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A theory is a statement of how and why processes work or the world operates.

Within sociology,
theories attempt to explain why groups of people choose to perform certain actions and how societies
function or change in a certain way.

It's important for social sciences, like psychology, economics, and sociology, to follow theoretical
perspectives as a framework for understanding phenomena, such as the ways people form groups.

Theories help us see overall themes across many specific types of behaviors or decisions in the social
world.

Structural-Functional Theory
Our first theory is called structural-functional theory. This approach views society as a
complex, but interconnected system, where each part works together as a functional whole. A
metaphor for the structural-functional approach is the human body. You have arms, legs, a heart,
a brain, and so on. Each individual body part has its own neurons and system for working, but
each part has to work together for a fully-functioning structure, or system. What are the different
structures, or systems, in society? You can probably think of the government, businesses,
schools, and families. We need all of these systems to work together for a fully-functioning
society.

Social Conflict
The second major theoretical perspective in sociology is called social conflict theory. This
theory views society as a system of groups that are not equal, and therefore consistently generate
conflict and change. Think back to that example from the beginning of the lesson with the
different groups of students in school.

Feminism
Theory three out of four is feminism. Feminism is often misunderstood as coming from a group
of angry women who are trying to dominate men. That is not what feminism is! Understood
correctly, feminism is a perspective that views society as traditionally unequal between men and
women and strives for equality between the sexes.

Structural-Functional
The structural-functional perspective views society as a complex system that has singular parts
within that system that work together to meet individuals' needs. According to this perspective,
social structures meet social needs. These structures promote stability and cohesion necessary for
society to exist over time.
Within the structural-functional perspective, there are three differing theories of aging:

1. The disengagement theory


2. The activity theory
3. The continuity theory

The disengagement theory of aging, developed by Cummings and Henry in the late 1950s,
proposes that as people grow older and realize death is near, they begin to disengage from their
previously held social roles in society. In return, society recognizes the inevitable and prepares to
function in the absence of that individual.

The theory proposes:

 That it is rational for aging populations to disengage because they have witnessed friends of
their age die and they begin to anticipate their own death.
 That men and women disengage from society in different ways. Traditionally, men have a larger
impact through their careers and women have a larger impact on societies that are socio-
emotional in nature. As people age and retire, they lose skills and knowledge they gained by
being part of the workforce and lose credibility and/or respect on a personal level in family and
friend relationships.

In response to the disengagement theory, Robert J Havighurst developed another aging theory,
the activity theory. The activity theory claims that staying mentally and physically active will
increase happiness among older adults. He argued that instead of an elderly person disengaging
from their community, they should remain active and social. These active lifestyles allow aging
populations to socialize with others, which increases feelings of self-worth and pleasure that are
both important for life longevity.

The continuity theory states that aging adults will usually maintain the same activities,
behaviors, personality traits, and relationships as they did in the earlier years of life. They
maintain both:

 Internal structures, such as personality traits, ideas, and beliefs


 External structures, such as relationships and social roles

The theory is criticized for not considering the influence chronic diseases, such as Alzheimer's or
cancer, may have on the aging person that may not be able to maintain social roles or
relationships.

Symbolic-Interaction
The symbolic interaction perspective proposes that age is socially constructed and determined
by symbols resembling social interactions. This perspective does not have associated theories,
but it does propose:

 While aging itself is a biological process, being deemed old or young is a social construction.
 Culture attaches meanings and certain behaviors to age groups. For example, an elderly person
engaging in a dangerous activity, such as rock climbing, may be deemed inappropriate, but the
same activity would be appropriate for someone younger.
 Aging is viewed differently in different cultures. For example, in most eastern cultures age is
associated with wisdom, but in Western cultures, aging is viewed in a more negative light. Many
people in Western cultures attempt to hide their physical age with plastic surgery or makeup.

Social-Conflict
The social-conflict perspective emphasizes competition between differing age groups.
Competition, in this perspective, means competition for jobs, money and power.

Theory

 Positivism.
 Antipositivism.
 Postpositivism.
 Functionalism.
 Conflict theories.
 Social constructionism.
 Structuralism.
 Interactionism.

Much of what we know about societies, relationships, and social behavior has emerged thanks to
various sociology theories. Sociology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these
different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted,
but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of society, relationships, and social
behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding
of sociology's past, present, and future.

1. Symbolic Interaction Theory

The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework
of sociological theory. This perspective focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop
and rely upon in the process of social interaction. More »

2. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This
perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups
that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with
power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources. More »
3. Functionalist Theory

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical
perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially
interested in how social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable. More »

4. Feminist Theory

Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status
of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better women's lives.
Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various
ways women have contributed to society. More »

5. Critical Theory

Critical Theory is a type of theory that aims to critique society, social structures, and systems of
power, and to foster egalitarian social change. More »

Chris Ryan/Getty Images

6. Labeling Theory

Labeling theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and criminal
behavior. It begins with the assumption that no act is intrinsically criminal. Definitions of
criminality are established by those in power through the formulation of laws and the
interpretation of those laws by police, courts, and correctional institutions. More »

Fran May/Getty Images

7. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the
development of the self. It looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self, and the
influence of society in socializing individuals. Social learning theory is commonly used by
sociologists to explain deviance and crime. More »
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8. Structural Strain Theory

Robert K. Merton developed structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist


perspective on deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused
by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have available to achieve those goals.
More »

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9. Rational Choice Theory

Economics plays a huge role in human behavior. That is, people are often motivated by money
and the possibility of making a profit, calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action
before deciding what to do. This way of thinking is called rational choice theory. More »

Martin Mistretta/Getty Images

10. Game Theory

Game theory is a theory of social interaction, which attempts to explain the interaction people
have with one another. As the name of the theory suggests, game theory sees human interaction
as just that: a game. More »

Theories of Ageing
There are different sociological theories studying ageing as a process and its impact on the
people and society as a whole.

Functionalism

The earliest theories of ageing reflected the functionalist approach that was dominant in
sociology during the 1950s and '60s. They emphasized how individuals adjusted to changing
social roles as they aged and how those roles were useful to society.

The earliest theories often assumed that ageing brings with it physical and psychological
decline and that changing social roles have to take this decline into account (Hendricks 1992).

The American sociologist Talcott Parsons argued that society need to find roles for older people
consistent with advanced age. He expressed concern that the USA, in particular, with its
emphasis on youth and its avoidance of the subject of death, had failed to provide roles that
adequately drew on the potential wisdom and maturity of its older citizens.

Moreover, given the greying of society that was evident even at that time, Parsons argued that
this failure could well lead to older people becoming discouraged and alienated from society.

Structural Functional Theory

Based on the ideas of Talcott Parsons, Elaine Cumming and William Henry (1961) explain that
the physical decline and death that accompany aging can disrupt society. In response, society
disengages the elderly, gradually transferring statuses and roles from the old to the young so that
tasks are performed with minimal interruption. Disengagement theory is the idea that society
functions in an orderly way by removing people from positions of responsibility as they reach
old age.

Disengagement ensures the orderly operation of society by removing aging people from
productive roles before they are no longer able to perform them. Another benefit of
disengagement in a rapidly changing society is that it makes room for young workers, who
typically have the most up-to-date skills and training. Disengagement provides benefits to aging
people as well as most people begin to think about retirement and perhaps cut back a bit on their
workload. Exactly when people begin to disengage from their careers, of course, depends on
their health, enjoyment of the job, and financial situation.

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Based on the symbolic-interaction approach, activity theory is the idea that a high level of
activity increases personal satisfaction in old age. Because everyone bases social identity on
many roles, disengagement is bound to reduce satisfaction and meaning in the lives of older
people. What seniors need is not to be pushed out of roles but to have many productive or
recreational options.

Activity theory does not reject the idea of job disengagement; it simply says that people need
to find new roles to replace those they leave behind. Research confirms that elderly people who
maintain a high activity level find the most satisfaction in their lives. Activity theory also
recognizes that the elderly are diverse with a variety of interests, needs, and physical abilities.
For this reason, the activities that people choose and the pace at which they pursue them are
always an individual matter.

Social Conflict Theory

A social-conflict analysis is based on the idea that access to opportunities and social resources
differs for people in different age categories. For this reason, age is a dimension of social
stratification. The social-conflict approach claims that our industrial-capitalist economy creates
an age-based hierarchy. As per Marxist thought, Steven Spitzer (1980) points out that a profit-
oriented society devalues any category of people that is less productive.
To the extent that older people do not work, our society labels them as mildly deviant. Social-
conflict analysis also draws attention to various dimensions of social inequality within the
elderly population. Differences of class, race, ethnicity, and gender divide older people as they
do everyone else.

Political Economy Theory

One of the most important strands in the study of ageing in recent years has been the political
economy perspective pioneered by Carroll Estes. Political economy theory provides an account
of the role of the state and capitalism as contributing to systems of domination and
marginalization of older people.

Political economy theory focuses on the role of economic and political systems in shaping and
reproducing the prevailing power arrangements and inequalities in society. Social policy in
income, health or social security, for example is understood as the result of social struggles,
conflicts and the dominant power relations of the time. Policy affecting older people reflects the
stratification of society by gender, race and class.

As such, the phenomena of ageing and old age are directly related to the larger society in
which they are situated and cannot be considered in isolation from the other social forces (Estes
and Minkler 1991; Estes et al. 2003).

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