UNIT-II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Syllabus

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
–Phase Shift Keying (PSK) – BPSK – QPSK – 8 PSK – 16 PSK - Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM) – 8 QAM – 16 QAM – Bandwidth Efficiency– Comparison of various
Digital Communication System (ASK – FSK – PSK – QAM).

Digital Modulation

Digital modulation is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals (carriers)

betweentwo or more points in a communications system. Digital modulation is sometimescalled
digital radio because digitally modulated signals can be propagated through Earth’satmosphere
and used in wireless communications systems.
The property that distinguishes digital radio systems from conventional
analogmodulationcommunications systems is the nature of the modulating signal. Both
analogand digital modulation systems use analog carriers to transport the information through
thesystem. However, with analog modulation systems, the information signal is also
analog,whereas with digital modulation, the information signal is digital, which could be
computergenerateddata or digitally encoded analog signals.
Referring to Equation , if the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) ofthe
carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated signalcalled
amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied proportionalto the
information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and if the phase of thecarrier (θ) is
varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.If both the
amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to the information signal,quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are allforms of digital modulation:

Applications:
(1) relativelylow-speed voice-band data communications modems, such as those found in most
personal computers;
(2) high-speed data transmission systems, such as broadband digital
subscriber lines (DSL);
(3) digital microwave and satellite communications systems; and
(4) cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems (PCS).

General Block diagram

Figure shows a simplified block diagram for a digital modulation system. In thetransmitter, the
precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the incoming datainto groups of bits that
modulate an analog carrier. The modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then
transmitted through the transmission medium to the receiver.The transmission medium can be a
metallic cable, optical fiber cable, Earth’s atmosphere,or a combination of two or more types of
transmission systems. In the receiver, the incomingsignals are filtered, amplified, and then
applied to the demodulator and decodercircuits, which extracts the original source information
from the modulated carrier. Theclock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog carrier and
digital timing (clock)signals from the incoming modulated wave since they are necessary to
perform the demodulationprocess.

AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a
binaryinformation signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similarto
standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible.Amplitude-
shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM).
Mathematically,amplitude-shift keying is

wherevask(t) =amplitude-shift keying wave

vm(t) =digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 =unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc=analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2πfct)
the modulating signal (vm[t]) is a normalized binary waveform, where +1V = logic 1 and -1 V =
logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) =1 V, Equation =reducesto

and for a logic 0 input, vm(t) =-1 V, Equation reduces to

Thus, the modulated wave vask(t), is either A cos(ωct) or 0. Hence, the carrier is either “on”
or“off,” which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying
(OOK).

Figure shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator. From thefigure, it can be
seen that for every change in the input binary data stream, there is onechange in the ASK
waveform, and the time of one bit (tb) equals the time of one analog signalingelement (ts). It is
also important to note that for the entire time the binary input is high,the output is a constant-
amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the entire time the binaryinput is low, the carrier is
off. The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit rate and the timeof one signaling element is the
reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rate of change of theASK waveform (baud) is the same as
the rate of change of the binary input (bps); thus, thebit rate equals the baud.With ASK, the bit
rate is also equal to the minimum Nyquist bandwidth

FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low-performance type of
digitalmodulation. FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard
frequency
modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies betweentwo discrete
voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform. Consequently,FSK is
sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The general expression for FSK is

wherevfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc= peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc= analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
∆f =peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)It can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier
frequency (∆f) isproportional to the amplitude of the binary input signal (vm[t]), and the direction
of the shift .is determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized binary
waveformwhere a logic 1 =+1 V and a logic 0=-1 V. Thus, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) =+1,
equationcan be rewritten as

For a logic 0 input, vm(t) = -1, Equation becomes

With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up and downin the
frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in Figure

As the binary inputsignal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency
shifts betweentwo frequencies: a mark, or logic 1 frequency (fm), and a space, or logic 0
frequency(fs). The mark and space frequencies are separated from the carrier frequency by the
peakfrequency deviation (∆f) and from each other by 2∆f.
With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the markor space
frequency and the center frequency, or half the difference between the mark andspace
frequencies. Frequency deviation is illustrated in Figure 3 and expressed mathematicallyas

where∆f= frequency deviation (hertz)

|fm-fs| = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (hertz)

Figure a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the corresponding
FSK output.As the figure shows, when the binary input (fb) changes from a logic1 to a logic 0
and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shifts from a mark (fm) to a space (fs)frequency and
vice versa. In Figure 4a, the mark frequency is the higher frequency (fc+∆f), and the space
frequency is the lower frequency (fc-∆f), although this relationship couldbe just the opposite.
Figure b shows the truth table for a binary FSK modulator. The truthtable shows the input and
output possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme.

FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

It can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the time the FSK outputis a mark
of space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK signalingelement, and the
bit rate equals the baud
The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N =1

FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation,The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given
as

and since |fs-fm| equals 2∆f, the minimum bandwidth can be approximated asB =2(∆f +fb)
where B =minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
∆f =frequency deviation (|fm _ fs|) (hertz)
fb= input bit rate (bps)
Note how closely the above Equation resembles Carson’s rule for determining the
approximatebandwidth for an FM wave. The only difference in the two equations is that, for
FSK,the bit rate (fb) is substituted for the modulating-signal frequency (fm).

Bessel functions can also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth for anFSK wave. As
shown in Figure the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental frequency)in a non-return-to-
zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when alternating 1s and 0s are occurring(i.e., a square wave).
Since it takes a high and a low to produce a cycle, the highest fundamentalfrequency present in a
square wave equals the repetition rate of the square wave,which with a binary signal is equal to
half the bit rate.
Therefore

wherefa= highest fundamental frequency of the binary input signal (hertz)

fb= input bit rate (bps)The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for
FSK; thus,

where h =FM modulation index called the h-factor in FSK

fa=fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal (hertz)
∆f = peak frequency deviation (hertz)

The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the widest bandwidth.The
worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both the frequency deviation andthe modulating-
signal frequency are at their maximum values. As described earlier, thepeak frequency deviation
in FSK is constant and always at its maximum value, and thehighest fundamental frequency is
equal to half the incoming bit rate. Thus,

FSK transmitter

Figure shows a simplified binary FSK modulator, which is very similar to a conventionalFM
modulator and is very often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The center frequency(fc) is
chosen such that it falls halfway between the mark and space frequencies. Alogic 1 input shifts
the VCO output to the mark frequency, and a logic 0 input shifts the VCOoutput to the
spacefrequency. Consequently, as the binary input signal changes back andforth between logic 1
and logic 0 conditions, the VCO output shifts or deviates back andforth between the mark and
space frequencies.

In a binary FSK modulator, ∆f is the peak frequency deviation of the carrier and isequal
to the difference between the carrier rest frequency and either the mark or the spacefrequency (or
half the difference between the carrier rest frequency) and either the mark orthe space frequency
(or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies).AVCOFSKmodulator can be
operated in the sweep mode where the peak frequency deviation issimply the product of the
binary input voltage and the deviation sensitivity of theVCO.Withthe sweep mode of
modulation, the frequency deviation is expressed mathematically as
∆f =vm(t)k1
where∆f = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
vm(t) =peak binary modulating-signal voltage (volts)
k1=deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt).
With binary FSK, the amplitude of the input signal can only be one of two values, onefor a logic
1 condition and one for a logic 0 condition. Therefore, the peak frequency deviationis constant
and always at its maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply plus orminus the peak voltage
of the binary signal times the deviation sensitivity of the VCO. Sincethe peak voltage is the same
for a logic 1 as it is for a logic 0, the magnitude of the frequencydeviation is also the same for a
logic 1 as it is for a logic 0.

FSK receivers
Noncoherent FSK demodulator
FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit such as the one shown in Figure 7. TheFSK
input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both bandpass filters (BPFs)through a
power splitter. The respective filter passes only the mark or only the space frequencyon to its
respective envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in turn, indicate thetotal power in each
passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the two powers.This type of FSK
detection is referred to as noncoherent detection; there is no frequencyinvolved in the
demodulation process that is synchronized either in phase, frequency, orboth with the incoming
FSK signal
Coherent FSK demodulator
Figure 8 shows the block diagram for a coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK signalis
multiplied by a recovered carrier signal that has the exact same frequency and phase asthe
transmitter reference. However, the two transmitted frequencies (the mark and space
frequencies)are not generally continuous; it is not practical to reproduce a local reference thatis
coherent with both of them. Consequently, coherent FSK detection is seldom used

PLL FSK Demodulator

The most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals is the phaselockedloop
(PLL), which is shown in block diagram form in Figure 9. A PLL-FSK demodulatorworks
similarly to a PLL-FM demodulator. As the input to the PLL shifts betweenthe mark and space
frequencies, the dc error voltage at the output of the phasecomparator follows the frequency
shift. Because there are only two input frequencies (markand space), there are also only two
output error voltages. One represents a logic 1 and theother a logic 0. Therefore, the output is a
two-level (binary) representation of the FSK input.Generally, the natural frequency of the PLL is
made equal to the center frequency ofthe FSK modulator. As a result, the changes in the dc error
voltage follow the changes inthe analog input frequency and are symmetrical around 0 V.
PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude
digitalmodulation. PSK is an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional
phasemodulation except with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited
numberof output phases possible. The input binary information is encoded into groups of
bitsbefore modulating the carrier. The number of bits in a group ranges from 1 to 12 or more.The
number of output phases is defined by M and determined bythe number of bits in the group (N).

Binary Phase-Shift Keying

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and M
=2.Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (21= 2) are possible for the carrier. One phase representsa
logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0. As the input digital signal changesstate (i.e.,
from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts betweentwo angles that
are separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal keying(PRK) and
biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation of acontinuous wave (CW)
signal.
BPSK transmitter
Figure shows a simplified block diagram of a BPSKtransmitter. The balanced modulator acts as
a phase reversing switchDepending on thelogic condition of the digital input, the carrier
istransferred to the output either in phase or180° out of phase with the reference carrier oscillator

Balanced Ring Modulator

Figure shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator. The balancedmodulator has
two inputs: a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator and the binarydigital data. For
the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input voltagemust be much greater than
the peak carrier voltage. This ensures that the digital input controlsthe on/off state of diodes D1
to D4. If the binary input is a logic 1 (positive voltage),diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and
on, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biasedand off (Figure b). With the polarities shown, the
carrier voltage is developed acrosstransformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across T1.
Consequently, the output signalis in phase with the reference oscillator.If the binary input is a
logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biasedand off, while diodes D3 and D4
are forward biased and on (Figure 13c). As a result, the carriervoltage is developed across
transformer T2 180° out of phase with the carrier voltageacross T1. Consequently, the output
signal is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator.
Following Figure shows the truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a
BPSK modulator. A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal state-space
diagram, issimilar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn. In a
constellation diagram,only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown.

Bandwidth considerations of BPSK

A balanced modulator is a productmodulator; the output signal is the product of the two input
signals. In a BPSK modulator,the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data. If +1 V is
assigned to a logic 1 and -1 V is assigned to a logic 0, the input carrier (sin ωct) is multiplied by
either +1or -1.Consequently, the output signal is either +sinωct or -sinωct; the first represents a
signalthat is in phase with the reference oscillator, the latter a signal that is 180° out of phasewith
the reference oscillator. Each time the input logic condition changes, the output phasechanges.
Consequently, for BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to the input rateof change
(bps), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are an
alternating 1/0 sequence. The fundamental frequency ( fa) of an alternative 1/0 bit sequenceis
equal to one-half of the bit rate ( fb/2). Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulatoris
proportional to
BPSK output = [sin(2πfat)] x [sin(2πfct)]
wherefa=maximum fundamental frequency of binary input (hertz)
fc= reference carrier frequency (hertz)

where B is the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth.

It can also be seen that the time ofone BPSK signaling element (ts) is equal to the
time of one information bit (tb), which indicatesthat the bit rate equals the baud.

BPSK receiver.

Figure shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver. Theinput signal may be +sin ωct or -sin
ωct. The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects andregenerates a carrier signal that is both
frequency and phase coherent with the originaltransmit carrier. The balanced modulator is a
product detector; the output is the product ofthe two inputs (the BPSK signal and the recovered
carrier). The low-pass filter (LPF) separatesthe recovered binary data from the complex
demodulated signal.
Mathematically, thedemodulation process is as follows.
For a BPSK input signal of +sin ωct (logic 1), the output of the balanced modulator is
output=+(sin ωct)(sin ωct) =sin2ωct

It can be seen that the output of the balanced modulator contains a positive voltage(+[1/2]V) and
a cosine wave at twice the carrier frequency (2ωc) The LPF has a cutoff frequencymuch lower
than 2ωc and, thus, blocks the second harmonic of the carrier andpasses only the positive
constant component. A positive voltage represents a demodulatedlogic 1.

The output of the balanced modulator contains a negative voltage (-[1/2]V) and acosine wave at
twice the carrier frequency (2ωc). Again, the LPF blocks the second harmonicof the carrier and
passes only the negative constant component. A negative voltagerepresents a demodulated logic
0.
Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying
QPSK
Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is
anotherform of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-
aryencoding scheme where N =2 and M=4 (hence, the name “quaternary” meaning “4”).With
QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. Because thereare four
output phases, there must be four different input conditions. Because the digital inputto a QPSK
modulator is a binary (base 2) signal, to produce four different input combinations,the modulator
requires more than a single input bit to determine the output condition.With two bits, there are
four possible conditions: 00, 01, 10, and 11. Therefore, withQPSK, the binary input data are
combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. In the modulator,eachdibit code generates one of
the four possible output phases (+45°, +135°,-45°, and -135°). Therefore, for each two-bit dibit
clocked into the modulator, a singleoutput change occurs, and the rate of change at the output
(baud) is equal to one-half theinput bit rate (i.e., two input bits produce one output phase
change).

QPSK Transmitter
A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in Figure 17. Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into
the bit splitter. After both bits have been serially inputted, they are simultaneously parallel
outputted. One bit is directed to the I channel and the other to the Q channel. The I bit modulates
a carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator (hence the name “I” for “in phase”
channel), and the Q bit modulates a carrier that is 90° out of phase or in quadrature with the
reference carrier (hence the name “Q” for “quadrature” channel).It can be seen that once a dibit
has been split into the I and Q channels, the operationis the same as in a BPSK modulator.
Essentially, a QPSK modulator is two BPSK modulatorscombined in parallel. Again, for a logic
1 = 1 V and a logic 0 =-1 V, two phases are possible at the output of the I balanced modulator
(+sin ωctand -sin ωct), and two phases are possible at the output of the Q balanced modulator
(+cosωctand -cosωct).When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase)
signals, thereare four possible resultant phasors given by these expressions: +sin ωct+cosωct,
+sinωct-cosωct, -sin ωct+cosωct, and -sin ωct-cosωct.

In Figures 18b and c, it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four possible outputphasors has
exactly the same amplitude. Therefore, the binary information must be encodedentirely in the
phase of the output signal. This constant amplitude characteristic is the mostimportant
characteristic of PSK that distinguishes it from QAM, which is explained later inthis chapter.
Also, from Figure 18b, it can be seen that the angular separation between anytwo adjacent
phasors in QPSK is 90°. Therefore, a QPSK signal can undergo almost a _45°or _45° shift in
phase during transmission and still retain the correct encoded informationwhen demodulated at
the receiver
Bandwidth considerations of QPSK.
With QPSK, because the input data aredivided into two channels, the bit rate in either the I or the
Q channel is equal to one-half ofthe input data rate (fb/2). (Essentially, the bit splitter stretches
the I and Q bits to twice theirinput bit length.) Consequently, the highest fundamental frequency
present at the data inputto the I or the Q balanced modulator is equal to one-fourth of the input
data rate (one-half offb/2 =fb/4). As a result, the output of the I and Q balanced modulators
requires a minimumdouble-sided Nyquist bandwidth equal to one-half of the incoming bit rate
(fN=twice fb/4=fb/2). Thus, with QPSK, a bandwidth compression is realized (the minimum
bandwidth isless than the incoming bit rate). Also, because the QPSK output signal does not
change phaseuntil two bits (a dibit) have been clocked into the bit splitter, the fastest output rate
of change(baud) is also equal to one-half of the input bit rate. As with BPSK, the minimum
bandwidthand the baud are equal
it can be seen that the worse-case input condition to the I or Q balancedmodulator is an
alternative 1/0 pattern, which occurs when the binary input data have a1100 repetitive pattern.
One cycle of the fastest binary transition (a 1/0 sequence) in the Ior Q channel takes the same
time as four input data bits. Consequently, the highest fundamentalfrequency at the input and
fastest rate of change at the output of the balanced modulatorsis equal to one-fourth of the binary
input bit rate.

QPSK Receiver
The block diagram of a QPSK receiver is shown in FigureThe power splitter directs the input
QPSK signal to the I and Q product detectors andthe carrier recovery circuit. The carrier
recovery circuit reproduces the original transmitcarrier oscillator signal. The recovered carrier
must be frequency and phase coherent withthe transmit reference carrier. The QPSK signal is
demodulated in the I and Q product detectorswhich generate the original I and Q data bits. The
outputs of the product detectorsare fed to the bit combining circuit, where they are converted
from parallel I and Q datachannels to a single binary output data stream.The incoming QPSK
signal may be any one of the four possible output phases shownin Figure 18. To illustrate the
demodulation process, let the incoming QPSK signal be-sinωct+cosωct. Mathematically, the
demodulation process is as follows.