly
respond to customer needs, even in
the most extreme weather conditions.”
Torrent’s plants convert heavy hy-
drocarbons (C3+) into a stabilized,
truckable, Y-Grade NGL product. The
clean residue gas, primarily methane
and ethane, is used to fuel ancillary
equipment, including natural gas gen-
erators and compressor engines also
provided by Torrent. Any remaining
gas can be gathered or flared with a
reduction in VOC emissions of 70%
or more, allowing customers to meet
permit requirements. In addition to the
Bakken, Torrent is active in the Perm-
ian Basin, California, Utica Shale and
Piceance Basin.
Torrent rents and operates the sys-
tems. “We provide an exceptional ser-
vice, daily support and 24/7/365 avail-
ability,” Chiste said. “Every operator
is experienced, qualified and trained,
with safety being the utmost priority.
We operate in harsh environments
including temperatures from -40° to
115°F (-40° to 46°C).” Torrent also has
a large fleet of NGL storage tanks that
continued on page 46

MAY 2015 44 Compressortech2

Gas compression operations can’t wait and can’t stop.
With Dragon they don’t.
Top-quality gas lift compressors. Priced right and available.
Since you need to get busy compressing gas, allow us to compress this message. Our
compressors are severe-duty engineered and built in-house for exceptional durability and
reliability, just as we’ve done with all our equipment for 50 years. We offer 200HP and
380HP units featuring the best components, including Ariel compressors with Caterpillar or
Cummins engines. They’re part of our full line of surface production equipment, from tanks
to separators to VRTs. And you can
count on our people as much as
our equipment. Make it happen.

U.S. owned and operated for over 50 years.

www.dragonproductsltd.com — 1-800-231-8198
© Copyright 2015 Modern Group Inc. All rights reserved.
n In addition to all controls required for normal generator operation, Worldwide Power Products’ portable
generators allow automatic control of load banks that keep the engine operating at an appropriate load factor
as gas volumes vary, and onboard paralleling to allow multiple modules to be operated in parallel when larger
power blocks are required.

are rented to customers. Depending
on the number of units and degree of
site readiness, the modular Torrent/
Worldwide systems can be installed
and ready to commission in two to
four days.
Company officials said that there are
about 20 of the systems in operation
on major E&P company well sites in
the Bakken, with more entering ser­
vice. This has helped multiple cus­
tomers meet North Dakota’s new gas
capture requirements. A Bakken Shale
case study from McKenzie County,
North Dakota, provides an example of
the benefits of the system. The in­­
let gas flow rate was 3 MMscfd (8.5 x
104 m3/d) ­­­­with a gross heating value of
1583.3 Btu/cf (14,899 kcal/Nm3) and
11.43 gpm 4 ­3.2 L/min) of C2+ con­
tent. The outlet gas flow rate was ­­­­2.4
MMscfd (6.8 x 104 m3/d) at 1228 Btu/cf
(11,555 kcal/Nm3) gross heating value
and 7.02 gpm (26.5 L/min) C2+ con­
tent. This resulted in a significant flare
volume intensity reduction, a VOC
emission reduction of 83.2%, and NGL
recovery of 16,375 gpd (61,898 L/d).
Torrent said that its systems are com­
plementary to CNG and LNG produc­
tion systems, because those systems
typically require removal of the NGLs
first. Torrent is currently working to de­
velop a CNG solution, including the
market for it, which has yet to develop.
As natural gas prices improve, use of
the Torrent/Worldwide systems with
these other processes may become
economically attractive as well. CT2

MAY 2015 46 Compressortech2

One Source
It’s time to make cylinder repair better and simpler.
To assure quality. Streamline procurement. Shorten schedules.
And seize maximum value. It’s time to call Cook.

for Cylinder Cook Compression Service Centers give you turnkey cylinder
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Service For unlined cylinders, we offer incredibly durable PlasKote50+ ®

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See What’s Happening at Cook Now
 Need PLASTIC?
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 Expanding Its
Portfolio > Pros Co. acquires Chrome Machine
and Casting
By Brent Haight

S
pecializing in the repair and
refurbishment of rotary screw
compressors to original equip-
ment manufacturer (OEM) specifica-
tions, Pros Co. has acquired Chrome
Machine and Casting Inc., expanding
its portfolio to include reciprocating
compressor and engine parts.
Headquartered in Lubbock, Texas,
Pros Co. has made a name for itself
as a specialty machine shop that re-
pairs rotary screw compressors, blow-
ers, vacuum pumps, rotary vane com-
pressors and gearboxes.
Chrome Machine and Castings Inc.
(Cromac), headquartered in Amarillo,
Texas, specializes in repairing recipro-
cating compressors and engine parts.
In addition, it features an extensive
inventory of slow speed compressors,
engine heads, pistons, blocks, cylin-
ders, manifolds, rods and cranks.
“We are very excited about the
Chrome Machine acquisition because
it has great potential and it expands
our product offering to our custom-
ers,” said Rhett Newberry, president the high-tech repair methods from
of Pros Co. “Most importantly we have Pros Co. to Cromac and will be able
the opportunity to grow the company to expand Cromac’s capabilities with
and add more jobs in West Texas.” the addition of new technology. Cro-
Each company will maintain cur- mac will be getting the thermal welding
rent facilities and personal. According processes we use at Pros Co. to repair
to Pros Co., Cromac has added eight cylinders, pistons and other compo-
new jobs with this expansion and has nents. Cromac also offers rebuilding of
plans to add more. engine heads, oil pumps, water pumps
Pros Co. repair techniques include and any specialty projects needed.”
thermal welding and blanchard grind- With the acquisition, Mark Fitte has
n Pros Co., which specializes
ing, allowing the company to make been promoted to general manager
in the repair and refurbishment
and restore sealing strips on rotors, of Cromac. The company will con-
of rotary screw compressors to
repair bearing bores, replace damage tinue to operate as Chrome Machine
OEM specifications, has acquired
shafts and more. No unit leaves its and Casting.
Chrome Machine and Casting Inc.
shop without new bearings, O-rings, “We are in growth mode, and we feel
gaskets and seals. that acquisitions are the best way to
“Our fully trained staff is prepared to grow,” Levisay said. “We are restricted
rebuild and refurbish any brand, make at our current location in Lubbock. We
or model of rotary screw compressor, tried for over two years to expand our
air end, gearbox, blower or vacuum current facility and the city of Lubbock
pump,” said Lee Levisay, sales man- continues to block it. This acquisition
ager at Pros Co. “We will be bringing gives us room to expand.” CT2

May 2015 50 Compressortech2

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 TECH

corner
Gas Compressor Restage
Principles And Case
Studies > Criteria to evaluate the simple and economic
implementation of restage fundamentals
By Donghui Zhang, Rainer Kurz, David Garcia,
Rick Svendsen, Mark Greenley and Marc Baars

Editor’s Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Ma-
chinery Research Council meeting in Nashville, Tennes-
see, Oct. 5-8, 2014.
Abstract
design process, gas compressor products are distinctly
different as a result of their different design philosophies.
For example, some OEMs design compressors with high
efficiency within a narrow range by using low solidity airfoil
(LSA) vaned diffusers, while other OEMs design the com-

C
ompressor installations in the oil and gas industry
are subject to continuously changing operating con-
ditions. While centrifugal compressors, especially
when driven by gas turbines, provide a tremendous flexibil-
ity, it is often economical to restage the equipment to opti-
mize for new process conditions. Restaging considerations
are not only driven by gains in compressor efficiency, flow
capability or improvements in fuel efficiency, but important
considerations also include the ease of restaging, down-
time and cost.
This paper discusses the design principles and solutions
for centrifugal compressors with a low life-cycle cost. The
criteria for restage and case studies are also presented.
Introduction
Although most turbomachinery original equipment manu-
facturers (OEMs) are using similar design tools like com-
putational fluid dynamics (CFD), finite element analysis
(FEA), and computer-aided design (CAD), manufactur-
ing technologies as well as development testing in their
pressors that can be operated in a wider flow range with
decent efficiency.
It is important to offer high-efficiency gas compressors
to meet the initial conditions of pressure, temperature, gas
composition, flow, etc. However, the changing of operating
conditions, such as gas field depletion and natural gas de-
mand increasing, is the nature for either production or pipe-
line compressor applications. It is equally important that the
gas compressor restaging can be done easily to reduce life-
cycle costs and minimize downtime costs.
Gas compressor design philosophies
Aerodynamics, rotordynamics and mechanical analyses
are the three main technical areas for gas compressor de-
sign. Since gas compressors can be in service for many
years or even decades, serviceability must also be part of
the design criteria. Depending on the specific requirements,
compressors have to handle different operating parameters
such as flow, pressure, temperature, gases, power lev-
els and train configurations, as well as specific customer

Donghui Zhang is the manager of the gas compressor restage performance group at Solar Turbines Inc. in San Diego. Dr. Zhang
has PhD degree in mechanical engineering and experience in aerodynamics and rotordynamics of gas compressor design.
Rainer Kurz is manager of systems analysis and field testing for Solar Turbines Inc. in San Diego. Dr. Kurz received his engineering
degree from the University of the Federal Armed Forces in Hamburg, Germany. David Garcia is a project applications engineer
in the gas compressor restage performance group at Solar Turbines Inc., in San Diego. Garcia has a mechanical engineering
degree from San Diego State University and has expertise in gas compressor optimization for both onshore and off shore appli-
cations. Rick Svendsen, Jr., is the lead reliability specialist for Energy Transfer in Houston. His experience includes reciprocating
and centrifugal engines and compressors, focusing on performance and reliability. Mark Greenley is the technical lead for the
engineering and construction group at Stone Energy Corp. Greenley has a BS in engineering from the University of Louisiana at
Lafayette. Marc Baars is the project engineer for Wintershall Noordzee for all relevant compressor projects in the Netherlands. He
has a degree in electrical engineering and experience gas process installations offshore.

MAY 2015 52 Compressortech2

requirements. To cover all different applications in the oil
and gas industry, manufacturers either use pre-engineered
standardized compressors, or more or less customized de-
signs. The difference is mainly that for customized designs
the engineering is performed for a specific project. For pre-
engineered designs, engineering is performed before an
order is placed. This also includes the testing required to
verify the designs.
The standardized design method uses pre-engineered
components and pretested designs. For a specific applica-
tion, aero components are selected from a family of impel-
lers and stators, which have already been tested. Com-
pressor aero performance characteristics are predicted and
continuously refined through test data. Since a particular
family of aero components can cover a large flow range n Figure 2. Typical stability envelope.
as shown in Figure 1, different staging combinations can
replace the existing staging to optimize around new condi- tions. This is called compressor restage. The rotordynam-
ic stability envelope also has to be verified by testing as
shown in Figure 2. The standard design method reduces
the risk for both users and OEMs to a minimal level.
After new equipment is installed, the maintenance re-
quirements for centrifugal compressors are minimal. Two
major events have to be considered during the operation of
the machines:
• Damage from foreign object debris (FOD)
• Large changes in operating conditions to the extent
n Figure 1. Typical impeller family and performance curves. continued on page 54
 that the economics favor a restage of the compres-
sor (or, in extreme cases, the addition or removal of a
compressor body)
Although rare, damage from FOD creates the need for
an immediate response to restore the capability to oper-
ate the station, especially if there is limited or nonexistent
standby capacity. If only stationary components (like inlet
vanes) are damaged, the operation may continue. If impel-
lers are damaged, they will have to be replaced. In situa-
tions like this, often only the first stage is damaged. Designs
that allow quick replacements offer an advantage.
The latter event is usually a planned event. Frequently, op-
erating conditions change gradually, and the point where a
compressor restage makes economic sense is predictable.
In pipeline applications, the economics of restage are most
likely dictated by the potential improvement in throughput
capacity, or the chance to reduce fuel consumption. Avoid-
ance of recycle, as well as avoiding operation in choke,
while neither damaging nor disruptive, can fall in either cat-
egory. For oil production applications, the ability to lower
suction pressure drives compressor restages.
Economics also evolve around questions like cost and
downtime. While many OEMs recommend the replacement
of the entire rotor and stator components if a restage is re-
quired, there are opportunities to make use of existing hard-
ware if the compressor design allows.
Modular design
Modular design, as shown in Figure 3, incorporates stub
shafts, impellers and spacers (if needed), and is bolted to-
gether to form a modular shaft. The tie bolt is stretched to
a level that the torque can be transmitted through the inter-
face between components.
n Figure 3. Typical modular rotor.
One of the concepts of the standard design method is that
all the aerodynamic components for one compressor family
must be mechanically interchangeable. Modular design is a
way to take full advantage of interchangeable aerodynamic
components. With modular rotor design and interchangeabil-
ity of aero components, the compressor can have thousands
of combinations within a common mechanical design.
MAY 2015 54 Compressortech2
Solid shaft rotor construction methods are widely used
in the industry. The impellers are shrink-fitted onto a solid
shaft. The rotor is centered by two halves of stationary com-
ponents, which is called a split case design. When the com-
pressors run as designed using clean gas, the difference
between solid shaft and modular shaft designs is negligible.
But when the compressor requires overhaul or restage, there
is a significant difference in terms of cost, lead time and sus-
tainability. Modular rotor design is easier to disassemble, be-
cause it does not require the expensive and difficult shrink-fit
process. Therefore, it is more restage- and overhaul-friendly.
The impellers that can be reused are easily salvaged to re-
duce the cost and minimize the down time for customers.
The impellers that are displaced by the compressor restage
can be put into storage for use in future restages or overhaul.
n Figure 4. Typical modular rotor on the balance machine.
n Figure 5. Comparison of (a) modular rotor to (b) solid shaft rotor.
The main concern with the modular rotor is the rotor stiff-
ness. In 2009, Moore and Lerche evaluated an industrial
tie-bolt rotor against an equivalent solid rotor [1]. It was
concluded that modular rotor design met the required API
separation margin criteria [2]. In addition, the solid rotor has
a higher amplification factor and unbalance response. The
solid rotor has about 10% lower log decrement value and
lower stability threshold than the modular rotor.
Engine matching
The centrifugal compressor and its driver have to be
matched regarding speed and power consumption. When us-
ing electric drives, the match between compressor and driver
is done via a gearbox, which also adds torsional damping to
the system. When matched with a two-shaft gas turbine, it is
good practice to match the compressor speed at the design
point or the rated point with the power turbine operating in the
vicinity of its optimum speed. In general, the more powerful
the gas turbine, the slower its power turbine wants to run. For
example, while a 6000 hp (4.47 MW) class gas turbine has a
Recognized
Leader
maximum power turbine speed of 16,500 rpm, a 20,000 hp
(14.91 MW) class gas turbine may have a maximum power
turbine speed roughly half that number.
It is also important to understand the speed-power char-
acteristic of different drivers. While a power turbine actually
produces more torque at low speeds than at high speeds,
a variable frequency drive (VFD)-driven electric motor pro-
duces constant torque at best (Figure 6).

n Figure 6. Speed-power characteristics of compressor drivers.

If the driver is a gas turbine, a number of issues need

to be considered. Gas turbine uprates at engine overhauls
may provide more power than originally installed. One
manufacturer over the years brought an engine that was Innovator in State-of-the-Art
originally introduced at 10,000 hp (7.46 MW) in several Pipe Supports & Clamps
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gas turbine provides far more power on cold days. It is
Leaders in Field Machine Work
also advantageous to operate the gas turbine fully loaded
since normally efficiency is higher fully loaded as shown Pioneers in Casting Rapair
in Figure 7.
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n Figure 7. Gas turbine performance characteristics.

MAY 2015 55 Compressortech2

ReynoldsFrench.indd 1 7/8/13 2:07 PM
Principles of gas compressor restage The temperature, pressure and gas properties are com-
Gas compressor performance bined into two terms: isentropic head and isentropic effi-
In reality, gas conditions always change in either pipeline ciency, as shown in Equations 1 through 3. The two com-
or production compressors. If conditions oscillate around bined parameters plus flow and speed are the four key
the design point, for a typical wide-range compressor, no parameters to evaluate the compressor performance as
restaging is needed. But when conditions change in one shown in a head-flow map (Figure 8).
direction away from the design point, compressor restaging The effect of temperature, pressure and gas composition
should be considered. mainly move the operating point in the T (speed topping)
Essentially, six key parameters define the gas compres- or D (speed decreasing) direction, since these parameters
sor performance: mainly affect the head as shown in Equation 1.
• Inlet When suction temperature is increased from the origi-
• Discharge nal design point, more head will be created for the same
• Temperature pressure ratio, and higher speed will be required to move
• Pressure the new flow point to the T direction. The temperature also
• Flow changes the map slightly. Higher temperature tends to tilt
• Speed for a given gas composition the map in a counter-clockwise direction.
Gas properties such as specific gravity, specific heat ra- Suction pressure moves the point in the T or D direction
tio, specific heat and compressibility also affect the com- also. For a typical declining gas field, the suction pressure
pressor performance. Changes of the earlier-mentioned reduces over time. To reach the same discharge pressure,
parameters may require speed and power changes. more pressure ratio requires higher speed. More flow will
pass through the compressor as gas density reduces.
 k–1
 Therefore, the operating point moves in the T direction.
29.27 k  P2  k
= × × Z × T1×   – 1

Hisen SG k –1  P1   There are also cases where the suction pressure is in-
 
creased. In this case, the design point moves to the D direc-
Equation 1 tion, as the required head reduces. The same principle ap-
plies to discharge pressure: when it increases, the pressure
Hactual = Cp × (T2 – T1) ratio increases with the same suction pressure. More head
is needed and the point moves in the T direction. If pressure
Equation 2 ratio decreases, the point moves in the D direction.
Sometimes, gas composition changes over time, espe-
Hisen cially for production applications. Heavier gas (larger spe-
ηisen =
Hactual
cific gravity) requires less power to reach the same pres-
Equation 3 sure ratio, therefore decreasing the speed requirements.
Since the flow does not change much, the flow point moves
where Cp is the specific heat ratio at constant pressure; Hisen vertically down. Heavier gas also tilts the map in a clock-
is the isentropic head; Hactual is the actual head; k is the spe- wise direction. Therefore, the flow point moves in the D di-
cific heat ratio; P1/P2 is the inlet/discharge pressure; T1/T2 rection. Lighter gas behaves the opposite and the flow point
is the inlet/discharge temperature; SG is specific gravity; Z is moves in the T direction.
the compressibility factor; hisen is isentropic efficiency. The flow change effect is easier to explain. If more flow
is needed, the flow point will move in the C direction to the
choke side of the map. If more flow is needed at constant
power consumption, the flow point moves downward to the
choke side in the C and D directions. If more flow is re-
quired at constant head, the flow point moves horizontally
to the choke side.
Compressor efficiency is mainly a function of flow. When
more flow is needed, the flow point moves to the choke side.
The efficiency drops fast from the best efficiency point. At
lower efficiency, the discharge temperature increases quickly.
More power is lost as a result of a less-efficient compressor. If
less flow is needed, the flow point moves to the surge side of
the map. The efficiency reduction is less rapid in the S direc-
tion. But insufficient flow may put the operating point to the
left of the surge line, requiring the anti-surge valve to open to
protect the compressor from surge. In this situation, power is
n Figure 8. Typical multistage compressor flow-head map. wasted by recycling the gas through the compressor.

MAY 2015 56 Compressortech2

Gas compressor restage principles and value proposition
The energy balance of the whole power train from
the engine (or other drivers) to the compressor can be
expressed in Equation 4. The isentropic head and effi-
ciency as well as the flow of the gas compressor were
discussed earlier. The standard flow is a function of ac-
tual flow under standard conditions. The power needed
to produce the head is also affected by the engine effi-
ciency and mechanical efficiency. Mechanical efficiency
is relatively constant and engine efficiency is mainly a
function of the speed.
SQ
Power = C × Hisen = FuelEnergyηengine
ηisen ηmech
Equation 4
where power is the driver (engine) output power; C is a con-
stant; SQ is standard flow; hmech is mechanical efficiency;
hengine is engine efficiency.
At the design point, the efficiency terms are optimized
so that the compressor can produce the required flow
and head with minimum power. When the flow point stays
away from the design point for an extended time, the
compressor or engine are running less efficiently. The
purpose of a gas compressor restage is to re-optimize
the compressor staging to maximize efficiency at the new
conditions to minimize the power consumption or maxi-
mize flow, head, or both.
Compressor/engine running too fast
The two typical scenarios in which the flow point moves
in the T direction are increasing discharge pressure for gas
injection and decreasing suction pressure for gas gathering.
The compressor has to be rotated faster to keep up with the
increasing pressure ratio until eventually power turbine or
compressor itself reaches maximum speed. This is a typi-
cal speed topping case. By adding additional stages to the
compressor, the required speeds can be reduced to gener-
ate the required pressure ratio, or the speed can remain the
same to generate a higher-pressure ratio. For gas gather-
ing in a declining field, that means extended field life. For
gas injection, higher pressure means more oil production.
These are two cases where the investment for restaging
can be recovered quickly. For example, if there is 8% extra
power left because of speed topping, by restaging the com-
pressor, the site can produce an extra 8% flow or 8% head
increase. For a typical 12,000 hp (8.95 MW) engine-driven
pipeline compressor, 8% flow increase is approximately
­30 MMscfd (33,500 Nm3/hr) of natural gas. The incremental
revenue from restaging correlates to about US$90,000 per
day based on the gas price of US$3/MMBtu.
Engine running too slowly
When the operating point moves in the D direction, the
compressor is running at a much slower speed. Normally,
continued on page 58
®
 Percent Change <25% 25 to 50% >50%
F1 <15% 15 to 31% >31%
C1 <5% 5 to 19% >19%
P1 <5% 5 to 15% >15%
HP <3% 3 to 13% >13%

Q1
Φ1 = The inlet flow coefficient, for compressors, using the first compressor inlet flow coefficient.
(D2 )3 N
Hisen
Ψ isen = The isentropic head coefficient for single-body compressor.
(D2N)2
 k–1

T1  P2  k
Ψ isen = Cp 2   – 1 For compressors using the total pressure ratio and the first compressor speed and impeller tip diameter.
(D2N)  P1  


n Table 1. Trigger points for restage parameters.

the compressor speed is designed to require the power
turbine to run over 90% of maximum speed, to reach the
highest efficiency levels. The engine efficiency drops as
speed reduces. When the operating point consistently re-
quires engine speeds lower than optimum levels, removing
one or two stages will increase the required compressor
speed and improve engine efficiency. This type of restaging
reduces engine fuel consumption. By restaging the compres-
sor, up to 10% fuel can be saved. For a 4693 hp (3.5 MW)
turbine, 10% fuel saving is about US$80,000 per year by
assuming a gas price of US$3/MMBtu.
Choked compressor
During seasons of high flow demand, it is normal to require
maximum flow from a compressor. In this scenario the run-
ning point moves in the C direction, where efficiency drops
quickly. Although the compressor may not be choked physi-
cally, the available power can limit the capacity throughput.
In some instances, a package may not be able to deliver the
required flow. For this case, typically, smaller flow stages
are replaced by larger flow stages. Figure 9 shows how re-
staging to larger flow stages changes the performance map
(green curves are for restaged compressor performance
map) to better match the conditions. Both compressor ef-
ficiency and flow capacity are improved. If the restaging can
improve the efficiency from 75 to 81% (6% improvement),
the flow can be increased by 8% according to Equation 4.
This restaging is just like the speed topping case above
that can increase the revenue by US$90,000 per day for a
12,000 hp (8.9 MW) engine-driven compressor.
the compressor. The energy consumed by recycling gas is
wasted and extra energy is needed at the site to pump cool-
ing water or drive fans for gas cooling. This is equivalent to
a drop in the compressor efficiency. Restaging can solve
this problem by replacing higher flow stages with smaller
stages to accommodate the lower volumetric flows. For a
5000 hp (3.5 MW) industrial gas turbine driving a compres-
sor with 20% recycle flow, given a gas price of US$3/MMBtu
and 300 days of operation, the savings potentially can be
up to US$130,000 per year. If this application is for oil pro-
duction, the saved 20% power can be used to increase the
head about 20%. The increased oil production could pay
back the restage investment within months or even weeks.
Besides economic reasons, running in recycle mode
could cause high discharge temperatures if insufficient
cooling is supplied in deep recycle mode. Dry gas seals,
balance piston, Babbitt and anti-surge valves can be dam-
aged in periods of extended recycling.
The main benefits for restaging are more oil/gas produc-
tion, less fuel consumption, and better equipment health.
Restage criteria
A restage is generally recommended at the time of over-
haul if the investment can be recovered within five years.

Compressor running in recycle mode

Opposite of a choke situation, when there is not enough
gas, the point moves in the S direction. When the compres-
sor cannot get enough flow, the anti-surge valve opens to
avoid surge and the compressor runs in recycle mode. A
portion of compressed gas will be cooled to feed back to
the compressor to keep the compressor out of surge. Surge
can cause violent vibration and catastrophic damage to n Figure 9. Gas compressor restage principles.

MAY 2015 58 Compressortech2

If the restage investment can be paid off in less than one
year, restage should be considered immediately.
The economic study of payback period requires interac-
tion between the user and the OEMs. A study based on 379
recently sold compressor restages by Solar Turbines is de-
scribed below. Four parameters stood out as good indicators
for restaging: inlet flow coefficient (F), isentropic head coef-
ficient (C), inlet pressure (P1), and the required power. The
changes between the conditions just before restaging and
the original design were calculated. The detailed criteria for
each parameter are shown in Table 1. The <25%, 25% to
50% and >50% ranges identify the percentages of the 379 We Manufacture and
compressors restaged. For example, less than 25% of com-
pressors were restaged when suction pressure changed by Remanufacture the
less than 5%, but more than 50% of the compressors were
restaged when suction pressure changed by 15% or more. World’s Largest
These variation change regions established the “trigger
points” for restage recommendations. Generally, for power,
Crankshafts
suction pressure and head coefficient, the trigger point for
restage consideration (yellow warning) for a next overhaul Ellwood Crankshaft Group
is when the parameter drifted from 5 to 15%. If they drifted Irvine, PA, USA 16329
more than 15%, it triggered (red warning) a warning for im- Hermitage, PA, USA 16148
mediate restage consideration. The flow coefficient trigger 1-800-247-1326
points are 25% for next overhaul and 50% for immediate
or 724-347-0250
ecgsales@elwd.com
consideration. If any of the red warnings are triggered, the
www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com
compressor should be restaged. If all four yellow warnings
are triggered, the compressor should also be restaged.
The other general rule is that a compressor restage is rec-
ommended when the efficiency is less than 6% of peak ef-
ficiency and power is a limiting factor. Regaining this 6% effi-
ciency with a restage typically results in 8% or more flow gain.

Case studies
Case 1: extra capacity for pipeline application
Two identical packages were commissioned in 1994 for
a pipeline application in the United States. The maximum
power from the engine with the given conditions onsite was
11,910 hp (8.88 MW). The original design point parameters
are listed in the first column of Table 2 and marked as point
1 on the performance map in Figure 10.
Over the years, both downstream flow demand and the
suction pressure were increased. In the year 2000, the com-
pressor only delivered 426.1 MMscfd (475,813 Nm3/hr) us-
ing the full engine power (the second column in the table). ENGINES FOR GAS
The operating point drifted from point 1 to the choke side to
point 2 in Figure 10. The efficiency dropped to 76.3%. The
COMPRESSION
three of the four key parameter changes were in the red Reliable heart for your unit
zone, indicating a restage opportunity. Power range: 40 -170 kW
In 2000, the compressors were restaged to a higher flow
Fuels: NG, Wellhead gas, LPG,
staging. Meanwhile, the stage number was reduced from
Biogas, CBM gas and others
four stages to three stages to increase the speed, efficiency
Version for Zone 2 available
and flow capability. To reduce the restage cost, one stage
(II, 3G, T1 equipment)
was reused. The restaged compressors were 7.4% more
efficient than the off design efficiency, and the maximum info@tedomengines.com, +420 483 363 642
flow was increased by 9.6%, from 426.1 to 467.2 MMscfd www.tedomengines.com
continued on page 60

MAY 2015 59 Compressortech2

 Original Staging Restaged Changes Max Power To Design
Design Point Max Power
Point Perf. Map 1 2 3
F 0.0623 0.0766 0.0813 23%
C 4.06 3.198 2.992 -21.3%
P1 (psia) 725 752.6 752.6 3.8%
HP Total (hp) 9086 11,910 11,910 31.1%
Efficiency (%) 81.2 76.3 83.7 5%
P2 (psia) 1216 1207.6 1207.6 -0.7%
SQ (MMscfd) 312 426.1 467.2 36.6%
Flow (acfm) 4136.7 5400.1 5921 30.5%
P2/P1 1.68 1.6 1.6 -4.3%

n Table 2. Change in operation.

n Figure 10. Existing staging performance map for Case 1. n Figure 11. Restaged performance map for Case 1.

(475,813 to 521,708.2 Nm3/hr). The same three points are

shown on the restaged compressor performance maps
(Figure 11). As can be seen, the maximum flow point was
positioned in the area of peak isentropic efficiency.
Based on the wellhead gas prices, the increased rev-
enue from restaging is about US$150,000 per day. This
is a typical pipeline application restage. A compressor
restage can be paid back in weeks if not days if the cus-
tomer owns the gas.

Case 2: oil production increase

A turbine driving a two-body compressor package was
commissioned in 1997 on a platform in the Gulf of Mexi-
co. This is a typical application for offshore oil production.
The package includes a gas turbine (ISO power: 7600 hp
[5.67 MW])-driven, six-stage, low-pressure (LP) compressor,
which through a gearbox (speed increaser) drives an eight-
stage, high-pressure (HP) compressor.
The condition changes are shown in Figure 12. Initially,
the field pressure was stable after the compressor was com-
n Figure 12. Restage maps for Case 2.
missioned in 1997. Then, gas production was increased to
move the original design point (red dot) to the choke side
(C direction) and speed topping side (T direction). The re-
quired running point eventually moved out of the range the
original compressor staging could handle.
In 2000, both the LP and HP compressors were restaged

MAY 2015 60 Compressortech2

 1997 2000 2013 2000 2013
F1 0.0547 0.0746 0.0897 36.4% 20.3%
C Total 11.6 11.1583 9.4575 0% -15.2%
P1 (psia) 164.7 164.7 89.7 0% -45.5%
HP Total (hp) 4588 6591 4040 43.7% -38.7%
P2 (psia) 1264.7 1264.7 514.6 0% -59.3%
SQ (MMscfd) 30 44.1 30 47.1% -32%
Flow (acfm) 1973.7 2904.9 3794.8 47.2% 30.6%
P2/P1 7.68 7.68 5.74 0% -25.3%
n Table 3. Condition changes for Case 2.

to larger flow staging combinations. The LP compressor was
restaged to seven stages with four stages being reused in
the new configuration. The HP compressor was kept at eight
stages, three of which were from the original compressor. The
performance map is shown in the middle of Figure 12 with
the new design point (black square) in the middle of the stag-
ing operating range. As a result of the restage, the production
was increased from 30 to­­­­­ ­­­­44 MMscfd (49,133 Nm3/hr). The
increased production correlated to net incremental revenue
of US$51,520 per day based on US$3.68 per Mscf (aver-
aged wellhead price from 2000, courtesy of the U.S. Energy
Information Administration [EIA]).
After several years of operating with these restaged com-
pressors, the field pressure started declining. As pressure
dropped to 89.7 psia (6.18 bar) in 2012, the gas density was
reduced by 45.6%. For the same mass flow or standard flow,
the actual inlet flow was almost doubled. The compressors
were chocked at a maximum speed of 14,300 rpm and flow
of 3750 acfm (29 MMscfd [33,165 Nm3/hr]).
To accommodate the new conditions, the two compressors
underwent restage analysis. Although the compressors could
meet the flow requirement, they could not meet the required
discharge pressure because of the low suction pressure asso-
ciated with the depletion of the well. To meet the higher head
requirements, another tandem compressor package was re-
located to add additional compression ability, while the two
existing compressors were designed as a booster package.
continued on page 62

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 Staging 1996 2002 2006 2006 2012 2002 2006 2012
Before Or After Restage Design After After Before After
F 0.0319 0.0488 0.0521 0.0532 0.0211 53% 6.8% -60.3%
C 6.93 5.8064 6.045 4.729 7.768 -16.2% 4.1% 64.3%
P1 (psia) 350 285 84.7 124.7 124.7 -18.6% -70.3% 0%
HP Total (hp) 3471.5 3651 1836.8 2079.2 616.2 5.2% -49.7% -70.4%
Efficiency (%) 70.7 75.5 67.3 60.1 64.1
P2 (psia) 1115 800 304.7 323.7 323.7 -28.3% -61.9% 0%
SQ (MMscfd) 40 49.9 17 259 8 24.8% -65.9% -69.1%
Flow (acfm) 1218.3 1912.8 2252.4 2144.8 663.7 57% 17.8% -69.1%
P2/P1 3.2 2.8 3.6 2.6 2.6 -11.9% 28.1% 0%
n Table 4. Well condition variation for Case 3.

The restage solution with both packages in series not only met
the current requirements, but also left room to allow the field
pressure to drop another 10 psi (0.69 bar) and still deliver the
required standard flow and discharge pressure.
The outgoing gas in this case was used for oil lift ap-
plication. The restage solution increased oil production by
about 300 bbl/d. The entire project, including restaging both
packages (four compressors) and expensive piping chang-
low pressure of the well. As a result, the anti-surge valve
(ASV) was opened to increase suction pressure. To improve
the conditions for the compressor, some high-pressure side
stream gas was injected to increase the suction pressure
to 124.7 psi (8.60 bar). By the end of 2012, the compres-
sor was running with the ASV approximately 80% open, re-
sulting in 17.9 MMscfd (19,988
­­­­ Nm3/hr) out of ­­­­25.9 MMscfd
(28,921.7 Nm /hr) throughput being recycled. The net
3

es, was paid back within a year’s operation. It also added
flexibility in operation and margins for future field depletion.
Detailed conditions are shown in Table 3. Two key indi-
cators were in the red zones according the criteria for re-
stages in 2000 and 2013. The payout period also fell into
the 1 year financial criteria.
though flow was only 8 MMscfd (8,933 Nm3/hr), or 31%
of the total flow.
The compressor was restaged in 2013 with the perfor-
mance map at the new condition shown in Figure 13. The

Case 3: life-cycle management for declining field

This is another typical field depletion case. The compres-
sor was commissioned in 1996 off shore of Indonesia. After
initial commissioning, the field pressure started to decrease
as shown in Table 4. The compressor was restaged twice
to adapt to the changing conditions in 2002 and 2006. Each
time, the restage criteria justified the restage.
After several successful years of operation after the
2006 restage, the pressure and standard flow decreased
rapidly and the compressor could not perform with the n Figure 13. Restage map for Case 3.

Design Winter 2008 Operation Winter 2011

Parameter LP HP LP HP
P1 (bara) 35 65.5 16 35
P2 (bara) 66.5 137 36 114
Isentropic Head (m-kgf/kgm) 7625 8352 9934 15,153
SQ (Nm3/d 3) 1410 1410 811.2 811.2
Inlet Flow (m /min)
3
1726 838 2190 979
T1 (C) 30 27 21 26
Speed (rpm) 18,524 18,524 21,879 21,879
HP (kW) 2583 2984 1505 2028
n Table 5. Changing process conditions for Case 4A.

MAY 2015 62 Compressortech2

restage saved about 12.9 MMBtu/hr (14 x 106 kJ/hr) fuels by
IDEAL ANALYZER TO
eliminating recycling. With the price of natural gas significant- MEASURE ENGINE EMISSIONS
ly higher in this region of the world, the payback period with
fuel cost savings resulted in a nine-month payback period. NEW
E4500
Case 4A: complex project, Total NOx
life-cycle and inventory management
• O2, CO, NO, & NO 2
The operational challenges associated with well deple-
tion are considerably more difficult for customers with off- • Auto Data Saving
shore installations. Space limitations, downtime criticality,
geographic location and harsh environments play a major • CO Auto-Range
role in how compressor restages are executed. Additional- To 50,000 ppm
ly, declining revenue recognition associated with depleting
wells require gas compressor restage projects to be cost- • PC Software With
BlueTooth & USB
effective for the customer, making existing asset realloca-
tion and inventory consumption vital to project success.
Two successful complex projects involving depleting
wells have recently been executed in the North Sea, an Visit Us At EGCR
area that provides a significant portion of Europe’s natural Booth #319
gas supply. The first project involved a two-body tandem
compressor configuration operating in series (Turbine ISO
6100 hp-speed increasing GBX-LP compressor-HP com- E Instruments
pressor). As is typical with well depletion, over three years 215-750-1212
of operation, falling suction pressure drove the as-designed www.E-Inst.com
compressor staging to speed topping, as shown in Figures
14 and 15. Although standard gas volumes decreased by Built with Quality In Mind
approximately 42%, the decrease in suction pressures
caused a net increase in inlet gas flow, which drove the
operating points of both the LP and HP compressors to the
choke side of the compressor map. Projections of future gas
conditions confirmed that suction pressures would continue
to fall along with standard gas volumes over the course of
E-Instruments.indd 1 4/20/15 3:47 PM
the following years. A comparison of original design data to
operations three years after can be seen in Figures 14 and STEEL-SPRING
15. The P1 and power parameters exceeded the 50% trig- FLEXIBLE
ger points, confirming the need for compressor restage to
meet the new operating duties.
COUPLINGS
In addition, suction pressures were expected to decline
from 232 psig (16 barg) to levels as low as 58 psig (4 barg),
while standard gas flows were expected to drop from 33,333 • The ideal partner for VFD’s
to 20,833 Nm3/hr. Because the existing compressors were • Precise torsional control
fully staged and near speed topping, the ability to drop P1 • No blocked speeds
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• Reduced motor &
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dition, increasing inlet flow volumes would require that the
continued on page 64 • Proudly built in
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n Table 6. Parameter change for Case 4A.

MAY 2015 63 Compressortech2

third stage of compression be a larger, higher-volume com-
Design Winter 2007 – Parallel Operation
pressor. This created a particularly challenging situation be-
cause the customer was on an extremely tight production Parameter LP Compressor HP Compressor
schedule, and had budget and space constraints. P1 (bara) 20 48.88
P2 (bara) 49.88 137
Head (ft-lbf/lbm) 43,129 43,911
SQ (Nm3/d) 800 800
Inlet Flow (ft /min)
3
1087 426
T1 (C) 35 35
Speed (rpm) 21,315 21,315
HP (kW) 1547 1869

n Table 7. Original design conditions for Case 4B.

41,537 scfm (66,667 Nm3/hr). Table 7 shows the LP and HP

compressor performance required per package.
n Figure 14. Existing LP compressor performance map. Similar to the previous complex project example, de-
clining field conditions from this well drove operation to
areas of maximum speed. Since the field is expected to
gradually decline over the next five to 10 years, long-term
solutions were required to keep the platform in operation
for the remaining life of the well as predicted in Figure 16.
The gas volume predictions were in the range from 7788
to 20,768 scfm (12,500 to 33,333 Nm3/hr) with a required
platform discharge pressure of 1363 psig (94 barg), as
shown in Figure 17.
continued on page 66

n Figure 15. Existing HP compressor performance map.

The technical solution identified was a three-body tandem

skid operating in series. To keep project costs down, the
three-body tandem skid was designed to keep the two exist-
ing compressors as is, for intermediate pressure (IP) and HP
duty. No restage of the IP and HP compressors were need-
ed. The added LP compressor was designed to compress
gas from 58 psig (4 barg) to 174 psig (12 barg), with enough
turndown percentage to handle the 20,768 to 12,980 scfm
(33,333 to 20,833 Nm3/hr) flow decay. The driven equipment n Figure 16. Expected flow decline.
skid was designed specifically to fit within the customer’s tight
space constraints, and has successfully been in operation for
the last year, achieving the customer’s production goals.

Case 4B: complex project,

life-cycle and inventory management
Another instance of well depletion involved two, two-body
tandem packages originally designed to operate in parallel.
Each package had two compressors operating in series.
Originally, these two packages were designed to oper-
ate in parallel because of high initial gas volumes. Origi-
nal platform suction pressure of 275.6 psig (19 barg) with
a discharge of 1972.5 psig (136 barg) allowed both units
to operate in parallel for a total design gas throughput of n Figure 17. Expected flow envelope.

MAY 2015 64 Compressortech2

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n Figure 19. Proposed LP package envelope
over declining field envelope.
Currently, the LP package in series limits the ability to
process the higher inlet flow volumes associated with the
decline in suction pressure. Reconfiguring the LP series
compressors into a parallel configuration essentially split
the flow between the two LP compressors to avoid having
to purchase a larger flow compressor skid.
One of the challenges of this design was an inherent
reduction in head capabilities. This would require the
HP package of series compressors to maintain constant
platform discharge pressures throughout the decline of
the field. As shown in Figure 18, with gradual reduction
of suction pressure, the parallel design provided a very
flexible operating range. With a restage, the HP package
would be able to meet the target platform discharge pres-
sure of 1378 psi (95 bara) with approximately the same
flow range as the proposed LP compressor package. An
overlay of the LP and HP package is shown in Figure 19.
The right boundaries of the compressor envelopes are
limited by the 97% speed point of the equipment, while
the right boundary is established by 10% surge margin,
which establishes the minimum flow rate at a specific
suction pressure. The flow envelope of the proposed
package covered the majority of the operating envelope
throughout the predicted field decay.
This solution is the most cost-effective design because
it uses the existing compressor bodies, existing driven
skids and existing gas turbine engines. Although this proj-
ect has not yet been executed, this case study provides an
MAY 2015 66 Compressortech2
n Figure 18. Proposed LP package envelope
over declining field envelope.
example of strong technical solutions that balance meet-
ing the required operational flexibility and costs associ-
ated with depleting wells in offshore applications.
Conclusions
This paper presents the gas compressor design prin-
ciples and restage fundamentals. A simple set of criteria
for the economic evaluation of restages are suggested and
evaluated through real case studies.
Four case studies represent four typical scenarios for
restage: increasing gas production and oil production, life-
cycle management and inventory management for deple-
tion field. For all these cases, the investment to restage can
be paid back quickly. CT2
References
[1] Moore, J.J. And Lerche, A.H., “Rotordynamic Compar-
ison Of Built-up Versus Solid Rotor Construction,” GT2009-
59392, Proceedings Of ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power Of
Land, Sea And Air (New York, NY: ASME, 2009).
[2] API Standard 617, “Axial And Centrifugal Compres-
sors And Expander-Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical
And Gas Industry Services,” Seventh Edition (Washington,
D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, 2002).
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Solar Turbines for the permis-
sion to publish this paper.
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Caterpillar
Goes Electric
Caterpillar Oil & Gas has launched
a complete line of electric motors
and drives for gas compression
applications.
By Brent Haight

n Electric motor products will

be available for order during

E
missions legislation has been a driving
force of change for the gas compression
industry for several years. In a move
that targets emissions and effectively
expands its gas compression product line beyond
reciprocation engines for the first time, Caterpillar
Oil & Gas has launched a complete line of electric
motors and drives.
The electric motors will be purpose-built for re-
ciprocating compression applications and will be
available as standard products in power ratings
ranging from 1500 to 5000 hp (1120 to 3730 kW)
with paired drives for the offered ratings. Units will
be manufactured by a global supplier of electric
motors under the Caterpillar brand.
Driving the introduction of electric motors to the
market is Caterpillar’s strategic initiative to be-
come more of a single-source supplier for custom-
ers in gas compression by meeting the needs of
their operation. “Over the last several years, due
to emissions regulations, as well as the proximity
to the electric grid and the relative less cost of ac-
cess, electric motors have become an option for
our customer,” said Craig Lange, Caterpillar Oil &
Gas business development and strategy director.
“The electric motor market is small compared to
third quarter 2015.
reciprocating engines, but it certainly
presents an opportunity in the gas
compression industry.”
Caterpillar worked closely with its
end users and partner OEMs to de-
velop electric motor specifications
and technical requirements. “Through
our own experience with engines in
this application, as well as our mar-
ket analysis through working with Cat
dealers, Ariel Corp., and packagers,
we were able to understand some
of the challenges faced and have
worked with our supplier to develop a
robust design to address the torsional
vibrations encountered in reciprocat-
ing compressor applications,” said
Rajesh Sethupathi, program manager,
Caterpillar Oil & Gas.

MAY 2015 68 Compressortech2

 Utilizing the full resources of its global dis-
tributor network, Caterpillar expects to differ-
entiate itself from other electric motor com-
panies operating within the gas compression
landscape today.
“Our dealers, while continuing to support
reciprocating engines, will now also be able
to offer product support for electric motors,”
Sethupathi said. “We’ll have service and avail-
ability throughout our dealer network. That is
an advantage Caterpillar will be able to bring
to the marketplace.”
The new products will be sold and supported
exclusively through the global Caterpillar dealer
network. The motor products will be available for
order during the third quarter of 2015, Caterpil-
lar said, with deliveries expected to begin in Q4
2015. The drives will be available in 2016.
“In recent years, we have strategically evolved
our product and service portfolio to enable us to
offer more to our customers,” said Dave Dunlevy,
Caterpillar Oil & Gas general manager. “With this
announcement, Caterpillar Oil & Gas and Cater-
pillar dealers will be a single-source supplier of
prime movers, including our existing gas-fueled
petroleum engines and the new portfolio of elec-
tric motors and drives. We recognize the need for
our customers to incorporate a range of prime
movers in gas compression applications and be-
lieve Caterpillar will become the industry’s choice
for electric motors and drives, when Cat engines
will not fit the application.”
The company is quick to note it remains first
and foremost a reciprocating engine manufac-
turer. In recent years, Caterpillar has invested
heavily in its gas compression engine portfolio
with the launch of the G3500B, CG137, G3300B
series engines and Product Link, a telematics so-
MAY 2015 69 Compressortech2
n Cat electric motors will be
purpose-built for reciprocat-
ing compression applications
and will be available as stan-
dard products in power ratings
ranging from 1500 to 5000 hp
(1120 to 3730 kW) with paired
drives for the offered ratings.
lution from Caterpillar. In March 2015,
Caterpillar released the latest version
of its G3600 engine, the G3600 A4.
According to Cat, the G3600 A4
provides users with an increase of
over 5.5% in horsepower rating and
allows for operation over the broad
range of fuels found in today’s com-
pression applications. Further horse-
power increases are possible when
operators take advantage of the en-
gine’s ambient temperature capability
that allows more horsepower to be
available from the G3600 A4 season-
ally or daily when local temperatures
are below summer highs, Cat said.
The G3600 A4 delivers in-cylinder
NOx emissions control at 0.5g/bhp-
hr. Additional emissions capability is
planned to be released later this year,
when a 0.3g/bhp-hr NOx rating will be-
come available. CT2
Valve Engineering For Reciprocating
Compressors > The right choice of valves is key to
the reliability and energy efficiency of
reciprocating compressors
By Andreas Horinek

n Figure 1. Cutaways of (a) a plate valve, (b) a ring valve and (c) a poppet valve

V
alves are key to the reliable Larger machines (above around filed plate type, where these are avail-
and efficient operation of ev- 100 hp [75 kW]) for air and process able to suit the application in question.
ery reciprocating compressor. gases use valves of the ring, plate or To prevent reverse flow, the valve
Simple in their operating principle poppet types, in which the moving el- plate or rings seal against the valve
and relatively inexpensive to replace, ements are not fixed at any point. Typ- seat on the upstream side of the valve
modern valves nevertheless embody ical valve diameters are in the range assembly. On the downstream side, a
a great deal of hard-won engineering from 2.5 to 12 in. (60 to 300 mm). guard plate guides the moving parts
know-how. A basic understanding of A plate valve (Figure 1[a]) has just and usually contains springs to con-
valves helps compressor operators one moving element, whereas ring trol the closing of the valve (Figure 2).
choose designs that bring significant (Figure 1[b]) and poppet valves (Fig- Some designs also have steel damp-
benefits in terms of lower lifetime ure 1[c]) each normally have several. ing plates to add mass and reduce im-
costs and reduced downtime. All three types can provide excellent pact stress as the valve opens.
Every reciprocating compressor performance. The most modern and Each valve occupies a pocket in the
cylinder needs at least two valves to efficient valves tend to be of the pro- continued on page 72
control gas flow into and out of each
cylinder; a large compressor may
have dozens. Unlike the valves in an
internal combustion engine, compres-
sor valves — except those fitted with
reverse-flow capacity control systems
— are not actuated. Instead, they
open and close in response to chang-
es in differential pressure.
Small compressors for air and tech-
nical gases often use reed valves, in
which the moving element is flexible
and fixed at one end.

Andreas Horinek is the product manager,

compressor valves, at Hoerbiger Ventil- n Figure 2. Simple sectional view showing all parts of the valve.
werke GmbH & Co. KG in Vienna, Austria.

May 2015 70 Compressortech2

Only the most efficient technology
ensures maximum availability.
Challenging customer requirements call for excellent compression solutions.

siemens.com/energy/compression

n Figure 3. Sectional view of a compressor cylinder, showing placement of valves and
various clearance volumes.
cylinder wall or cylinder head. Outside
the cylinder, within the suction and
discharge plenum chambers, a cage
and cover completes each valve in-
stallation (Figure 3).
Targeting reliability and efficiency
The basic objectives for valve de-
sign are reliability and efficiency. The
key to reliability is a good understand-
ing of the materials used and the
stresses on the valve components,
taking into account dynamic behav-
ior and the composition of the gas
stream, including contaminants.
Although steel is still used in high-
temperature applications above 350°F
(175°C), reinforced polymers gener-
ally perform better. Materials such
as PEEK (polyetheretherketone) re-
inforced with carbon fibers combine
strength, toughness, chemical resis-
tance and low weight. The latter, in
turn, reduces dynamic stresses and
so allows plates and rings to be made
still thinner and lighter without compro-
n Figure 4. Valve losses show up on the pV
diagram as deviations from the horizontal
lines which would indicate lossless valve per-
formance. The area between the horizontal
and the actual pV curve represents the work
required to keep the valves open.
May 2015 72 Compressortech2
mising reliability. Appropriate design of
springs and damping plates keeps im-
pact stress to manageable levels.
Many modern high-performance
valves routinely achieve long service
lives even in demanding applications
including high temperatures, high dif-
ferential pressures, corrosive gases,
moisture, entrained particulates and
oil. Lifetime depends very much on
the application. For natural gas gath-
ering compressors, valve life is typi-
cally 4000 to 8000 hours; medium-
speed pipeline compressors achieve
8000 to 16,000 hours; slow-speed
pipeline compressors over 16,000
hours; process gas compressor
life is 8000 to 16,000 hours.
Turning to efficiency, losses
are minimized by making the
open area of the valve as large as prac-
ticable. Modeling of the flow passages
using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) allows surfaces and corners
to be profiled so as to reduce aero-
dynamic losses. Low mass aids rapid
response to changes in gas pressure,
while accurate manufacturing prevents
leakage when the valve is closed.
For high volumetric efficiency, the
total clearance volume — within the
valve itself, in the valve pocket, and
between the piston and the cylinder
head — should be as small as pos-
sible (Figure 3).
Compared to old-style all-steel
valves, profiled plates made from engi-
neering composites can reduce valve
energy losses by 30%, and overall
compressor losses by 5%. On a typical
motor-driven process gas compres-
sor rated at 1300 hp (1 MW), this can
save electricity worth US$16,000
per year.
The biggest savings with modern
high-performance valves, however,
accrue from the opportunities they
provide to re-think compressor de-
signs and reduce the entire footprint
of the compressor.
Just a few years ago, typical valve
arrangements for process gases were
2+2 (suction + discharge) or 3+3
valves per cylinder end. Nowadays,
even though cylinder capacities have
increased, modern valves allow 2+2
arrangements as standard, and an in-
creasing number of new compressors
have just 1+1 valves per cylinder end.
Compared to the old-style designs,
the cost of the valves themselves is
likely to be higher, but this increase is
more than offset by lower overall ma-
chine costs. Fewer valves per cylinder
means a more compact compressor,
less machining, lower capital costs,
and lower maintenance costs over the
lifetime of the compressor.
fe namic performance of the valve in
= terms of the fractional pressure drop:
2
2
Equation 1 q= m
where  is a flow coefficient. For an 8p
ideal orifice  = 1, whereas for real Equation 2
valves  must be measured experi- where q is the pressure drop
mentally.  is directly analogous to across the valve (at the average gas
the flow coefficient, Cv or Kv, that is velocity) divided by the cylinder pres-
used to characterize control valves sure;  is gas density; p is pressure; 
and pipe fittings. is the valve flow coefficient as above;
We can also express the aerody- continued on page 74

Understanding more
about valve losses
The pressure-volume (pV) diagram
is a key tool in diagnosing reciprocat-
Testo Portable Emission Analyzers
ing compressor problems. Figure 4
shows that the differential pressure
required to keep the valves open dur-
ing suction and discharge increases
the power required to move the gas.
The extra work shown in Figure 4
has three components: losses in the
valves themselves, losses in the valve
pockets, and losses in the piping and
cylinder passages of the compressor,
including those caused by pulsation.
These are known collectively as ven-
tilation losses.
Although pulsation is inherent to the
design of reciprocating compressors,
incorrect valve operation can make
the problem worse. Figure 5 shows the
optimal relation between valve lift and
crank angle for real suction and dis-
charge valves, and examples of how
poor valve dynamics can waste energy.
Within the valve, the pressure drop
and resulting power loss are strongly

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influenced by the cross-sectional area
of the smallest passage through the
valve. To control impact velocity dur-

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ing opening, the valve lift should be
small: 0.039 to 0.118 in. (1 to 3 mm).
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sealing surfaces multiplied by the #1 dependability and accuracy; especially at high CO!
lift — is responsible for most of the
#1 calibration stability (time & temperature)
valve losses.
To facilitate comparisons of valve #1 long distance connectivity (wireless or wired)
performance we can express the fe #1 network for training and support
as an effective flow area or equivalent
area (). This is defined as the area of Find out why at www.testo350.com
an ideal orifice giving the same pres-
sure drop as the valve:
800-227-0729 • info@testo.com
May 2015 73 Compressortech2

vm is the mean gas velocity through
the valve, calculated from the average
piston speed.
Typical q values for properly sized
valves are 1 to 3% for hydrogen and
hydrogen-rich mixtures, 5 to 10%
for natural gas, and even higher for
heavy gases.
Choosing the right valve
Although modern high-performance
compressor valves are versatile, there
is no single best solution. Instead, ex-
pert manufacturers such as Hoerbiger
offer a wide choice of valve types,
each optimized for a particular set of
operating conditions. Apart from the
basic operating principle — poppet,
ring or plate — and materials of con-
struction, design details such as com-
MAY 2015 74 Compressortech2
n Figure 5. Because of
the inertia of the sealing
element(s), a real valve can
never open or close instan-
taneously, but its motion
should be smooth and con-
trolled (top). In practice,
poor dynamics or contami-
nation can waste energy by
creating pressure pulsa-
tions (middle) or delaying
operation (bottom).
ponent thicknesses and damping ar-
rangements vary to cater for different
applications. Where space is tight, for
instance, concentric valves combine
suction and discharge components in
a single unit.
The choice of valve depends on
factors including:
• Stroke, bore and number of valves
per cylinder
•V  alve diameter and valve pocket
dimensions
•C  ompressor speed
•L  ubricated or nonlubricated
•P  rocess characteristics such as
gas composition, moisture con-
tent, tendency to polymerize, con-
taminants and liquid slugs
•P  resence of corrosive elements in
the gas
n Figure 6. Valve design software calculates
the key factors and motion of sealing element,
ensuring desired performance and reliability.
The results shown relate to a ring valve with
four sealing rings.
• Pressures and temperatures
• Process dynamics and variability
• Whether or not suction valve un-
loaders are fitted for capacity
control
Hoerbiger uses a two-step approach
to valve specification. First, the com-
pany’s engineers draw on their previ-
ous experience, including a database
of more than 92,000 applications. Sec-
ond, for the more challenging operat-
ing cases they use engineering design
tools to model valve performance.
Based on the earlier list of appli-
cation details, the design software
simulates valve behavior, calculates
pressure losses and final discharge
temperatures, and predicts impact
loads, which are the key factors in
determining the reliability of a particu-
lar valve in a given application. It also
calculates the maximum gas velocity,
and the pressure drop expressed as a
q value (Figure 6).
As standard engineering handbooks
confirm, valve lift is closely related to
reliability. Valve lift on a process gas
compressor operating at 400 rpm and
at a pressure of 725 psi (50 bar), for
instance, should not exceed 0.079 in.
(2 mm). High lifts, greater than 0.118 in.
(2 mm), are only useful at low pres-
sures and speeds.
Average gas velocity is a useful
guide to reliability as well as energy
efficiency. High gas velocities increase
pressure drop and power consump-
tion, but velocities that are too low may
cause instability of the sealing element.
The average gas velocity through the
valve should be low enough to pro-
mote efficiency but not low enough to
cause unstable opening.
The overall application limit of a
valve is determined by its weakest
component, expressed in terms of dif-
ferential pressures and impact loads.
Engineers use finite element analysis
(FEA) and purpose-designed test rigs
to establish the operating limits for models, as well as extensive databas- Environments In Oil and Gas Production”
individual seat, sealing element and es of past performance. CT2 (Houston, TX: NACE International, 2003).
spring designs. [3] MR0103-2012, “Materials Re-
Materials of construction occupy a References sistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking In
whole chapter of their own. Materials [1] API 618, “Reciprocating Compres- Corrosive Petroleum Refining Envi-
must be selected according to indus- sors For Petroleum, Chemical, And Gas ronments” (Houston, TX: NACE Inter-
try codes and standards, including: Industry Services,” Fifth Edition (Wash- national, 2012).
• API 618 [1] ington, D.C.: American Petroleum Insti- [4] IGC Doc 10/09/E, “Reciprocating
• NACE MR0175 [2] tute [API], 2007). Compressors For Oxygen Service,”
• NACE MR0103 [3] [2] NACE MR0175/ ISO 15156, “Pe- Code Of Practice (Brussels, Belgium:
• EIGA IGC Doc 10/09/E [4] troleum And Natural Gas Industries European Industrial Gases Association
Properly chosen, modern rein- - Materials For Use in H2S-Containing AISBL, 2009).
forced engineering polymers have Motors | Automation | Energy | Transmission & Distribution | Coatings
excellent durability in compressor
valve applications. Hoerbiger offers
high-performance polymers to suit
different combinations of gas compo-
sition, corrosiveness, temperature,
impact stress, and desired working
life. Steel valves, while still available,
do not tolerate high impacts well and
are normally restricted to noncritical
or high-temperature applications.

Valves are not

commodity components
In most industrial applications,
compressor valves are far from being
commodity devices. Modern high-
performance valves are rugged, reli-
able, and energy-efficient, as long as
they are matched to the conditions
under which they operate.
In most cases an experienced sup-
plier will have no trouble recommend-
ing a suitable valve for the job. But no
two applications are exactly alike, and
small changes in process conditions,
which may not seem significant, can
affect valve choice.
WEG / EM has manufactured motors and generators for the petroleum industry for over 100
Key points to look out for when
years. We understand that every application is different and will work with the customer to
choosing valves for a long service life,
meet their needs.
reliability, and low energy costs are:
• Large passage areas and good Motors can be designed to API Standards (where applicable), meeting welding, structural,
aerodynamic characteristics vibration and testing requirements. Motors can be built for operation in classified hazardous
• Advanced composite materials areas per NEC or IEC/EN (ATEX) requirements. For synchronous motors, standard brushless
combining strength, toughness excitation is non-sparking for hazardous atmospheres.
and light weight
• Low masses of moving parts
• Appropriate values of valve lift,
gas velocity and pressure drop
• Rapid response to low differential
pressures
• Low clearance volume Synchronous and
Turbogenerators
NEMA, Above NEMA and
IEC Low Voltage Motors
Low and Medium Voltage Drives
and Soft Starters
Induction Motors
For challenging applications, good Up to 150,000 HP Up to 150 MW Up to 2,000 HP Up to 10,000 HP

suppliers rely on detailed engineering

1-800-ASK-4WEG Visit us online at www.weg.net/us Transforming energy into solutions.
calculations, including flow and stress

MAY 2015 75 Compressortech2

 Rotation Vibration Analyzation
CEMB releases portable measurement tool
By Roberto Chellini

n The N600 vibration analyzer in its por-

table casing. The instrument is designed to
measure the overall vibration values in pre-
defined frequency bands (10 to 1000 Hz, 3
to 300 Hz, 10 to 10,000 Hz) or bands defined
by the user within the range 3 to 20,000 Hz.

C
EMB of Mandello del Lario,
Italy, has widened its range of
portable equipment for vibra-
tion measurement and analysis, bal-
ancing and predictive maintenance
with the introduction of its N600 por-
table vibration analyzer. Equipped
with a backlit, high-resolution LCD
color screen, the N600 can be used
in all types of lighting conditions.
Calculation power and intuitive
methods for the setting/presentation
of the measurements and graphs
are the main features of this instru-
ment. Its analysis functions provide
the information needed for the ma-
chine diagnosis and diagnosis of the
conditions of the bearings so that
the most appropriate maintenance
work can be identified and planned.
The balancing function can be used
to balance any type of rotating body
on one or more planes, regardless of
size and weight.
This instrument can provide the
vibration trend over time, special
analysis and Bode plot, which are
essential tools for defining, with ex-
treme precision, the corrective ac-
tions needed. angle rule), the equipment is suffi- can perform data acquisition route
All of the readings can be saved in cient for performing all of the main creation functions (route manager)
a database using sophisticated soft- functions. Various optional accesso- and provides diagnostic tools (ad-
ware for effective and rational orga- ries are also available (other types vanced diagnostic software). Three
nization of predictive maintenance. of sensors, extensions, Bluetooth different software levels are avail-
Supplied with standard acces- printer) when the N600 is used in able to meet all requirements: stor-
sories (two accel­­er­­om­eters with a special conditions. age, detailed analysis, diagnostics,
heavy-duty spiral cable, high-speed A diagnostic software package, measurement comparison, trends,
250,000 cpm photocell, USB stick, which can be installed on a PC, spectrums, and orbits. CT2

MAY 2015 76 Compressortech2

 Intelligence on Duty

PROGNOST®-Predictor – Early fault detection with Confidence

PROGNOST®-Predictor is a true diagnostic system for bearings and gearboxes.

Even inexperienced users benefit from Confidence health status information for each individual
component and their failure modes. Gear and bearing analyses are based on both traditional and
high frequency enveloped spectral analyses, while gear tooth defects are further defined using Time
Synchronous Averaging. The integrated fault frequency database works in conjunction with the
unique Confidence Factor plot providing users with essential lead time when decisions are due for
planning maintenance.

With 30 years of continuous development and installations on multiple machine types,

including planetary gearboxes, PROGNOST®-Predictor delivers the early fault detection
reliability managers need.

predictor@prognost.com www.prognost.com
Evaluation Of A Dynamic Variable TECH

corner
Orifice For Reciprocating
Compressor Pulsation Control
(Part 2) > Ato dynamic variable orifice (DVO) allows the orifice size
be adjusted for optimal pulsation control and efficiency
as conditions change
By Norm Shade, Tyler Clark and Jared W. Adair

Editor’s Note: This paper was delivered at the Gas Machin-

ery Research Council’s Gas Machinery Conference meet-
ing in Nashville, Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014. The authors
wish to acknowledge the management of ACI Services Inc.
for providing equipment, facilities, personnel and funding
for this research and to Tech Transfer Inc. for providing the
case studies referenced in this article. Part 1 of this article
was published in COMPRESSORtech2 last month, p. 16.

Production prototype test — steady flow

Because of its unique shape, initial tests focused on mea-
suring the steady flow behavior of the conical dynamic vari- n Figure 1. Four in. conical DVO, flat DVO and standard orifice
able orifice (DVO). A 4 in. (101.6 mm) (inner diameter [ID]) pressure drop.
pipe assembly was manufactured using a 3-D rapid-prototype
printer. Flow tests were conducted on a standard flow bench
with atmospheric air at 74° to 80°F (23° to 27°C). The DVO
was positioned at Beta ratios ranging from a minimum of 0.5
to a maximum of 0.94. Comparative flow tests were conducted
on conventional round hole, flat plate orifices with the same
Beta ratios. A few comparative tests were also conducted with
a flat DVO model. Figure 1 is a plot of representative pressure
drop data for the conical DVO and the flat DVO compared with
conventional flat plate orifices with round holes.
The conical DVO was tested with flow entering the large
end of the cone and then reversed so that flow entered the
small end of the cone. As expected, pressure drop is lower
with flow entering the large end of the cone. Reversing the
flow increases the pressure drop at all Beta ratios, though
the difference is insignificant as the Beta ratio approaches n Figure 2. Closed-loop test compressor showing orifice location.
about 0.9. More interesting is the observation that the DVO
has less of a pressure drop than a normal flat plate orifice
at low Beta ratios.
The flat DVO that was tested had a limited range of flow
areas, but its pressure drop tracked closely with the con-
ventional flat plate orifice over the range that was tested.

Norm Shade, PE, is senior consultant for ACI Services Inc.,

Cambridge, Ohio. Tyler Clark, EIT, is project engineer for ACI
Services Inc., Cambridge, Ohio. Jared W. Adair is acoustical
analyst for Tech Transfer Inc., Houston, Texas. n Figure 3. DVO port geometry at b = (a) 0.70 and (b) 0.55.

MAY 2015 78 Compressortech2

Both DVOs and a conventional orifice Innovative Bolting Solutions
plate have about the same pressure
drop at 0.7 Beta ratio, but the conical
DVO has more of a pressure drop than
a conventional orifice plate at higher
Beta ratios.

Production prototype test —

dynamic flow
To evaluate the pulsation attenua-
tion of the DVO, tests were run on a
closed-loop reciprocating test com-
pressor. The compressor is a 4.5 in.
(114.3 mm) stroke Knight KOA set-up
as a single-cylinder, single-stage unit
with no suction pulsation bottle as
shown in Figure 2. The cylinder has a
10.25 in. (260.35 mm) bore with one
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large suction valve and one large dis-
high powered tooling. Any size tensioner can • Increases worker safety
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be safely installed or removed with hand tools. • Accurate & reusable
ered by an electric motor with a vari- The simple solution to bolting problems! • Reduces downtime
able frequency drive (VFD) that can
vary speeds from 600 to 1200 rpm.
The loop is set up with various cool-
Brochure & case studies:
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ditions over a wide range. Flow can

be measured with an ASME; www.
asme.org) orifice meter and the unit
is equipped with a computerized data- Experience, Reliability, Integrity...
acquisition system.
Superbolt.indd 1 5/15/14 1:37 PM
Comparative tests were conduct-
ed on a flat version of the DVO at
several settings and compared with
conventional flat plate orifices hav-
ing the same Beta ratios. The DVO
and the orifice plates were installed
sequentially in the 6.07 in. (154 mm)
ID line at the cylinder suction flange.
The DVO port geometries are shown
in Figures 3(a) and (b) for Beta ra-
tios of 0.70 and 0.55, respectively.
At the smallest Beta ratio of 0.4, all
of the flow goes through the 2.426
in. (61.6 mm) diameter center port.
Pulsation was measured at the line
side flange immediately upstream of
the orifice with the compressor op-
erating on 100% nitrogen gas. Tests
were run with the cylinder set up The AXH manufacturing complex consists of
as single-acting crank end (SACE) six plants, totaling 559,100 SF on 67 acres.
and then double-acting (DA), and the
speed was swept through a range from
600 to 1200 rpm.
Operating the compressor in single- (918) 283-9200 Fax (918) 283-9229 www.axh.com
continued on page 80

MAY 2015 79 Compressortech2

n Figure 4. SA pulsation: (a) no orifice, (b) flat orifice b = 0.07 and
(c) flat DVO b = 0.07. FFT is Fast Fourier transform.

acting mode at suction and discharge pressures of 60 and

90 psig (4.14 and 6.21 bar), respectively, with no orifice in
the line, the pulsation was observed to peak at a speed of
1046 rpm. Tests were then repeated six times at the same
operating conditions, first with flat orifice plates and then
with the flat DVO, each with Beta ratios of 0.70, 0.55 and
0.40. Figure 4(a) shows the peak-to-peak (p-p) pulsation
frequency response with no orifice installed.
Interestingly, even though the cylinder is single-acting,
the primary pulsation is at 2x running speed. This is a
unique characteristic of the test cylinder, which has a sin-
gle, large suction valve for a relatively large-bore diam-
eter. Most cylinders of this size would have two smaller
n Figure 4 continued. SA pulsation: (d) flat orifice b = 0.55 and (e) flat
DVO b = 0.55 and (f) b = 0.40. FFT = Fast Fourier transform.
suction (and discharge) valves. It appears that with the
relatively high molecular weight gas, the internal pressure
cannot fully unload across the piston face, resulting in
significant compression, and high parasitic losses occur-
ring in the deactivated end. With no orifice, the peak re-
sponse at this operating condition is 2.96 psi (0.204 bar)
p-p at 34.8 Hz (2x rpm), as shown in Figure 4(a). This

MAY 2015 80 Compressortech2

response is 4.0% of absolute line pressure and therefore
a significant pulsation. There is also a small resonant re-
sponse at 30.3 Hz and a small pulse at 17.3 Hz, which is
1x running speed.
Adding a conventional flat plate orifice with a Beta ra-
tio of 0.70 at the suction flange reduces the 2x response
to a 1.63 psi (0.113 bar) p-p and 30.3 Hz resonance to
0.40 psi (0.028 bar) p-p, as shown in Figure 4(b). Figure 4(c)
shows that the flat DVO with the same 0.70 Beta ratio
further reduces the 2x response to 0.72 psi (.01 bar) p-p and
the 30.3 Hz resonance increases to 0.51 psi (0.035 bar) p-p.
Interestingly, a secondary resonance at about 47.7 Hz
also kicks up to 0.38 psi (0.06 bar) p-p with the flat ori-
fice and to 0.56 psi (0.039 bar) p-p with the DVO with
0.70 Beta ratio.
Reducing the conventional flat plate orifice Beta ratio to
0.55 reduces the 2x response to 0.87 psi (0.06 bar) p-p
with no significant effect on the 30.3 Hz resonance, as
shown in Figure 4(d). Figure 4(e) shows that the flat DVO
with the same 0.55 Beta ratio is much more effective, with
the 2x response reduced to 0.50 psi (0.04 bar) p-p. The
30.3 Hz resonance drops slightly to 0.47 psi (0.03 bar) p-p
and the 47.7 Hz resonance increases slightly to 0.54 psi
(0.04 bar) p-p.
The last single-acting test was with a Beta ratio of 0.4. The
n Figure 5. DA pulsation: (a) no orifice, (b) flat orifice and b = 0.70.
Continued on page 82.
MAY 2015 81 Compressortech2
Kiene.indd 1
geometry was the same for both the flat plate orifice and the
flat DVO, i.e., a 2.426 in. (61.52 mm) diameter round hole.
Figure 4(f) shows the responses at all frequencies are 0.41
psi (0.028 bar) p-p or less. Pulsation is controlled to 0.5% of
line pressure, but an orifice that small is usually exception-
ally restrictive, which would result in a large pressure drop
and horsepower penalties.
Another battery of tests was conducted with the test com-
pressor operating in the DA mode. As shown in Figures 5(a)
through (f), the 2x pulsation was much higher in DA mode.
With no orifice, the measured pulsation was 3.75 psig
(0.26 bar) at 34.8 Hz,as shown in Figure 5(a). This is 5%
of line pressure. A conventional flat plate orifice with a Beta
ratio of 0.7 reduces the 2x pulsation to 2.41 psi (0.166 bar),
but the 30.3 Hz resonance increases from 0.80 to 1.08 psi
(0.055 to 0.075 bar), as shown in Figure 5(b). The flat plate
DVO with a Beta ratio of 0.7 shows very similar pulsation
control results in Figure 5(c).
Figure 5(d) shows the pulsation with a conventional flat
plate orifice with a 0.55 Beta ratio. The 2x pulsation is re-
duced to 1.41 psi (0.97 bar), but the 30.3 Hz resonance
jumps up to 1.20 psi. Figure 5(e) shows the results with the
flat DVO with a Beta ratio of 0.55. Unlike the single-acting
results, in the DA tests, the DVO was slightly less effective
than the conventional orifice, though both are effective for
continued on page 82
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n Figure 5 continued. DA pulsation: (c) flat DVO b = 0.07, (d) flat
orifice b = 0.55, (e) flat DVO b = 0.55 and (f) b = 0.40.
MAY 2015 82 Compressortech2
pulsation control. The 2x pulsation was higher at 1.60 psi
(0.11 bar), but 30.3 Hz pulsation was 1.08 psi (0.075 bar).
Figure 5(f) shows the results for a Beta ratio of 0.4, with the
maximum pulsation of 0.57 psi (0.039 bar). Pulsation is con-
trolled to 0.76% of line pressure, but an orifice that small is
usually exceptionally restrictive.
Conclusions
Changing the Beta ratio of pulsation-dampening orifices
as a compressor’s operating conditions change can opti-
mize the trade-offs between pulsation control and pressure
drop and power consumption penalty caused by the orific-
es. As a result, operating ranges can often be significantly
extended, pulsation control can be improved, fuel costs can
be reduced and capacity can be increased.
The DVO provides a practical means of changing the
Beta ratio of a pulsation control orifice while a compressor
system is pressurized and operating.
The multiport flat DVO has been demonstrated to be very
similar to, and sometimes even more effective in reducing
pulsation, than a conventional flat plate orifice having the
same effective Beta ratio.
Steady flow pressure tests show that the conical DVO
causes less pressure drop than a conventional flat plate
orifice at Beta ratios below about 0.7. At Beta ratios of 0.5,
the conical DVO had 26% less pressure drop than a con-
ventional flat plate orifice. This difference declined to the
point of being about the same as the conventional orifice at
0.7 Beta ratio. At higher Beta ratios above 0.7, the conical
DVO had slightly more pressure drop than a conventional
flat plate orifice, for example, 3% at 0.75 Beta ratio.
Steady flow pressure tests at Beta ratios of 0.55 to 0.70
show that the flat DVO has 3 to 5% more pressure drop
than a conventional flat plate orifice. This is typically not a
significant difference because the pressure drop penalty is
diminished with larger Beta ratio orifices.
Operating compressor, dynamic flow tests show that the
pulsation control of the flat DVO is overall very similar to
conventional flat plate orifices. At some frequencies and op-
erating conditions, the flat DVO was more effective, and in a
few cases slightly less effective. The differences were likely
within the accuracy of the measurements.
Recommendations
Upon completion of the current mechanical and perfor-
mance testing that is partially described in this article, the
DVO will be ready for field introduction in systems operat-
ing up to 1500 psig (103 bar). A schedule of Beta ratio set-
tings can be established by the pulsation analysis consul-
tant during the system design process. The DVO can then
be manually or automatically adjusted to change the DVO’s
effective Beta ratio as operating conditions change. If con-
ditions change slowly and/or infrequently, then manual ad-
justments may be practical. If conditions change quickly
and/or frequently, automatic control via programmable
logic controller (PLC) algorithms may be required. CT2
 www.aogexpo.com.ar

5 – 8.10.2015
La Rural Trade Center

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 Root Cause Of Piping
Failures > Analysis of reliability issues for compressor
systems and recommended solutions
By Scott Schubring and Chris Harper

n Figure 1. Problem areas

on a compressor system.

Editor’s Note: This article is based
on a paper given by the authors at the
Gas Machinery Conference, Nash-
ville, Tennessee, Oct. 5-8, 2014.
Introduction
Vibration issues at various com-
pressor stations have been identified
through Williams Pipeline (Williams)
field inspection programs. Vibration is
an important reliability/integrity issue
as a result of piping fatigue failure,
production downtime, safety/environ-
mental issues, and higher mainte-
nance costs. The purpose of this arti-
cle was to identify the root causes that
contribute to these reliability issues
and share these observations with
industry so that others can benefit
and improve their operations as well.
Note that a formal root cause analy-
sis (RCA) project was not undertaken.
The following findings are based on
an initial evaluation of contributing
factors facing the engineering, techni-
cal services and operations teams.
The Problem Description section
introduces the problems found in a
recent vibration audit/inspection of
27 compressors. A variety of factors
contribute to these problems and the
root causes are identified in the Root
Causes and Lessons Learned sec-
tion. The authors also provide sug-
gestions to address these reliability/
integrity gaps. An Appendix is also
provided, showing more details on
the causes found.
Problem description
To identify vibration risks and prob-
lems, Williams conducted a vibration
inspection program on its compressor
fleet. A third-party vibration engineer-
ing specialist (Beta Machinery Analy-
sis, or Beta) conducted these inspec-
tions, provided a detailed assessment
of each unit, and defined an imple-
mentation/remediation plan.
For purposes of this RCA, Wil-
liams has shared the inspection re-

Scott Schubring is the supervisor of rotating equipment in the engineering group at Williams Pipeline, Tulsa, Oklahoma. He leads a team
of reciprocating subject matter experts to support Williams reciprocating assets from conception to retirement. He graduated from
Texas A&M in 2001 with a BSME. From there he joined El Paso Corp., where he held several positions, including reliability engineer,
plant services engineer, and E&C principal engineer before leaving for Williams in 2012. Contact him at: scott.schubring@williams.
com. Chris B. Harper, B.Sc., PEng. is a principal engineer at Beta Machinery Analysis, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has led research
for BETA and the GMRC in small-bore piping vibration, flow- and acoustic-induced vibration, machinery mounting systems and pipe
support stiffness. He has specialized in stress and failure analysis using finite element modeling, and most recently, has developed
his expertise in digital pulsation simulation, dynamic finite element analysis of compressor packages, and structural analysis for on-
and offshore applications. His field troubleshooting experience includes solving vibration and pulsation problems on reciprocating
gas compressors and engines. Harper graduated from the University of Alberta with a BSME in 1996. Harper has co-authored numer-
ous technical papers presented at the Gas Machinery Conference, EFRC, and magazines, and is a primary presenter for the GMRC
training course “Compressor Station Vibration.” Contact him at: charper@betamachinery.com.

may 2015 84 Compressortech2

sults from 27 different compressors • Pipe Strain is internal strain in pip- sources were not found to cause vi-
located at 10 different stations in the ing systems caused by misalign- bration problems at these Williams
Northeast United States. Figure 1 ment and static deflections [1]. It locations, but are commonly found at
defines the general inspection areas has been seen to increase vibra- other compressor installations.
focused on during the vibration in- tions, particularly high-frequency
spections (labeled inspection areas 1 ones. Pipe strain was an issue on Conclusions from vibration
through 12). These inspection areas 41% of the units. inspection program
are grouped together because com- Other areas that potentially can The conclusions from this field in-
ponents in these areas tend to have cause problems are misalignment of spection program include:
similar types of problems. A descrip- drivetrain shafts, pulsation-induced • Resonance on piping and vessels
tion of these inspection areas and the unbalanced forces, and machinery un- is a consistent issue.
typical problems found in them are balanced forces and moments. These continued on page 86
shown in Table 1.
Table 2 lists the actual problems
Beta and Williams found in these in-
spection areas, for each compres-
sor and at each location. The areas
flagged are considered problems be-
cause high vibration amplitudes were Intelligent Analysis
measured. These areas were at risk of
vibration-induced piping failure. Some
of the inspection areas did not have
any problems. These areas are left
in the chart to show successes in the
compressor design.
The potential sources of problem
areas are flagged in Table 2. They
included:
• Loose or poorly designed sup- ecom-J2KN, ecom-EN2-F &
ports. These supports were not ecom-CN

creating adequate stiffness at that

location. A well-functioning sup-
port should have minimal vibration ECOM’S SUITE OF
(<0.1 in./s peak) at the support lo- ENGINE TESTING ANALYZERS ARE
cation. Support problems affected
59% of the units.
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• High vibration due to base Mo-
tion of the main piping, vessels or Advanced Compliance
Reporting Software e-Comply
machinery. This tends to indicate
that vibration is a symptom of high
vibration of another component; THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
therefore, the fix should start at GETTING IT DONE--AND GETTING IT DONE

FAST & ACCURATELY.

that component first. Base motion
affected 18% of units.
• High vibration from Resonance.
Resonance is when the natural
frequency of the components, like
a suction bottle or small-bore at-
tachment, coincides with the fre-
quency of the energy created by
the rotating machinery. Resonant
components can have their vi-
bration amplified 20 to 40 times.
Resonance was an issue on
93% of the units, with 41% of the
units having resonance issues on
small-bore connections only.
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MAY 2015 85 Compressortech2

 • The compressor design addressed
pulsation forces but did not ad-
dress mechanical resonance prob-
lems, support design or base mo-
tion. This indicates a gap in the
vibration design.
• There are many fit-up or installa-
tion issues that occur at the com-
pressor fabrication shop, during
site construction, etc.
• Many of the problems require ex-
pensive field modifications. Ad-
dressing these problems in the
design stage would result in sig-
nificant financial savings.
There are three direct benefits of
the vibration inspection program:
1. Williams can identify high-risk
integrity/reliability issues across
its operating area. This is a criti-
cal requirement for an effective
integrity management program.
2. For each unit, the maintenance
team has a plan and recommen-
dations to solve the problem.
3.Identify gaps in the engineering,
fabrication and commissioning
process (RCA).
Root causes and lessons learned
Problems can occur at different
stages of the process, including the
initial project planning, detailed de-
sign, construction and site commis-
sioning. Some of the contributing
factors are technical/engineering-
related issues. These problems can
be mitigated through changes in
Williams’s specification, engineering
and inspection activities. But, many
other contributing factors stem from
communication, training and project
management activities.
Table 3 can be found online (http://
ct2.co/pipefailures) and identifies the
root cause issues affecting Williams’s
compressor facilities and recommen-
dations for improvement [2-3]. These
observations reflect the authors’ les-
sons learned for improving the asset
reliability. While these observations
are focused on Williams’s operations,
it is likely that many other owners/op-
erators face similar challenges.
Conclusions
An inspection of 27 compressor units
may 2015 86 Compressortech2
Inspection Area Typical Problems
• Elevated piping is difficult to support and has high
vibrations.
• Piping between scrubber and suction bottle can be
1. Suction (“Cold”) Piping
short, which makes fit-up difficult.
• Difficulty fitting up flanges or clamps leads to pipe
strain.
2. Scubbers, Separators, • Small-bore attachments on vessels can have high
Vessels vibrations.
• Tall, skinny scrubbers can have low, natural frequen-
3. Suction Pulsation
cies (which do not meet API 618 guideline) and can
Bottles
have high vibrations.
• Inadequate scrubber skirt thickness, skid grouting or
4. Compressor Cylinders
scrubber skirt welding.
• High bottle vibrations leading to cracked nozzles; how-
ever, supporting discharge bottles is easier.
• Poorly designed, small-bore attachments resulting in
high vibrations of the attachments and/or cracks at the
5. Discharge Pulsation
connection.
Bottles
• Wedge supports come loose (as a result of thermal
growth or vibration) and result in high bottle vibrations.
• Thermal growth of nozzles causes pipe strain or loose
wedge supports.
• Poorly supported piping near discharge bottle can
have high vibration.
• Difficulty fitting up flanges or clamps, leading to pipe
strain.
6. Discharge (“Hot”) • Thermal expansion of piping, as a result of high
Piping temperature, can result in pipe strain and high pipe-
support loads.
• Pipe supports are removed or modified to reduce pipe
static stress and/or equipment loads, but are not ad-
equate for vibration design, resulting in high vibration.
• Isolation valves results in tall lines with high vibrations.
• Heavy valves can result in high vibrations and cracks at
connection to mainline piping.
7. Relief And Blowdown
• High forces caused by valve activation can cause high
Valves
deflections and stress.
• Thermal growth on the mainline can cause stress on
the connection if relief header is not allowed to move.
• High pressure drop and flow through pressure-reducing
valves can lead to noise (vortex shedding) and high-
8. Control And Recycle frequency acoustic vibration problems.
Valves • Deadlegs created when valves are closed can create
acoustical resonance in pipe, which can lead to high
pulsation-induced forces and vibrations.
• Heavy, unsupported cantilevered valves have high
vibrations.
9. Small-Bore Piping
• Excessive small-bore attachments are used but not
necessary, resulting in more areas with failure risk.
• Poor mounting to skid pedestal or concrete block
results in high frame vibrations.
10. Compressor Frame
• Torsional vibrations can cause driveshaft failures or, in
some specific cases, lateral vibrations of frame.
• Poor mounting to machinery pedestal or concrete block
11. Engine Or Motor
results in high machinery vibration.
• Local flexibility in skid (baseplate) near machinery
mounting feet can cause high vibration of machinery.
Flexibility can be decreased by adding gussets or plate
12. Skid, Mounting And to skid.
Foundation • Inadequate grouting or concrete fill.
• Poor connection between skid (baseplate) and founda-
tion (concrete, piles, platform deck, etc.) can cause high
skid vibrations.
n Table 1. Summary of inspection areas and typical problems.
 Compressor Unit (27 Compressor Packages At 10 Stations)
Inspection Area A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 C1 C2 C3 D1 D2 D3 E1 E2 E3 F1 F2 G1 G2 H1 H2 I4 I5 I6 I7 J1 J2 J3
1. Suction Piping R R R R R R R R
2. Scrubber R R
Stage 1

3. Suction Bottles MR R R R L
4. Cylinders R L L R
5. Discharge Bottles M L L L L
6. Discharge Piping S S S
1. Suction Piping
Stage 2 Or Left Side

2. Scrubber
Stage 1

3. Suction Bottles R MR MR MR R R R R L R
4. Cylinders LR L L L L L R
5. Discharge Bottles L L L L L
6. Discharge Piping S LS R
7. Relief Valves LS S LR R MRS MRS MRS RS R R R R R MR MR S S R
8. Control Valves R R R R R
9. Small-Bore Piping R R R LR R R R R R R R R R R R R R
10. Compressor
Frame
11. Engine L

12. Skid

Legend: L=loose/poor support, M=base motion, R=resonance, S=pipe stain n Table 2. Vibration problems by compressor.

at 10 different compressor stations re-
vealed trends in the types of problems
found. The main areas of concern
were small-bore attachments, most of
which were resonant, had pipe strain
issues, or were caused by loose sup-
ports and braces. Next were suction
pulsation bottles, which were almost
all from resonance. Discharge bottles
were also a vibration concern, mostly
because of loose wedge supports.
Areas that were successfully de-
signed and installed were the compres-
sor skid, the compressor itself, and
the engine. This was a result of well-
designed foundations and good instal-
lation procedures. Scrubbers were also
well-designed and installed. This is pos-
itive because scrubbers tend to be res-
onant (therefore have high vibrations)
and have many small-bore attachments
(which can be a failure risk).
Many of the problem areas can be
solved through better procedures and
practices, many of which are outlined.
These include better education of the
continued on page 88

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vibration risks to owners, packagers,
and engineering, procurement and
construction contractors (EPCs); bet-
ter evaluation of the bids for details
that will affect the ultimate design;
better specs to make the expecta-
tions on all parties clearer throughout
the project life cycle.

References
[1] B. Howes, G. Maxwell, “Piping
Misalignment And Vibration Related
Fatigue Failures,” Gas Machinery Con-
ference 2013.
[2] GMRC Guideline For High-Speed
Reciprocating Compressor Packages
For Natural Gas Transmission & Stor-
age Applications, Gas Machinery Re-
n Figure 2. Vibration spectrum of small-bore attachment.
search Council & ACI Services, Rev. 0,
August 2013.
[3] C. Harper, “Integrity Evaluation
Of Small Bore Connections (Branch
Connections)”, 9th EFRC Conference,
September 2014.

Appendix A: Examples of problem

areas Small bore attachment
Example No. 1 — A resonant, small-
bore attachment had high vibration
at its natural frequency (Figure 2). It
was flagged as a potential failure risk
during the vibration audit, and failed
shortly after the vibration audit report
was received. n Figure 3. (left) Original small-bore attachment and (right) crack detail.
continued on page 90

n Figure 4. Small-bore attachment upstream of scrubber with (left) high vibration and (right) vibration spectrum.

may 2015 88 Compressortech2

 n Figure 5. PSV. n Figure 6. Suction bottle vibration caused by cylinder vibration.

The original design had an FxF

valve, which necessitated a small MxM
coupling between the fitting and the
valve. An MxF valve was recommend-
ed in the vibration audit report, which
would have reduced the length, but the
broken attachment was replaced with
a similar design (Figure 3).
Example No. 2 — A small-bore
attachment, directly upstream of a
suction scrubber, was found to have
high vibrations (Figure 4). During the
vibration audit, it was discovered that
the fitting was leaking. The fitting was
replaced after Beta left the site with
a similarly designed fitting that failed
again. Finally, the fitting was replaced

n Figure 7. Discharge bottle wedge supports.

n Figure 8. Pipe support designs.

may 2015 90 Compressortech2

 Pipe Support Design Comments

Resting Support • Not typically acceptable on reciprocating compressor installations.

• May be permitted away from the compressors, but not within 10 mainline diameters of elbows, tees,
reducers and vessels.

Single U-Bolt Clamp • Not typically acceptable on reciprocating compressor installations because of the tendency to vibrate
loose and/or wear into pipe wall.
• May be permitted away from compressor if lined to prevent pipe wear.

Double U-Bolt Clamp • Not desirable on reciprocating compressor installations.

• If used, have u-bolts lined to prevent pipe wear.

Long Bolt-Type Pipe Clamp • Acceptable design for use on reciprocating compressor installations.
• Long bolt helps prevent vibratory loosening of clamp.
• Some axial thermal growth can be accommodated because of the lower clamping force.
• If lateral thermal growth is required, slots can be cut in support structure underneath pipe clamp.

Short Bolt-Type Pipe Clamp
• Acceptable design for use on reciprocating compressor installations.
• Can be susceptible to vibratory loosening because of the short bolt.
• If axial thermal growth is required, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) slide plates can be used.
• If lateral thermal growth is required, slots can be cut in clamp or support structure underneath
pipe clamp.

Short Bolt-Type Pipe Clamp
With Disc Spring’s
Washers
• Acceptable design for use on reciprocating compressor installations.
• Disc spring washers help prevent vibratory loosening.
• Axial thermal growth can be accommodated because of the lower clamping force (disc spring washers).
• If lateral thermal growth is required, slots can be cut in clamp or support structure underneath
pipe clamp.

n Table 4. Common pipe support designs.

with a design with a longer nipple,
which also broke and contributed to a
fire that destroyed the machine.
Example No. 3 — Several small-
bore attachments were resonant and
vibrating excessively. The problem was
caused by the tall design of the small-
bore attachment, its location near a
control valve (which creates acoustic
energy when partially closed), and the
flexible main piping support design.
Pressure safety valves
The pressure safety valve (PSV) was
gusseted but poor shimming caused
pipe strain, which lead to high vibrations
(Figure 5). When the supports were
loosened, shimmed and retightened,
the vibration levels were reduced.
Base motion
On compressor “C1,” Table 2, a
suction bottle was found to be vibrat-
ing a 2.9 in./s peak in the horizontal
direction at its closed end. Further
investigation found that the nearby
cylinder vertical vibration was 1.1 in./s
peak. The flexibility was traced to
either the inboard support connec-
tion or loose wedge supports. Fixing
those, or installing outboard cylinder
supports, will fix the suction bottle vi-
bration, which was due to base mo-
tion of the cylinders (Figure 6).
Discharge bottles
On compressor “D2,” Table 2, wedge
supports were found loose and in
some cases missing (Figure 7). These
wedge supports were reinstalled and
tightened, and vibration levels were
found to actually increase. When all
wedge supports were removed com-
pletely, the vibrations did not change
significantly; therefore, it was decided
to leave them off.
Also note that the beam under the
wedge supports had no gussets, and
is very flexible in the axial direction (al-
though the stiffness is reasonable in
the horizontal and vertical directions).
Gussets are always recommended for
supports similar to this.
Pipe strain
On compressor “I4,” Table 2, high
vibration (1.5 in./s peak) was found
on piping that was well supported
on well-designed sleepers with gus-
sets and good grouting (Figure 9).
When the clamp was loosened, a
gap opened up between the pipe and
the support structure below it. Shim-
ming this gap reduced the vibration
of the piping, especially the high-
frequency vibration.
Pipe supports
Several common pipe support de-
signs are shown in Figure 8. Com-
ments on each of the designs are
shown in Table 4. CT2

may 2015 91 Compressortech2

 2
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2
Advertisers’ Index
*Further information on this company’s products can be found in the 2014 Edition of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Sourcing Guide
(at www.Dieselandgasturbineguide.net) and/or 2015 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).
ACI Services Inc. .....................................................................................53
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers .................................................................79
Argentina Oil & Gas Expo 2015 .............................................................83
*ARIEL CORPORATION .............................................................................1
ARMCO Compressor Products Corp. ...................................Third Cover
BETA Machinery Analysis ......................................................................17
BG Service Co., Inc., The .......................................................................24
*Burckhardt Compression AG .................................................................43
Capstone Turbine Corporation ..............................................................35
Compressor Products International ........................................................5
Cook Compression .................................................................................47
DCL International Inc. ...............................................................................7
Dragon Products – Production Equipment ..........................................45
*Dresser-Rand ...........................................................................................27
E Instruments International ...................................................................63
Eastern Gas Compression Roundtable ................................................93
ECOM America ........................................................................................85
*Elliott Group ........................................................................Second Cover
*Ellwood Crankshaft Group .....................................................................59
Exline, Inc. ...............................................................................................34
Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers ...........................................................9
Hilco Division – The Hilliard Corporation .............................................33
HOERBIGER .......................................................................................10-11
IMI Sensors, a PCB Piezotronics Division ............................................61
*KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts, Mfg. ..........................................48-49
Kiene Diesel Accessories ......................................................................81
LO-REZ Vibration Control Ltd. ...............................................................63
*MAN Diesel & Turbo ................................................................................65
MOTORTECH GmbH................................................................................57
Murphy by Enovation Controls .................51, Fourth Cover, Belly Band
Neuman & Esser Group ..........................................................................21
Nidec ASI S.p.A. ......................................................................................29
Nord-lock/Superbolt ...............................................................................79
Philadelphia Gear ....................................................................................37
PROGNOST Systems GmbH ..................................................................77
Reynolds French .....................................................................................55
*Siemens Energy International ................................................................71
Sloan Lubrication Systems ....................................................................39
STASSKOL GmbH ...................................................................................13
Summit Industrial Products ...................................................................19
SYNTHOSOL ............................................................................................23
*Tech Transfer Inc. ..................................................................................2-3
TEDOM a.s. – Engines Division .............................................................59
*Testo, Inc. ................................................................................................73
WEG Electric Corp. .................................................................................75
Zahroof Valves Inc. .................................................................................15
Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 96
This led to the development
Compressor Compressor Max. No. Max. Speed Max. Flow MAWP
Model Type Of Stages RPM acfm (m3/min) psig (bar) of the C30 that was produced
in four- and six-impeller ver-
C16 Production 1 to 10 23,800 2200 (62) 3500 (241.3)
sions and in a series/parallel
C33 Production 1 to 12 16,500 9500 (269) 2700 (186.2)
configuration. In the mid-
C40 Production 1 to 6 14,300 9500 (269) 2500 (172.4) 1970s the highly success-
C41 Production 1 to 10 14,300 18,000 (510) 3750 (258.6) ful 10,000 hp (7457 kW)
C50 Production 1 to 5 12,500 20,000 (5660) 1500 (103.5) Mars gas turbine was in-
C51 Production 1 to 10 12,000 25,000 (708) 3000 (206.9) troduced, requiring larger
frame compressors match-
C61 Production 1 to 10 10,200 35,000 (991) 3000 (206.9)
ing a 9500 rpm engine speed.
C40 Pipeline 1 to 2 15,500 11,000 (311) 1600 (110.3) Initially, for pipeline boost-
C45 Pipeline 1 to 3 12,000 17,000 (481) 1600 (110.3) er applications, the smaller
C65 Pipeline 1 to 2 10,500 24,000 (680) 1600 (110.3) frame compressors were not
C75 Pipeline 1 to 3 8000 to 8855 30,000 (850) 2250 (155.1) well matched to the Mars gas
turbine. Solar utilized various
C85 Pipeline 1 to 2 7000 45,000 (1274) 1600 (110.3)
other manufacturers’ com-
n Current Solar centrifugal compressor model summary. pressors, including Dresser Clark, Ingersoll-Rand, Cooper-­
Bessemer and De-Laval. Ultimately, however, Solar developed
(103.4 bar) maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). its own specialized pipeline booster compressors to match
Ultimately, five-, six- and eight-impeller versions and a se- each of its turbines. The pipeline compressor models included
ries/parallel casing were built. Impellers were cast from the C40, C65 and C85 with one to two stages and the C45
AISI 410 stainless steel, with five different standard sizes and C75 with up to three impellers, which cover the 5000 to
matched with appropriate turning vane stators. 30,000 hp (3729 to 22,371 kW) engine size range today.
The first compressor was given the model designation Over the past five decades, centrifugal compressor tech-
C165. The C stands for compressor, the first two numbers nology continuously evolved, both in efficiency range and
relate to the inside diameter of the compressor barrel in inch- mechanical design features. Self-leveling tilt pad thrust and
es, and the last number identifies the maximum number of journal bearings and dry gas face seals replaced the older,
stages that the casing can accommodate. The compressor simpler designs. Computer-aided optimized components in-
was designed with sleeve bearings, fixed taped land thrust cluding cast steel casings, 3-D machined stators and aero-
bearings and oil film bushing seals. Compressor bearings, space-quality heat-treated impellers of cast AISI 410 and
shaft seals and turbine bearings shared a common lube higher strength 15-5PH stainless steel have become stan-
system. The first unit was built and shipped in 1961, pack- dard because of their high performance and compliance
aged with a Saturn gas turbine, to Trunkline Gas Company’s with NACE MR0175 [1] and the significant requirements
Independence Compressor Station in Mississippi. of API 617 [2].
The compressor line soon came to life because of two Today, the Solar centrifugal compressor line includes a
unique factors. The most important differentiator of the pack- family of 12 packages covering power levels from 1400 to
aged Saturn turbine compressor units was its convenience. 30,000 hp (1100 to 22,000 kW), flows from 100 to 45,000 acfm
Everything was included in a complete factory-built package, (3 to 1274 m3/min) and discharge pressures as high as
including the lube system, controls, enclosures, anti-surge 3750 psig (258.6 bar). Depending on the model, the com-
system, and even yard valve sequencing. This was quite a pressors have from one to 12 stages to handle a variety
contrast with the typical gas turbine compressor packages of of inlet flows and pressure ratios. Although the compres-
the day, which typically were piece-meal systems that had to sors were all designed to complement Solar gas turbines, a
be shipped separately and assembled in the field. The conve- number of them have also been applied with electric motor
nient Solar gas turbine package really appealed to smaller op- drives. In May 2008, Solar Turbines celebrated the delivery
erators, and it was soon popular with large companies as well. of the 5000th centrifugal gas compressor to a customer in
Another early differentiator was a unique and original Germany. By the end of 2014, total production of gas com-
arrangement of six stages in two groups of three stages pressors had grown to more than 6000 units. CT2
each. This design allowed the end user to operate the
compressor with the two impeller groups in either series References
or parallel mode, to match varying flow and pressure ratio [1] NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, “Petroleum And Natu-
demand conditions. This arrangement was initially built for ral Gas Industries – Materials For Use In H2S-Containing
gas storage applications, but it proved to be a feature that Environments In Oil And Gas Production, NACE Interna-
increased the versatility of the C16 compressor in other ap- tional, 2009.
plications as well. [2] API 617, “Axial And Centrifugal Compressors And
The Centaur gas turbine was introduced in 1968 and re- Expander–Compressors,” Eighth Edition, American Petro-
quired a 4000 hp (2983 kW), 15,000 rpm-capable compressor. leum Institute, 2014.

MAY 2015 95 Compressortech2

 C ornerstones Of Compression

n The first centrifugal compressor from Solar Turbines was installed at Trunkline
Gas Company’s Independence Compressor Station in Coldwater, Mississippi. The
model C165 was shipped in 1961, packaged with a Saturn gas turbine.

Standard Gas Turbine-Driven Centrifugal

Compressor Packages >centrifugal
Solar Turbines developed
compressors to
match each new turbine model
By Norm Shade

S
olar Turbines entered the industrial gas turbine
market in the late 1950s with the introduction of the
Saturn. The company’s leaders realized that its gas
turbine had definite commercial potential because it was far
smaller, lighter in weight, more reliable and easier to main-
tain than the large, low-speed reciprocating engines that
were traditionally used for industrial applications.
Solar recognized that to win over customers from recip-
rocating equipment, the company would have to offer fully
factory-assembled-and-tested turbomachinery packages. In
addition to generator set applications, Solar began applying
the Saturn for oilfield mud pump drives, running at 26,000 rpm.
The management team also recognized an opportunity to
participate in the gas compression market. The Saturn’s
output was rated at 1000 to 1100 hp (745 to 820 kW) by
then, which was a significant size for gas compression, but
its rated speed of 22,300 rpm did not match any centrifugal
compressor on the market. Adding a speed-reducing gear-
box was not a great alternative, because it added cost and
complexity and required a longer, heavier skid.
As a result, Solar decided to develop its own centrifugal
compressor that matched the Saturn and could be direct-­
driven, hiring several experienced centrifugal compressor de-
signers. The engineers used the aerospace design method of
a built-up rotor that could be assembled and reconfigured in
the field. The modular built-up rotor still remains a feature of
Solar Turbines’ centrifugal compressors, enabling field restag-
ing of compressors with a few tools and minimal downtime.
To remain in the specific speed range where efficiency is
optimal, Solar mechanical engineers chose a 7 in. (178 mm)
impeller tip diameter. The first compressor casing was de-
signed to accommodate five impellers, or stages, to han-
dle pipeline pressures that averaged 1000 psig (69 bar) at
the time, though the compressor was built for 1500 psig

MAY 2015 96 Compressortech2

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