Materials of Construction

Syllabus BPSC
Bricks, Lime, Cement, Aggregate, Cast Iron and Steel, Non ferrous materials, Timber, paints
and miscellaneous engineering materials, Testing of Engineering materials Considerations in
construction of masonry floors and walls.
BRICKS
Bricks are an important construction material for construction of walls. For this good quality of clay
shall be used & uniformly burnt in kilns. The maximum water absorption after 24 hours immersion
in water shall be 20% for 1st class, 22% for 2nd class & 25% for 3rd class bricks. The minimum
compressive strength shall be 35 kg/cm2. If struck with hard substance it shall give ringing
sound.Brick when thrown from 1 meter height on ground shall not break or crack.
Types of Bricks.
1) Conventional bricks or traditional bricks:
The conventional bricks are the bricks which are not standardized in size. The
dimensions of conventional bricks vary from 21 to 25 cm in length, 10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5
cm in height in different parts of country. The commonly accepted normal size of a conventional
brick is (23 X 11.4 X 7.6) cm.
2) Standard bricks or modular bricks:
Indian Standard Institution (ISI) has set up the standard size of the brick. Such a brick is known as
modular brick or standard brick. The normal size of modular brick is taken as (20 X 10 X 10) cm.
But its actual dimensions are (19 X 9 X 9) cm.
Brick Sizes
 Standard / Actual /Modular size 19 × 9 × 9 cm.
 Nominal size (with mortar) 20 × 10 × 10 cm.
 Brick length = (2B+ t), Here B= breadth, t = thickness of mortar
• Ingredients of bricks.
1) Alumina (Al2O3) (20-30%) - It gives the plasticity to the clay.
2) Silica (SiO2) (50-60%) - It prevents cracking, shrinking of the raw bricks.
3) Lime (CaO) (5%) - It stops the shrinkage of raw bricks and acts as a flux.
4) Magnesia (MgO) - It gives yellow tint to the bricks and reduces shrinkage.
5) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) (5-6%) - It gives the red colour to the bricks.
• Functions of Ingredients of bricks.
1) Alumina – It gives the plasticity to the clay.
An excess amount of alumina in clay may cause the bricks to shrink, warp or
crack on drying and burning as any other cementing material.
2) Silica –Silica prevents raw bricks from cracking, shrinking and warping. The
higher the proportion of sand, the more and shapely and uniform in texture will be
the brick. Although, excess silica destroys cohesion between the brick clay
particles and makes brick brittle and weak.
3) Lime – Bricks should contain a little amount of finely powdered lime. It enables
silica (of a required portion) to melt at the furnace temperature of 1650 oC and
binds the particles of brick together resulting in strong and durable bricks. At
about 1100o C, lime acts as a catalyst to elevate the furnace temperature to
1650oC at which silica fuses. This slightly fused silica works as a strong
 cementing material. Excess lime in brick clay will cause verification of bricks. It
causes bricks to melt, as more than the required amount of silica will fuse. The
bricks then lose their shape and become disfigured.
4) Magnesia – A small proportion of magnesium decreases shrinkage and gives a
yellow tint to the bricks. An excess amount of it causes bricks to decay.
5) Iron oxide –Iron Oxide acts a flux like lime, thus helps silica to fuse at low
temperature. It imparts a red colour to bricks upon burning. Iron also increases
the durability and impermeability of the bricks.
Harmful Ingredients of bricks.
1) Lime stone: It causes bricks to split into pieces or unsoundness.
2) Alkalis: It affects the overall appearance of the building as it causes ‘efflorescence’.
3) Iron pyrites: It causes decomposition of bricks.
4) Pebbles: It breaks the uniformity of bricks. Brick becomes porous and weak.
5) Organic matter or vegetation: Due to the presence of this, brick becomes more porous.
.
Manufacture processes of bricks.

1. Preparation of clay: It involves

1) Unsoiling:
Unsoiling is the process in which the top layer of soil, about 20 cm in depth, is taken out and
thrown away as it contains impurities.
2) Digging:
After removing top soil, the clay is then dug out from the ground.
3) Weathering:
The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening or mellowing.
4) Blending:
Different is ingredient to be added to it and spread out at its top. The mass is then mixed
uniformly with spades.
5) Tempering:
Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to make the mass stiff and plastic.
Pug mills are used for tempering.
2. Moulding:
Moulding

Hand moulding Machine moulding

1. Ground Moulding 1.Plastic clay machines
2. Table Moulding 2. Dry clay machine
  Frog – Size of frog 10 × 4 × 1 or 2 cm.
 Mould– Kept greater than 10% of brick size due to shrinkage
3. Drying: It may be by natural drying or by artificial drying.
4. Burning: Burning of bricks at temp. Of 11000c is done in a clamp or kiln.
Clamp Burning:
Clamp is a temporary structure generally constructed over the ground with a height of about 4
to 6 m. It is employed when the demand of the bricks is lower scale and when it is not a
monsoon season.
Kiln Burning:
Kiln is a large oven used for the burning of bricks. Generally coal and other locally available
materials like wood, cow dung etc can be used as fuel. They are of two types:
(a) Intermittent Kilns.
(b) Continuous Kilns.
Intermittent Kilns-It is periodic kind of kilns, because in such kilns only one process can take
place at one time. Various major processes which take place in the kilns are:
Loading, unloading, cooling, and burning of bricks.
There are two kind of intermittent kilns:
(1) Up-draught Intermittent Kilns
(2) Down draught Intermittent Kilns
Down draught kilns are more efficient because the heat is utilized more by moving the hot gases in
the larger area of the kiln. In up-draught kilns the hot gases are released after they rise up to
chimney entrance.
Continuous Kilns- These kilns are called continuous because all the processes of loading,
unloading, cooling, heating, pre-heating take place simultaneously. They are used when the bricks
are demanded in larger scale and in short time. Bricks burning are completed in one day, so it is a
fast method of burning. There are three well known continuous kilns:
Bull’s trench kiln, Hoffman’s kiln and Tunnel kilns
Classification of Bricks
A. 1st class bricks: These bricks are well burnt, rectangular with sharp edges. It is used for
better work.
B. 2nd class bricks: These bricks are well burnt, but they are having irregular shape. It is used
for ordinary structure.
C. 3rd class bricks: These bricks are under burnt, its surface is rough. It is used for temporary
structure and the places where rainfall is not heavy.
D. 4th class bricks: These are over burnt bricks having irregular surface. It is used as
aggregates for concrete in foundation. Its strength is 40 MPa
The specifications of first, second and third class brick as under.

1st class brick 2nd class brick 3rd class brick

i. Table moulded and wire i. Table moulded is not i. The colour may
cut. necessary. be dull red or
ii. It should have edges and ii. No Pug mill even reddish
parallel faces. Tempering yellow, provided
iii. Ringing sound on stuck. iii. Clamps burning. it is not under
iv. If soaked in water for 24 iv. Slightly over burnt brunt.
hrs. It should not absorb v. It should not absorb ii. It should not
water 20% more than its water more than 22% absorb water
dry weight. vi. Compressive more than 25%
v. If thrown on the hard strength of the brick iii. Compressive
surface or against other shall be 70 kg / cm2 strength of the
 brick it should not break on loading 140 brick shall be 35
easily. kg\cm2 / minute kg / cm2.
vi. The standard size of vii. Remaining iv. Dull sound on
brick shall be 19 x 9 x 9 specifications shall stuck..
cm. Or 9’’ x 4½’’ x 2 ¾’’. be as per 1st sort
vii. The minimum com. bricks.
strength of the brick shall
be 105 kg / cm2.
viii. Pug mill Tempering only
ix. Kilns burning only.

Types of Special bricks are also available in markets:

(1) High duty bricks;
(2) Perforated bricks;
(3) Hollow bricks;
(4) Specially shaped bricks;
(5) Fire clay bricks;
(6) Paving bricks;
(7) Facing bricks;
(8) Soling bricks;
(9) Sewer bricks.
Tests on Bricks
1. Field tests:
1) Shape & size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform in size.
This check is made in the field by observation.
2) Colour: A good brick will have uniform deep red or cherry colour.
3) Structure: Few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section is observed. The
section should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps.
4) Sound test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing
sound. The sound should not be dull.
5) Hardness test: Scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is marked on the surface, the
brick is sufficiently hard.
6) Toughness test: by dropping from a height of 1 m.
2. Laboratory tests:
a) Compressive strength test. By Is code 3495 part 1
b) Water Absorption test. By Is code 3495 part 2
c) Efflorescence test. By Is code 3495 part 3
d) Shape and size (warp age) test. By Is code 3495 part 4
Defects on bricks
e) Bloating-
f) Chuffs- The deformation of the shape of brick cause by the rain water falling on hot.
g) Blisters-
h) Efflorescence -
i) Over burnt-
j) Under burnt-
IS codes used for bricks
a) Classification of Bricks - Is 1077 and IS 3102.
b) Heavy duty bricks - Is 2108
c) Perforated bricks - Is 2222
d) Paving bricks - Is 3583
e) Soling bricks - Is 5779
f) Hollow bricks - Is 3952
LIME
Lime has been used as cementing material from ancient times. It contains clay (8 to
10%), magnesium carbonate (not more than 30%) and very small quantities of soluble
silica, alkalies, sulphate and iron apart from the main constituent calcium carbonate.
The removal of mixture& carbon dioxide by the calcinations of lime stone is known
as lime
Heating

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Calcinations
Manufacture of lime involves preparation, burning and hydration (slaking). For burning
clamps or kilns are used. The kiln may be intermittent or continuous.

Properties of lime –
1) Lime possesses good plasticity properties
2) It stiffens easily
3) It has excellent cementing properties
4) It shrinks on drying
5) For hydraulic lime, expansion in 'Le Chateliar' moulds shall not exceed 10 mm.
6) For hydraulic lime, minimum compressive strength of 1: 3 lime sand mortar after 14 days
shall be 12.5 kg. per cm2 and after 28 days, 17.5 kg. per cm2.
Uses of lime –
1) It is used for white washing
2) It can be used as a binding material in mortar and concrete.
3) It is also used for preparation of lime sand bricks
4) It is also used as mortar in masonry works
5) It is used as refractory materials
6) It is also used for making cement.
7) It is used for soil stabilization.
8) It is used for improving soils for agricultural purposes.
9) It is used for water purification and sewage treatment works.
• Lime is classified as fat lime, hydraulic lime and poor lime.
1) Fat lime – It is obtained by the calcinations of pure limestone, marble, white chalk etc
This lime is known as fat lime because it increases to 2 to 2.5 times in volume after slaking.
Properties –
a) It hardens very slowly
b) It has high degree of plasticity
c) Its setting time is slow
d) Its colour is perfectly white
e) Fat lime contains 95% of calcium oxide.
2) Hydraulic lime – Hydraulic lime is obtained by burning limestone containing lot of clay
and other substances which develop hydraulicity. Hydraulicity of this lime depends upon
the amount of clay and type of clay present in it. It is classified as
Feeble hydraulic lime (5 to 10% clay),
Moderately hydraulic lime (10 to 20% clay), and
Eminently hydraulic lime (20 to 30% clay).
Properties –
a) It sets under water
 b) Its colour is not perfectly white
c) It forms thin paste
d) It is used for making mortar to be used for plastering and in damp-proof constructions.
3) Poor lime – The above lime contains more than 30% of clay. It slakes very slowly and
does not dissolve in water. It forms a thin plastic paste with water.
Properties –
a) It sets very slowly
b) It has poor binding properties
c) Its colour is muddy white
d) It makes very poor mortar
Classification of Lime As per IS : 1973, building limes are classified as follows :
Class A - Eminently hydraulic lime used for structural purposes
Class B - Semi-hydraulic limes used for structural purposes
Class C - Fat lime used for finishing coat in plastering, white washing etc., and with
addition of pozzolanic material, for masonry mortar
Class D - Magnesium lime used for finishing coat in plastering, white washing etc.
Class E - Kankar lime used for masonry mortars
Definition of Terms
Quicklime
This type of lime is obtained by the burning or calcinations of a limestone containing large
proportions of calcium carbonate. During burning, which is done in kilns or clamps, carbon
dioxide is driven off, leaving calcium oxide, which is called Quicklime.
Hydrated Lime
This lime is a dry powder obtained by treating quicklime with sufficient quantity of water to
satisfy its chemical affinity. Pressure hydrated dolomitic lime possesses high plasticity
immediately after mixing with water. The better warehousing and handling properties of
hydrated lime in comparison with Quicklime have made it more popular. Hydrated lime is the
dominant lime product in all limes, which are used in construction. It is used both in masonry
and as gauged plaster.
Calcinations
It is the process of heating the limestone to redness in the presence of atmospheric air. During
this process carbon dioxide is driven out and calcium oxide is left as the final product.
Setting of Lime
When lime in paste form is exposed to atmosphere, it gradually hardens. This phenomenon of
hardening of lime in exposed conditions is known as setting of lime.
Hydraulicity
It is sometimes observed that lime sets in damp places or under water or in thick masonry
walls where there is no free access of air. This property of lime is known as Hydraulicity.
Hydraulicity is due to the crystallizing power of the aluminates and the silicate present in
lime.
Slaking and Hardening of Lime
1) Quick lime is heaped on a masonry / wooden platform
2) Water is sprinkled over it till lime is slaked & reduced to powder form
3) During sprinkling of water, the heap is turned over & over again till no more water is to be
added then required for the lime to convert into the powder form.
4) The slaked lime is then screened through I.S. sieve 3.35 mm
5) The final product is slaked lime.
Tests of Lime
IS: 1624–1974 specifies various tests to check the quality of lime. Properties of lime changes
on exposure to atmosphere and therefore it is desirable to check its quality at various stages
viz, after burning, slaking, during storage and before actual use. The following field tests are
carried out:
(1) Visual examination test
(2) Chemical analysis
(3) Ball test
(4) Soundness test
(5) Workability test
(6) Acid test
Visual Examination Test
This test is useful in determining the colour of lime which may be pure white, white or dirty
white. It is also helpful in knowing its state of aggregation i.e. whether it is soft, hard,
powdery or lumpy is noted. Pure white colour points to the class (lime, Lumpy state indicates
quicklime or unburnt lime stone. Porosity in appearance of lumps indicates quicklime.
Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is carried out to determine cementation value and also hydraulic properties
of lime.
The following equation may be used for determining cementation value of lime :

Where A = percentage of silica according to weight,

B = percentage weight of alumina oxide,
C = percentage weight of iron oxide,
D = percentage weight of calcium oxide,
E = percentage weight of magnesium oxide.
Ball Test
Balls of egg size are made with stiff lime paste formed by adding enough water in lime.
These balls are left undisturbed for six hours after which place them in a basin of water. For
Class C lime there are sign of slow expansion and slow disintegration within minutes.
However, very little or no expansion and numerous cracks indicate Class B lime.
Soundness Test
This test is done with the help of Le-chatelier apparatus. It consists of a brass cylinder mould
attached with two long indicators and two glass plates.
The mould is placed on glass plate filled with mixture of 1 cement : 3 hydrated lime : 12 sand
mortar. The mortar is prepared by adding water at the rate of 12% of the weight of the
mixture. The mould is covered from the top by second glass plate and left for one hour. The
distance between the indicator needles is then measured. The mould is now placed in a damp
air cup board for 48 hours and subjected to action of saturated steam for 3 hours without
immersing in boiling water. The mould is allowed to cool and the distance between the ends
of the two indicators is measured again. The increase in the indicator ends should not be more
than 10 mm. An allowance of 1mm is given for expansion of added cement.
Workability Test
This test is carried out for estimating the workability of the mortar. A handful of mortar is
thrown, with the same force as for rough cast work, on the surface on which it is to be used.
The workability can be judged by an experienced mason by noting the area covered and the
quantity of mortar picked up.
Hydrochloric Acid Test
This test is carried out to classify the lime and also to assess the lime content. A small amount
of powdered lime is taken in a test tube and the level of lime is noted after adding water to it.
The tube is stirred with glass rod and left to rest for 24 hours. Excessive effervescence
 indicates that the lime has high percentage of calcium carbonate. The residue left at the
bottom of the test tube indicates the proportion of impurities or hydraulic properties of lime.

CEMENT
Cement is a bonding material. It is obtained by burning calcareous material (lime) and argillaceous
material (clay) and then grinding. Cement was first produced by Joseph Aspidin, a mason from
England. As its colour resembled a variety of sandstone found in Portland, he named it Portland
cement (1842).
Limestone’s containing 20 to 40 per cent clay may be burnt and crushed to powder to get natural
cement. Best variety of natural cement is known as Roman cement. Artificial cement is
manufactured by mixing argillaceous and calcareous materials in suitable proportions and burning
at a temperature 1400°C to 1450°C to get clinkers, which are then ground to get cement.
Chemical ingredients / constituents of cement

1 Lime CaO 60-67 %

2 Silica SiO2 17-25 %
3 Alumina Al2O3 3-8 %
4 Iron Oxide Fe2O3 0.5-6 %
5 Magnesia MgO 1-4 %
6 Sulphur trioxide SO3 1-2 %
7 Alkalies (Soda & Potash) Na2O + K2O 0.5-1.3%
8 Gypsum(Calcium Sulphate) CaSO4.2H2O 3 – 4%

Lime:
It impart strength & soundness..
Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
Excess lime makes cement unsound.
Excessive presence of lime causes cement to expand and disintegrate.
Silica
Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium silicate.
Excess silica increase setting lime.
Alumina
Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
Excess alumina weakens the cement.
Iron Oxide
Iron oxide imparts colour to cement.
It acts as a flux.
At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and aluminum to
form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
Magnesia
Magnesia provides hardness and colour.
Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
Sulphur trioxide
Excess Sulphur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.
Gypsum (Calcium Sulphate)
It helps to increase the initial setting time of cement.
It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
Alkalise (Soda & Potash):
Should not be present more than 1%.
Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.
OPC contains the following chemical compounds
1. Tri-calcium silicate 3CaO SiO2 (C3S) 40% Aetite
 Hardens rapidly and largely responsible for initial set & early strength
 The increase in percentage of this compound will cause the early strength of Portland
cement to be higher.
 A bigger percentage of this compound will produces higher heat of hydration and
accounts for faster gain in strength.

2. Di-calcium silicate 2CaO SiO2 (C2S) 30% Belite

 C2S hydrates slowly and increases strength over a year and contributes to ultimate strength.
 It effects on strength increases occurs at ages beyond one week.
 Responsible for long term strength

3. Tri-calcium aluminates 3CaO Al2O3 (C3A) 11% celite

 C3A is first to react and sets generating heat
 C3A is responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to volume
changes causing cracking.
 The heat of hydration is very high (i.e. 865 J/g).
 Cements with low Tricalcium Aluminate contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.
4. Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite. 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 (C4 AF) 11% Felite
 C4 AF is a comparatively inactive compound.
 Also act as a filler
Order of heat of hydration
(C3A- 865 J/gm) > (C3S-500 J/gm) > (C4 AF-420J/gm) > (C2S-260 J/gm)

Physical requirements of OPC are:

1. Fineness: The material retained on 90 micron sieve should not be more than 10%. In terms of
specific surface, it should not be less than 2250 cm2/gm [225 m2/kg].
2. Setting time: Minimum initial setting time should be 30 minutes and maximum final setting time
should be 600 minutes.
3. Soundness: After the test is conducted in Le Chatelier mould, the indicator should not show
more than 10 mm widening.
4. Compressive strength: Mortar cubes of size 70.6 mm with 1 part cement, 3 parts of standard
sand with specified water should give the strength as shown in Table below
Compressive strength of cement in N/mm2

Age Grade 33 Grade 43 G Grade 53

3 days 16 23 27
7 days 22 33 37
28 days 33 43 53
Manufacture of cement consists of mixing, burning and grinding processes.
Dry Process –
1) The raw materials are crushed by grinding mill by proper proportion
2) Then the blended is sieved & fed into the rotating mill with 12% water
3) Then it is passed into the rotary kiln in presence of heat
4) Finally clinkers were obtained
5) After cooling the clinkers & mixed with 2-3% gypsum & then pulverized.
Wet process -
1. Mixing: In wet process wash mill is used which is a heavy cylinder of 2.5 to 3.0 m in diameter
and 9 to 12 m in length. It is kept slightly inclined to the horizontal and can rotate at 15–20
revolutions per minute. The cylinder is provided with steel balls.
2. Burning: Burning is carried out in a rotary kiln, which is a steel tube of diameter 2.5 to 3.0 m
and length 90 to 120 m, placed at an inclination 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. It rotates at a rate of 1 to 3
rotations per minute. Coal dust is injected from lower end and mix is fed from top end. The
temperature at feed end is 1400°C to 1500°C.
3. Grinding: The clinkers from rotary kiln are fed into a ball mill or tube mill. During the process
of grinding about 3 to 4 per cent of gypsum is added. The ball mill or tube mill contains steel balls.
Storage of cement:
Cement absorbs moisture from air and hydrates, which results into loss of strength. Hence, cement
should be stored on a raised platform in a covered room. First- in-first-out rule should be used while
taking out cement. The drainage system on the roof and around the storage should be well
maintained. Storage period should be as little as possible.
Important properties of good cement:
1) It gives strength to the masonry.
2) It is an excellent binding material.
3) It is easily workable.
4) It has good resistance to the moisture.
5) It possesses a good plasticity.
6) It solidifies or hardens quickly.
7) It is fire proof.
Field tests of cement:
1) Presence of lumps: The cement should be free from any lumps.
2) Colour: The colour of the cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement colour i.e.
grey colour with a light greenish shade.
3) Hand feeling: If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement, it should feel cool.
4) Water sinking test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles
should float for some time before it sinks if the cement is of good quality.
Laboratory tests:
Six laboratory tests are conducted mainly for assessing the quality of cement. These are:
fineness, compressive strength, consistency, setting time, soundness and tensile strength.
Fineness
• This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement.
• The fineness of cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or permeability
apparatus test.
• In sieve test ,the cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 15 minutes
through standard BIS sieve no. 9.The residue is then weighed and this weight should not be
more than 10% of original weight.
• In permeability apparatus test, specific area of cement particles is calculated. This test is better
than sieve test. The specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles of average
size.
Compressive strength
• This test is carried out to determine the compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared in ratio 1: 3.
• Water is added to mortar in water cement ratio 0.4.
• The mortar is placed in moulds. The test specimens are in the form of cubes and the moulds are
of metals. For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, the cement required is 185 gm and 235 gm
respectively.
• Then the mortar is compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes and the moulds are placed in
a damp cabin for 24 hours.
• The specimens are removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing.
• The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days. Thus
compressive strength was found out. Rate of loading of machine is 35 N/mm2/minutes.
Tensile strength
• This test was formerly used to have an indirect indication of compressive strength of cement.
• The mortar of sand and cement is prepared.
• The water is added to the mortar.
• The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. The mould is filled with mortar and then a small
heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on
the surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
• The briquettes are kept in a damp for 24 hours and carefully removed from the moulds.
• The briquettes are tested in a testing machine at the end of 3 and 7 days and average is found
out.
Consistency
• The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement
pastes for other tests.
• Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 percent by weight or 90 gm of water to it.
• Mix water and cement thoroughly.
• Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus and the gauging time should be 3.75 to 4.25 minutes.
• Vicat apparatus consists of a needle is attached a movable rod with an indicator attached to it.
• There are three attachments: square needle, plungerand needle with annular collar.
• The plunger is attached to the movable rod. The plunger is gently lowered on the paste in the
mould.
• The settlement of plunger is noted. If the penetration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the
bottom of mould, the water added is correct. If not process is repeated with different percentages
of water till the desired penetration is obtained.
Setting time
• This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage. The test is performed to
find out initial setting time and final setting time.

• Cement mixed with water and cement paste is filled in the Vicat mould.
• Square needle is attached to moving rod of vicat apparatus.
• The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste. In the beginning
the needle penetrates completely. The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till the needle
does not penetrate completely.(up o 5mm from bottom)
• Initial setting time = < 30 minutes for ordinary Portland cement and 60 min for low heat
cement.
• The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
• The needle with annular collar is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
• The needle is gently released. The time at which the needle makes an impression on test block
and the collar fails to do so is noted.
• Final setting time is the difference between the time at which water was added to cement and
time as recorded in previous step, and it is = < 10 hours.
Soundness
• The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in the cement.
• The cement paste is prepared.
• The mould is placed and it is filled by cement paste.
• It is covered at top by another glass plate. A small weight is placed at top and the whole
assembly is submerged in water for 24 hours.
• The distance between the points of indicator is noted. The mould is again placed in water and
heat is applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached in about 30 minutes. The
boiling of water is continued for one hour.
• The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to cool down.
• The distance between the points of indicator is again measured. The difference between the
two readings indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed 10 mm.
Types of cement are
1. Ordinary Portland cement.
2. Rapid hardening cement,
3. Ultra-rapid hardening cement.
4. Low heat cement,
5. Quick setting cement,
6. High alumina cement,
7. Blast furnace slag cement,
8. Portland Pozzolana cement,
9. White cement,
10. Hydrophobic cement,
11. Super sulfate cement,
12. Low alkali cement,
13. Water proof cement,
14. Air entraining cement,
15. Expansive cement,
16. Colored cement.
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC):
This is the most common type of cement which is extensively used. It has good resistance to
cracking and dry shrinkage but less resistance to chemical attack. OPC is not suitable for the
construction work which is exposed to sulphates in the soil.
Ordinary Portland cement is available in following types.
33 grade, 43 grades & 53 grades.
The grade represents the strength of cement at 28days. 33grade = 33N/mm2
IS: 10262 has classified the OPC as follows.

2. Rapid Hardening Cement:

It is also known as High-Early-Strength cement. It is manufactured with such adjustments in the
proportion of raw materials.
So that the cement produced attains maximum strength with-in 24-72 hours.
Properties:
Two essential properties of Rapid Hardening Cement are following.
(1) It contains relatively more tri-calcium silicate. This is done by adding a greater proportion of
limestone in the raw materials compared to that required for ordinary cement.
(ii) It is more fine-grained ( Air permeability 3250 cm2/gm ) than the ordinary cement.
This factor helps in quicker and complete hydration of cement particles during setting and helps in
gaining early strength.
However, the setting time and ultimate strength of Rapid Hardening Cement are same as
of Ordinary Cement.
It is special purpose cement. It is used in those types of projects, where quick hardening is required,
emergency repair work and in cold regions
3. Ultra High Strength Cement.
In advanced countries, an Ultra-high early strength cement is produced by separating the finest
fraction (above 700 m2/kg ) from the rapid hardening cement at the manufacturing stage itself.
This is achieved by using special devices called cyclone air elutriator. Such cement is used for very
high early strength concrete.
4. Low Heat Cement:
It is that type in which a very low amount of heat or hydration is liberated during setting and
hardening. Mostly it is used in massive concrete structures like Dams etc.
Properties:
(1) The proportion of di-calcium silicate (C2S) is almost double than ordinary cement.
(ii) The proportion of tetra calcium alumino-ferrite (C4AlFe) is also increased to one and one-half
time.
(iii) The proportion of tricalcium silicate (C3S) and tri-calcium aluminate(C3Al) is reduced by
about 50 percent. This is because these compounds are known to liberate a very high amount of heat
during hydration.
Most important qualities of low heat cement are summarized as follows:
Fineness: The residue in the Sieve Test shall not exceed than 10 percent.
Setting Time: The initial setting time shall not be less than 60 minutes. And the final setting time
shall not be less than ten hours.
Strength: It should develop a compressive strength not less than:
(a) 70 kg/sq. cm in 3 days.
(b) 115 kg/sq. cm in 7 days.
(c) 265 kg/sq. cm in 28 days.
It is mostly used in mega projects construction like DAMS. If we use ordinary Portland cement
instead of low heat cement in such structures,
Cracks will develop in such structures due to the great amount of heat liberated during setting and
hardening.
And a DAM with cracks is a useless structure. But when low heat cement is used, this danger
(development of cracks) can be eliminated.
5. Quick Setting Cement:
These Types of Cement are quite different than rapid hardening cement.
Its quality is that it set into a stone-like mass within a period of fewer than 30 minutes.
This property, of setting as quickly as possible is achieved by following controls in the
manufacturing process:
(i) The quantity of retarding agents like gypsum is reduced to a bare minimum.
(ii) The quantity of alumina-rich compound is reduced.
(iii) The clinker is ground to extreme fineness.
Quick setting cement is used only in very specific situations such as while constructing piers for
bridges and other structures in running or standing water.
6. High Alumina Cement:
These Types of Cement contains alumina in considerably larger proportions (average 40 percent)
than normal cement.
High Alumina cement is manufactured by calcining a well-proportioned mixture
of Limestone and Bauxite .
No other raw material is added, not even gypsum is mixed with the clinker during grinding.
The total Alumina content is generally above 32 percent.
Properties:
The most important properties of high alumina cement are summarized below:
(i) It is resistant to the corrosive action of acids and salts of seawater.
(ii) The ratio of alumina to lime is kept between 0.85 and 1.30.
(iii) It gains compressive strength of 400 kg/sq.cm within 24 hours and 500 kg/sq.cm after 72 hours.
(iv) It evolves great heat during setting. Due to this, it is not suitable for use in mega projects like
Dams.
But at the same time, it gives an advantage to high alumina cement for use in frost forming areas.
(v) They react quickly with lime. Therefore, it must not come in contact with lime.
Uses:
Unfortunately, it is more costly. Therefore it is used only in those situations where resistant against
corrosion is required.
It is commonly used in construction work near and along sea-shore.
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement:
It is a modified type of Portland cement which contains 25-65 percent (by weight) of blast furnace
slag.
It is manufactured by grinding clinker and specific amounts of blast furnace slag together. A small
percent of gypsum is also added for controlling its setting time.
The slag, as we know, is a waste product from the blast furnace which is used in the manufacture
of iron (Ferrous Metal).
Properties:
The slag cement offers a number of advantages, which are the following.
(i) They possess better workability, cohesiveness, and plasticity. These qualities are explained to be
due to lesser specific gravity and greater specific surface area of slag cement.
(ii) They have better resistance to sulfates of alkali metals, alumina, and iron.
(iii) It produces low heat. This property makes it useful for use in mega projects like Dams.
(iv) It is economical as compared to ordinary cement.
Uses:
It is better suited for use in marine structures as in docks, harbors, and jetties. It is also used in road
construction in marshy and alkaline soils.
8. Pozzolana Cement:
In this cement type, clinker and pozzolanic material such as (volcanic ash, fly ash, etc.) are mixed in
a definite proportion with Portland cement.
The pozzolanic materials do not have any cementing qualities when used alone, but when mixed
with Portland cement, they react with cement components and form compounds with cementing
properties.
The pozzolana cement has many properties similar to ordinary Portland cement. But it also offers
some additional properties, which are given below.
(i) It produces less heat. Due to this property, it can be used in mega projects.
(ii) It offers greater resistance to sulfates and corrosive actions of sea water.
These qualities make it more useful for construction near or along the coast and also in sulfate soil.
It can also be used in sewage works and for underwater construction.
9. Colored Cement:
In this type of cement, pigment (color) is mixed with the Portland cement in a definite proportion.
The Pigment is mixed in a finest powdered state. The amount of pigment used depends upon the
shade of the desired color.
It is, however, generally less than 10 percent (by weight). The following pigments are used to
obtain colored cement.
(i) Chromium oxide is used for green color.
(ii) Cobalt is used for blue color.
(iii) Iron oxide is used for various shades of red, brown and yellow color.
(iv) Manganese dioxide is used to obtain black and deep brown color.
This type of cement is extensively used for top coat in flooring and decorative purposes in various
places in a building.
10. White Cement:
It may also be defined as a special type of Portland cement when used it gives a milky or snow-
white appearance.
White cement is manufactured from pure limestone (chalk) and clay that are totally free from iron
oxides and any other pigments like manganese and chromium.
The kiln is fired by oil rather than by coal to avoid any contamination.
There strength and setting time is similar to ordinary Portland cement.
White cement is the most favored material for use in making highways curbs and for a variety of
ornamental work.
They are also used widely for making cast stones of appealing appearance.
White cement is comparatively a costly cement type and is, therefore, used only selectively.
11. Hydrophobic Cement:
It is a special type of cement containing admixtures which reduce the affinity of cement grains for
water.
Such cement types are used especially in cold, frost-forming conditions. Admixtures of naphtha a
soap and acidol are generally added to achieve this property.
12. Super Sulfate Cement:
These types of cement are manufactured by adding additional quantities of calcium sulfate and blast
furnace slag in the Portland cement.
It is especially useful for mass concrete work especially in sulfate-rich environment and marine
conditions. Besides, it is comparatively economical than other types of cement.
13. Low Alkali Cement:
Such types of cement are specially made Portland cement in which alkali content is kept below in
minimum amount, by exercising very strict control over the composition of the raw material used.
They are used in those circumstances where aggregates -for making concrete- are suspected to
contain reactive silica.
14. Water Proof Cement.
Water proof cement is prepared by using some of the waterproofing material like Ca, Al with the
ordinary cement during the process of cement manufacturing.
They are mostly used in the structures where water proofing is required, like in the Dams, Water
Tanks, etc.
15. Air Entraining Cement.
This cement type is manufactured by adding some indigenous air entraining agents such as glues,
resins, sulfates, etc., during the grinding stage of clinker.
They are used to improve the workability of concrete with smaller water-cement ratio and they also
improve the frost resistance of concrete.
16. Expansive Cement.
These types of cement have he quality to expand slightly with time. But they do not shrink during
and after the time of hardening.
They are mostly used for grouting purposes in anchor bolt and prestressed concrete ducts.

Aggregates
An aggregate gives body to the concrete. It occupies 70 to 80 % of total volume of concrete.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape
 Rounded aggregates
 Irregular or partly rounded aggregates
 Angular aggregates
 Flaky aggregates
 Elongated aggregates
Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore
gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more
workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high
strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.
Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available in
the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will give
lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly higher than
rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.
Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum
percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more compressive
strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful in high strength
concrete manufacturing.
Angularity number - The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids
in a sample of aggregate compacted in a specified manner. The angularity number ranges from 0 to
11.
 Angularity number 0 represents the most practicable rounded aggregate.
 Angularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregate that could be used for making
concrete.
 If angularity no more than 11 it indicate Flacky or elongated aggregate.
Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it is
said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the
60% (or 3/5 th) of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.
Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% (9/5 th) of its mean dimension.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Size
 Fine aggregate (sand) particle size less than 4.75mm
 Coarse aggregate – Particle size more than 4.75mm
Fine Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as fine
aggregate. Sand consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica. Natural sand is generally used
as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under this category. The soft deposit consisting of
sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the
coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent. IS code classifies sand as grading zone - 1,
Grading zone - 2, Grading zone - 3 and Grading zone - 4 on the basis of percentage of sand passing
through different sized sieves.

Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0 mm – 0.5 mm

Fine sand 0.5 mm – 0.25 mm

Medium sand 0.25 mm – 0.075 mm

Silt 0.075 mm – 0.002 mm

Clay < 0.002

Functions of sand:
1. It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate.
2. It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
3. By varying the proportion of sand concrete can be prepared economically for any required strength
4. It helps in hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids.
5. To form hard mass of silicates as it is believed that some chemical reaction takes place
between silica of sand and constituents of cement.
Requirements:
1. Fine aggregate should consist of coarse angular sharp and hard grains.
2. It must be free from coatings of clay and silt.
3. It should not contain any organic matter.
4. It should be free from hygroscopic salt.
5. It should be strong and durable and chemical inert.
6. The size of sand grains should pass through 4.75mm IS sieve and should be entirely retained
on 75 micron IS sieve.
Bulking of sand:
The increase in volume due to moisture content is known as bulking of sand. It is due to formation
of thin films around sand particles. Increase in volume is as high as 30 – 37 percent. At around 8%
of moisture content, there is maximum bulking. Finer the sand more is the bulking. After about 20%
moisture content, thin films start breaking and volume reduction takes place.
 The field tests are possible to find presence of clay, salt and organic impurities. The size and
shape of gains may be felt by touching it with fingers. Laboratory tests may be conducted to
ascertain grading, bulking and to find fineness modulus. To determine fineness modulus
sieves to be used are 10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron and 150
micron. The cumulative percentage of weight retained on the above sieves divided by 100
gives fineness modulus (FM). If FM is between 2.20 and 2.60 it is fine sand, 2.6 to 2.9 FM
indicates it is medium sand and more than 2.9 FM indicates it is coarse sand.
 Coarse Aggregate
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate
used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal
strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. the size range of various coarse
aggregates given below.
Coarse aggregate Size

Fine aggregate 4.75 mm – 20 mm

Medium aggregate 20 mm – 80 mm

Cobbles 80 mm – 300 mm

Boulders > 300 mm

Functions:
 Coarse aggregate makes solid and hard mass of concrete with cement and sand.
 It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
 It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies major volume.
Requirements:
Coarse aggregate used may be crushed stone, gravel and broken bricks.
Crushed stone: It is an excellent coarse aggregate provided. It is obtained by crushing granite, sand
stone and close grained lime stone.
Crushed granite chips are commonly and advantageously used in reinforced cement concrete.
 Broken bricks well burnt and over burnt bricks are broken into suitable size and used as
aggregate. It should be well watered before its use. Broken bricks are used as aggregate for
concrete in foundations and under floors.
 But generally crushed stone is only used as coarse aggregate.
 For structures like abutment, retaining walls and bed concrete 40 mm down size aggregates
are used. For normal R.C.C. works like flooring roofing and columns 20 mm down size
aggregates are preferred. For thin members 12.5 mm sized aggregates are used.
Classification of Aggregates Based on Density
Normal Weight Aggregate
The normal weight aggregates are commonly used aggregates. These will include sands, gravels,
crushed rocks such as granite, basalt, quartz, sandstone and limestone and brick ballasts etc.
The normal weight aggregates have specific weights between 2.5 and 2.5. These aggregates can
contribute to a concrete that have a unit weight of 23 KN/m3 to 26 KN/m3 and a crushing strength
at 28 days between 15 MPa and 40 MPa.
Heavy Weight Aggregate
The heavy weight aggregates have unit weights from 28 KN/m3 to 29 KN/m3. The specific gravity
of these aggregates will range from 2.8 to 2.9.
The concrete that is manufactured with the heavy weight aggregate will have a crushing strength in
the range of 20 to 21 MPa. These aggregates will produce dense and crack-free concrete.
Lightweight Aggregate
The lightweight aggregates will have unit weight up to 12 KN/m3. These are mainly used to
manufacture the structural concrete and masonry blocks for the reduction of the self-weight of the
structure.
These aggregates may be natural, such as diotomite, pumice, volcanic cinder etc. These can be
manufactured ones like bloated clay, sintered fly ash or foamed blast furnace slag.
Classification of aggregates based on: Geographical Origin

Natural – Aggregates taken from natural sources, such as riverbeds, quarries and mines. Sand,
gravel, stone and rock are the most common, and these can be fine or coarse.
Processed – Also called ‘artificial aggregates’, or ‘by-product’ aggregates, they are commonly
taken from industrial or engineering waste, then treated to form construction aggregates for high
quality concrete. Common processed aggregates include industrial slag, as well as burnt clay.
Processed aggregates are used for both lightweight and high-density concrete mixes.
Tests of aggregates
1. Flakiness and elongation indices
2. Fineness and grain size distribution
3. Specific gravity and water absorption
4. Soundness test
5. Crushing strength test
6. Impact test
7. Abrasion test.
Flakiness and elongation indices
 Flakiness index test is used to determine the particle shape of the course aggregate. The
particle shape of the aggregates is obtained by the percentages of flaky and elongated
particles accommodate in it. For base course and construction of cement concrete types, the
presence of flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable. It causes inherent
weakness with possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads. Therefore, the evaluation
of the shape of the particles, particularly with respect to flakiness and elongation is
necessary.
 The flakiness index of course aggregate is defined in percentage by weight of aggregate
particles and least dimension (thickness) of those particles should not be less than 0.6 times
their mean area. Flakiness index test is not applicable for aggregates sizes smaller than
6.3mm. Flaky or elongated course aggregates are disadvantageous to higher workability and
stability of mixes.
 Flakiness index test is conducted by using a metal thickness gauge. An adequate quantity of
course aggregate is taken such that the minimum number of 200 pieces of any fraction can
be tested. Each fraction is gauged in turn for thickness on the metal gauge. The total amount
passing in the gauge is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 % of the weight of the samples.
 The elongation index of aggregates is expressed as a percentage by weight of particles.
Those particles’ maximum dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times their mean
dimensions. The elongation index test is not applicable to size smaller than 6.3mm.
Fineness modulus –
 The Fineness modulus (FM) is an empirical figure obtained by adding the total percentage
of the sample of an aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves, and dividing
the sum by 100. Fine aggregates range from a FM of 2.00 to 4.00, and
coarse aggregates range from 6.50 to 8.00.
 Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the aggregate is.
More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of
fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
 Fineness modulus of different type of sand is as per given below.
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Range
Fine Sand 2.2 – 2.6
 Medium Sand 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse Sand 2.9 – 3.2
 Generally sand having fineness modulus more than 3.2 is not used for making good concrete
PROCEDURE
 Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm,
2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron)
 Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
 Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.
 Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This value is
termed as fineness modulus
 Refer the following example calculation
FINENESS MODULUS OF SAND – WORKED OUT EXAMPLE

Example Calculation of Fineness Modulus of Fine Aggregate

Weight of sand Cumulative weight Cumulative percentage wt.

Sieve Size
Retained (g) of sand retained (g) of sand retained (%)

80 mm – – –
40 mm – – –
20 mm – – –
10 mm 0 0 0
4.75 mm 10 10 2
2.36 mm 50 60 12
1.18 mm 50 110 22
600 micron 95 205 41
300 micron 175 380 76
150 micron 85 465 93
Pan 35 500
Total
Total = 500
= 246

So Fineness Modulus = 246/100 = 2.46

Soundness Test on Aggregate

 The soundness test on aggregate is carried out to learn the resistance of aggregates to
weathering actions like thawing, freezing, alternate wetting and drying in normal conditions
and in salt water, variation in temperature. When subjected to above stated conditions,
aggregates which are weak, porous, and contains any irrelevant matters, can drastically
undergo volume change. If the resistance against weathering action is good for aggregate,
then it will have high durability.
  To determine the durability of those weak aggregates, soundness test is specified in IS:
2386 Part-V.
 Carefully graded and weighed test samples of aggregates soak into either sodium sulphate or
magnesium sulphate solution and oven dried it under specified conditions. The growth of
salt crystals in the pores of the test sample is considered to produce disruptive internal forces
similar to the action of freezing of water or crystallization of salt. After specified number of
cycles, loss in weight is measured.
 As a general guide, after 10 cycles the average loss of weight should not exceed 12% & 18%
when tested with sodium sulphate & magnesium sulphate respectively.
Crushing strength Test
 One of the test in which concrete material can fail is due to crushing under compressive
stress. Aggregate crushing test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to verify the
crushing strength of aggregates. The aggregates should be oven dried, which can passes
through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm sieve.
 The cylindrical steel cup is stuffed in three layers of aggregate. Each and every layer is
tamped with 25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod. The surplus aggregate should get
struck off by the tamping rod from a straight edge.
 The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is measured to the nearest gram
(W1).
 The surface of the aggregates is leveled and the plunger is inserted. Consequently the
plunger rests horizontally on the surface. The whole apparatus is then placed between the
platens of compression testing machine and loaded at a consistent rate so it can reach to a
load of 40 tons in 10 minutes.
 The load is then released and the sample is removed from the cup. The sample is then sieved
on 2.36 mm IS sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
 The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to nearest accuracy of 0.1g (W2)
 The crushed aggregates (W2) is expressed as % of the total weight of sample (W1), which is
the crushing value of the aggregate.
 Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100
Recommended Values:
 In aggregate crushing test, if aggregate crushing value is less than 10, it signifies an
exceptionally strong aggregate. While aggregate crushing value above 35 would normally be
considered as weak aggregates.
Impact Test on Aggregates
 Aggregates for the test sample can be decided by passing it through 12.5 mm sieve and
retained on 10 mm sieve.
 The sieved aggregates should be dried in an oven and then filled in a cylindrical steel cup
and tamped with 25 strokes by temping rod.
 The test sample is filled in 3 layers and each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows.
 Metal hammer (weighing approx. 14 kg) is pre-arranged to drop with a free fall of 380mm.
The test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows each at not less than 1 second.
 The crushed aggregate is removed from the test specimen and sieve it through the 2.36 mm
IS sieve.
 An impact value is measured as % of aggregates passed through the 2.36mm sieve (W2) to
the total weight of the sample (W1).
 Aggregate impact value (The value of aggregate impact test) = (W1/W2)*100
 The value of aggregate impact test should not be more than 45% by weight of aggregates,
used for concrete other than wearing surface. An impact value 35% is permissible for the
bituminous macadam. Maximum permissible impact value for the water bound macadam is
 40%. The price of aggregate impact testing machine is approximately Rs 4000 to 6000 in
India.

Abrasion Test ( Loss Angeles test ) on Aggregate

 The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
 Los Angeles machine made up of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520
mm. it is mounted on horizontal axis that allows it to rotate.
 An abrasive charge made up of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight
ranges in between 340-445 g. it is generally placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates.
 The number of the abrasive charge spheres differs governing to the grading of the aggregate
sample.
 The quantity of aggregates usually ranges from 5-10kg however; it depends upon the
gradation of aggregates.
 The cylinder is then locked and rotated for a total of 500-1000 revolutions at the speed of
30-33 rpm depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
 After above mentioned revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm. the difference
between the original weight and the final weight (sieved through 1.7mm) is expressed as %
of the original weight of the sample aggregate. This value is called as Los Angeles abrasion
value.
 The maximum Los Angeles abrasion value should not be more than 30% for the use of
wearing surface and not more than 50% for the use of concrete. Table 1 below presents the
average Los Angeles abrasion test value for rocks of different groups.

FERROUS METALS
Metals which contain iron predominantly are termed ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are attracted by
magnet. The basic ingredients of ferrous metals minerals like carbon and iron. By varying carbon
content slightly, ferrous materials of different varieties are manufactured. By hot rolling, cold
drawing and heat treatment properties of ferrous materials can be modified. Cast iron, wrought
iron and steel are the three popular varieties.
1. Cast iron - Carbon content is 2 to 4%. Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon.
Cast iron is brittle and hard and resistant to wear. The varieties of cast iron are: Grey cast iron,
white cast iron, molten cast iron, chilled cast iron, toughened cast iron, ductile cast iron and
malleable cast iron. Cast irons are coarse, crystalline and fibrous. They cannot be welded. They are
used for water pipes, sanitary pipes and manhole covers. They are also used for making ornamental
castings like
Gates, lamp posts, spiral railings, rail chairs etc.
2. Wrought iron – Wrought iron is purest form of iron. It contains less than 0.15% carbon. It is
fibrous and has silky lustre. It can absorb shocks. It is used for making nails, nuts, bolts, chains,
roofing sheets, grills and straps.
3. Steel - It contains 0.25 to 1.5% carbon. It is equally strong in tension and compression. It is
suitable for all construction purposes. The types of steel are mild steel, medium carbon steel, high
carbon steel. In the market they are available as rolled steel sections, tubes, flats, plates, sheets,
corrugated sheets, expanded metal, bars and weld meshes. Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT)
bars are manufactured by sudden quenching of red hot steels by spraying water, which results into
high strength at the surface while the core portion is mild steel. These are ideally suited for R.C.C.
works.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Non-Metals does not contains iron. Copper, aluminium, zinc, lead and tin are commonly used non-
ferrous materials.
1. Copper - It is brown in colour but becomes greenish when exposed to atmosphere. It is malleable,
ductile, a good conductor of heat and electricity, copper wires are used as electric cables. Copper
are used as electric conductors and for closing construction joints. It is used as an alloy for making
brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin).
2. Aluminium- It is extracted mainly from bauxite (Al2O3 2H2O). It is silvery white with bluish
tinge. It is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminium is easily cast, forged, machined and
welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminium is lightweight,
it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft. Aluminium is also used in castings, pistons,
railways, cars, doors, windows, partitions, decorative laminates, false ceiling, kitchen utensils.
And for making paints.
3. Zinc -It ores are zinc calamine (ZnCO3) which contains 65% zinc and zinc blende (ZnS) which
contains 50% zinc. When heated at 1100°C, zinc is liberated in the form of vapour which is
collected and condensed. Zinc is a bluish white metal which is a good conductor of heat and
electricity. It is used for making electrical cells and batteries and in making paints and brass. Zinc is
most widely used in galvanizing, the process of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to
prevent rust
4. Lead - It is extracted from the ore galena (PbS), which contains 86% lead. Lead is a soft, heavy,
malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength. It can withstand corrosion from
moisture and many acids. It is bluish grey in colour. It is poisonous. It is used as pigments in paints,
for making storage battery solders and for making sanitary fittings.
5. Tin – It is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength. Its ore is found as cassiterite
(SnO2). The ore is crushed, roasted, smelted and refined by electrolysis. It is a silvery white lustrous
metal. It withstands corrosion. It is used to provide protective coating to iron, copper, brass and
lead. It is used for silvering mirrors and its foils are used for protecting food products.
ALLOYS
Alloy is an intimate mixture of two or more metals. Aluminium alloys, copper alloys and steel
alloys are commonly used alloys.
1. Aluminium alloys
(a) Duralumin; (b) Aldural; (c) Aluminum bronze; (d) Y-alloy.
2. Copper alloys Brass and bronze are copper alloys. Brass is the alloy of copper and zinc. White
brass, yellow brass, red brass, delta metal, cartridge brass and low brass are different types of
brasses. Bronze is an alloy of copper, tin and minor percentage of other materials. Beryllium
bronze, prospher bronze, green metal, bell metal, speculum metal are different types of bronzes.
3. Alloys of steel Alloying of steel with other metals is made to increase strength, hardness,
toughness, resistance to wear. Varieties of steel alloys found in market are:
(1) Stainless steel (2) Nickel steel (3) Tungsten steel (4) Invar steel (5) Manganese steel (6)
Molybdenum steel and (7) Chromium steel.

STONES

Rocks from which stones are obtained may be classified in the following three ways:
1. Geological classification
2. Physical classification
3. Chemical classification.
1. Geological classification On the process of formation, rocks are classified as igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
(a) Igneous Rocks: These are the rocks formed by cooling of magma. These rocks are strong and
durable. They are further classified as:
Volcanic rocks: Cooling of magma at earth’s surface – extremely fine grained and glossy.
Examples: Basalt and trap.
Hypahyssal rocks: Cooling of magma at shallow depth – fine grained crystallized structure.
Examples: Quartz, dolerite and gneiss.
Plutonic rocks: Cooling of magma at considerable depth – very strong and crystalline structure.
Examples: Granite and dolerite.
(b) Sedimentary Rocks: Disintegrated rock material is carried by flowing water and deposited
elsewhere. Year after year new layers of materials are deposited and consolidated under pressure,
heat and chemical action. Hence, the rocks so formed are uniform, fine grained and bedded.
Examples: sandstones, mudstones, limestone’s.
(c) Metamorphic Rocks: These are the rocks formed after igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks
undergo changes due to pressure, heat and chemical actions. These rocks have foliated structure.
For example:
• Granite becomes gneiss.
• Basalt changes to schist and laterite
• Limestone changes to marble
• Mudstone becomes slate.
2. Physical classification Based on the structure, rocks may be classified as stratified, unstratified
and foliated rocks.
(a) Stratified Rocks: They have layered structure. Examples: Sandstones, limestone’s, mud-stones.
(b) Unstratified Rocks: They possess crystalline and compact grains Examples: Granite, trap,
marble.
(c) Foliated Rocks: They have foliated structure. Along the planes of foliation they split easily.
These planes are not parallel to each other.
3. Chemical classification
(a) Siliceous Rocks: Main constituent is silica. These rocks are hard and durable. Examples:
Granite, trap, sandstone.
(b) Argillaceous Rocks: Clay is the main constituent. These rocks are brittle. They cannot
withstand shock. Examples: Slate, laterite.
(c) Calcareous Rocks: Calcium carbonate is the main constituent. Examples: Limestone, marble.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

1. It should possess fine grained structure, uniform and pleasing colour. It should be free from soft
patches, flaws and cracks.
2. It should be hard, durable, well seasoned, and economic.
3. The minimum strength of 3.5 N/mm2 is required for stone to be used for load bearing walls.
4. It should not absorb more than 5% water.
5. The specific gravity should not be less than 2.5.
6. In attrition test, it should not show wear of more than 2%.
7. Toughness index should be more than 10.
8. It should have good resistance to shocks and it should be durable.
9. A good building stone should have better crushing strength i.e. greater than 100 N/mm2
10 Chemical resistance Stones should resist alkalis, acids, corrosive gases etc

Quarrying It is the process of extracting stones from rock bed, located near the earth’s surface and
exposed to sun. Quarrying may be done using hand tools, channelling machine or by blasting.
(a) Quarrying using hand tools: In soft rocks hand tools like chisels, hammers pick axes and
shovels may be used. Heating technique is suitable for getting aggregates. Wedging technique is
suitable for quarrying in thin bedded rocks.
(b) Quarrying using channelling machine: This is suitable for large size quarrying in soft rocks
like marble and limestone. Channels are 50 to 75 mm wide and 2.4 to 3.6 m deep. After channelling
with machine wedges and drills are used to get stones.
(c) Quarrying by blasting: It consists of boring, charging, tamping and firing. The gas produced in
the blast tries to come out by breaking the rock in all directions and succeeds in escaping along the
Line of Least Resistance (LLR).
Dressing of stones The aim of preliminary dressing is to bring the size of stone approximately to
the required size and reduce the transportation cost to great extent. Final dressing is as per the
requirement of the user. The different methods of final dressing are:
(1) Hammer face; (2) Chisel drafted face; (3) Polished face and (4) Tooled finish.
Seasoning of stones The process of removing sap from the pores is known as seasoning. The best
method of seasoning is to allow the stones to dry for a period of 6 to 12 months in a shed.
Preservation of stones The following preservatives are used:
(1) Linseed oil; (2) Solution of alum and soap; (3) Solution of barium hydroxide; (4) Coal tar; (5)
Paint and (6) Paraffin.
Tests on stones

Field Tests
1. Smith’s test: It is to check whether the stone contains muddy substance. A sample of stone is
kept in a glass of distilled water for 24 hours and stirred well to remove muddy substance.
2. Toughness test: Stone is hit with a hammer and metallic sound is indication of strong stone.
3. Hardness test: Mohr’s hardness may be found by scratching the stone with knife.

Laboratory Tests
1. Crushing strength test: 40 × 40 × 40 mm cubes are used for testing. Load is applied in a
compression testing machine at the rate 14 N/mm2 per minute. A stone with crushing strength more
than 100 N/mm2 is treated as good stone.
2. Water absorption test: For good stone water absorption after 24 hours immersion in water,
should not exceed 0.60.
3. Attrition test: Los Angeles abrasion test is conducted to find the resistance of the stone to
surface wear. Los Angeles value recommended are (a) for bitumen mix: 30%, (b) for base course
50%.
4. Impact test: Impact testing machine consists of a frame with guides. A metal hammer weighing
13.5–15 kg falls from a height of 380 mm. Recommended values for various works are
• For wearing coat 30%
• For bituminous mechadam 35%
• For water bound mechadam 40%
5. Acid test: Sandstones are checked for the presence of calcium carbonate. Sample of 50–100 gm
of stone is kept in 1% hydrochloric acid for seven days. If calcium chloride is present, edges are
broken and powder is formed.
Common building stones Basalt, granite, sandstones, limestone’s, marble, quartzite, laterite and
slate. Solid and hollow concrete blocks are known as artificial stones.

TIMBER

Standing timber - Living tree, yielding good timber is called standing timber.
Rough timber - After felling and separating branches it is known as rough timber.
Log - When bark is removed and stem is roughly converted into pieces of suitable length it is
known as log.
Converted timber - After the log is seasoned and converted into commercial sizes like planks,
battens, posts and beams, it is known as converted timber.
Classification of tree
Tree

Exogenous trees Endogenous trees

Coniferous Deciduous

Soft wood hard wood

1. Exogenous trees - Exogenous trees grow outward adding a distinct ring every year. Examples of
exogenous trees are mahogany, Sal, teak, babul.
2. Endogenous trees - Endogenous trees grow inwards. While examples of endogenous trees are
bamboo, palm and cane. Exogenous trees are further classified as coniferous and deciduous.
Coniferous trees have cone shape and their leaves do not fall till new ones grow.
Deciduous trees have broad leaves and they fall in autumn and new ones appear in the spring.

Comparison between soft wood and hard wood Soft wood

Sr. NO Item Soft wood Soft wood

1 Annual rings Annual rings are distinct Annual rings are not distinct

2 Colour Light in colour Dark in colour

3 Weight Light in weight
4 Structure Resinous structure
5 Strength Strong in resisting direct
tension but weak in
resisting compression or shear
Heavy
Close grained structure
Equally strong in resisting
tension, compression and shear

6 Medullar rays medullar rays are medullar rays are

not distinct distinct

Structure of Timber / Cross section of trunk of tree:

1) Pith – It the innermost central part is called pith

2) Heart wood – This position is surrounded by the pith. It is strong & dark in colour
3) Sap wood – This layer is present next to the heart wood. Sapwood contains annual rings,
count of which gives the age of the tree.
4) Cambium layer – This layer is present between sap wood & inner bark.
5) Modularly rays–these are thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer.
6) Inner bark – It is the inner skin of tree which protects cambium layer.
7) Outer bark – The outer skin or cover of the tree is known as outer bark.
 2. Classification based on durability: Durability test is conducted by Forest Research Institute of
India, Dehradun by burying 600 × 50 × 50 size specimen up to half their length and observing them
over several years. Then timber is classified as
(a) High durability: Average life of more than 10 years
(b) Moderate durability: Average life 5 to 10 years
(c) Low durability: Average life is less than 5 years.
3. Classification based on grading: On the basis of strength, defects, etc. IS: 12326–1976
classifies timber as special grade, Grade – I and Grade – II.
4. Classification based on Availability:
X: Most common, 1415 m3 or more every year
Y: Common, 335 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
Z: Less common, less than 335 m3 every year.
Characteristics of Good Timbers:
1. Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.
2. Colour: A colour should preferably be dark
3. Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc
4. Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi,
insects, chemicals, physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.
5. Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is
removed
6. Fibres: The timber should have straight fibres
7. Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance to fire
8. Hardness: A good timber should be hard
9. Mechanical wear: A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or
abrasion
10. Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or
seasoning
11. Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber
12. Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck
13. Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member
such as joist, beam, rafter etc.
14. Structure: The structure should be uniform
15. Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks due
to vibration
16. Water permeability: A good timber should have low water permeability, which is measured
by the quantity of water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of wood.
17. Weathering effects: A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering
effects (dry & wet)
18. Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.
19. Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.
Seasoning of timber Seasoning is the process of reducing moisture content in a freshly cut tree to
the desired level. Seasoning makes timber more durable and stable. The various methods of
seasoning used are:
Seasoning of timber is classified by two ways;
1) Natural seasoning – It may air seasoning / water seasoning.
a) Air seasoning is carried out in a shed with a platform.
b) Water seasoning is carried out on the bank of the river.
2) Artificial seasoning –
Artificial seasoning is followed by following steps;
a) Boiling – In this method, the timber is dipped in water & then boiled the water for 3 to 4 hours &
dried slowly.
b) Kiln seasoning – In this method The drying of timber is carried out inside an air tight oven
c) Chemical seasoning – In this method Timber is dipped in the suitable salts solutions & taken out
for ordinary drying.
d) Electrical seasoning – In this method of seasoning a high frequency alternating currents are used
Conversion of timber Market names of converted timber are battens, plank, pole, scanting, beams,
etc. They are available in different sizes and length. They are obtained by sawing logs.
Sawing - Method of sawing is a skilled job. About 3-6 mm allowance should be made for shrinkage
and loss during planning. The saw cuts should be tangentially parallel to the annular rings and
practically parallel to the direction of medullar rays. The pith should be avoided in the final
section. Cut should be taken so as to keep wastage to a minimum. The following are different
types of sawing:
• Ordinary sawing
• Quarter sawing
• Tangential sawing
• Radial sawing
Defects in timber Defects may be due to natural forces, attack by fungi or insects or due to
erroneous seasoning. The defects due to natural causes are knots, shakes, rind galls, upsets, twisted
fibres, wind cracks, burls, dead wood, foxiness and stain.
1) Natural defects – These defects may be in the form of knots, twisted fibbers, ring shakes, rupture
etc
2) Defects due to conversion–These defects are formed due to improper seasoning are radial
shakes, case hardening, twisted, bowing, honey combing etc
3) Defects formed due to insects – In this defect wood is attacked by termites, insects, beetles, stem
borers etc
4) Defects formed due to fungal action – In this defect wood is infected by fungal attack which
reduces the strength of wood.
5) Defects due to seasoning – These are in the form of warp, cup, bow, twist etc.
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Except teak all other timber need treatment with preservation to protect it from attacks of fungi,
insects and the weather.
Requirements of wood preservative
• It should effectively resist fungi, insects and the action of weather
• It should possess good penetration and spread ability.
• It should be durable. • It should give good appearance.
• It should not affect the strength of timber.
• It should be free from unpleasant smell.
• It should be non-inflammable.
• It should be cheap and easily available.
• It should cover large area with small quantity.
Widely used preservatives are
• Coal tar
• Solignum paints
• Chemical salt
• Oil paints
• Creosote
• ASCU -ASCU is a special preservative developed by FRI, Dehradun.
Industrial timber Veneers, plywood, fibreboards, particle boards, block boards, hard boards and
Glulam.
Indian timber trees Babul, Bamboo, Casurina, Deodar, Jack, Mango Mahogany, Rosewood, Teak,
Sandalwood, Sissoo.

PAINTS, VARNISHES AND DISTEMPERS

• The surfaces of walls, ceiling, wood and metal works are coated with paints, varnishes or
distempers to protect them and give them good appearance.
• Paint is a mixture of solid pigments in liquid vehicles. The essential constituents of oil-borne
paints are base, vehicle, solvent, pigment, filler and drier.
1. Base: It is a solid substance in a fine state forming bulk of the paint. White lead, red lead, zinc
oxide, iron oxide, aluminium powder are commonly used base materials.
2. Vehicle: The liquid substance that holds the ingredients of paint is known as vehicle. Linseed oil,
tung oil, poppy oil, nut oil, etc., are the commonly used vehicles.
3. Solvents: Solvents are the paint thinners. The common solvents are turpentine, petroleum spirit
and naptha.
4. Pigment: Pigments provide colour to the paint
Black – Lampblack, charcoal black
Brown – Burnt umber, burnt sienna
Blue – Persian blue, utramarine Green – Chrome green, copper sulphate
Red – Red lead, venetian red
Yellow – Zinc chrome, raw sienna chrome yellow.
5. Fillers: Fillers are inert materials added to reduce cost of paint. They make paint durable.
Magnesia, alumina, gypsum, silicate, barite are the commonly used fillers.
6. Driers: Its function is to absorb oxygen from air and supply it to the vehicle. It is added just
before painting. They are compounds like lead, manganese and cobalt.
Types of paints are
1. Oil paint: These paints contain white lead as base.
2. Enamel paint: This paint is prepared by adding white lead or zinc to varnish. It is desirable to
provide titanium under coat. It may be used for exterior walls also.
3. Emulsion paint: It contains binding material like polyvinyl acetate and polystyrene. Cobalt and
manganese are the pigments and driers. The paint becomes surface dry within 15 minutes and
hardens in 2 hours. The surface is washable.
4. Cement paint: It consists of white or coloured cement as base. It is available in the form of
powder, which is mixed with water and used.
5. Aluminium paint: It consists of finely ground aluminium particles in suspension, in spirit or oil
varnish. It is visible in darkness.
6. Bituminous paint: It is manufactured by dissolving asphalt of vegetable bitumen in oil or
petroleum. It is black in colour. It is used for painting portions of wooden posts buried underground.
7. Synthetic rubber paint: It is prepared by dissolving chlorinated rubber in a solvent. It may be
applied to concrete surfaces also.
8. Celluloid paint: It is prepared by dissolving celluloid sheets or nitro cotton in petroleum. Castor
oil is added to improve adhesive property. It is used for painting vehicles.
9. Asbestos paint: It consists of fibrous asbestos. It is used for stopping leakages in metal roof,
basements. It is used for painting gutters.
10. Plastic paint: It consists of plastic as a base and water as a thinner. It gives attractive
colours.This is widely used for painting walls in auditoriums and show rooms.
11. Anticorrosive paint: It consists of linseed oil as vehicle and lead or zinc chrome as base. Finely
ground sand is added as filler. It is black in colour and gives protection from corrosion.
Painting
1. Plastered surfaces Emulsion paints may be applied after a curing period of 4 – 6 weeks. Final
coat is to be applied after 6 – 12 months only. Before painting the surface should be made dust free.
For new surfaces primer coat is required.
2. Concrete surface Usually, two coats of cement paint are required. Painted surface should be
cured for 10 – 15 days.
3. Wood surface Before painting a new surface all nail heads should be punched to a depth of 3
mm. The surface should be made free from loose particles, dust and grease. Knots if any should be
levelled and two coats of varnish applied. Fill all cracks, dents, loose joints with putty. Apply
primer, two undercoats before the finishing coat. In case of old wood works clean the surface with
sand paper and pumice stone wash with caustic soda solution of 200 gm in a litre of water. Apply
primary coat, undercoat and finishing coats.
4. Iron and steel surface Remove dust with wire brushes. Remove grease by washing with caustic
soda. Then apply the coats.
Varnishes: Varnish is a transparent solution containing resinous solutions like amber, coal, shellac,
gum, etc. Solvent is turpentine or alcohol or water. The process of applying varnish is known as
varnishing. It makes surface glossy.
Distemper: It is also called water paint. It is a paint with chalk as base and water as carrier. It is
readily available in the market in the form of powder. There are two types of distempers: dry
distempers and oil bound distempers.

CLAY PRODUCTS
Apart from bricks, the following clay products are used by burning, glazing and vitrifying clay.
(1) Tiles; (2) Terracotta; (3) Earthenware and (4) Stoneware.
1. Tiles Different types of tiles used are roofing tiles, ceiling tiles, ridge tiles, flooring and wall tiles,
drain tiles. The following roofing tiles are used in India:
(a) Half round tiles; (b) Corrugated tiles: (c) Pan tiles; (d) Allahabad tiles and (e) Mangalore tiles.
Ceiling tiles are flat tiles provided under roofing tiles to give good appearance when viewed from
below. Ridge tiles are specially shaped tiles to cover ridges in sloping roofs. Clay tiles, glazed tiles
and vitrified tiles are used for flooring and to give finishing to walls. Drain tiles are laid in
waterlogged areas to drain the water.
2. Terracotta Terracotta means baked earth. It may be manufactured in different colours also. There
are two types of terracotta, viz. porous terracotta and polished terracotta. They are used for making
art pieces and lavatory fittings.
3. Earthenware It is a type of terracotta in which the moulded product is burnt at low temperature
to get semi-vitrified surface. These products are used for making cheap lavatory fittings and drain
pipes.
4. Stoneware These are the pipes manufactured from refractory clays to which ground flint and
crushed pottery are added and ground. During grinding pigments are also added. They are produced
under pressure and then burnt at high temperature. They are used for making wash-basins, gully
traps, jars and sewer pipes.

POZZOLANAS
Pozzolana is defined as a siliceous material that does not possess cementation property, but reacts
with lime in the presence of water at normal temperature to form compounds.
• Pozzolana is added to fat lime to produce hydraulic lime. Addition of pozzolana to cement makes
product cheap, which is known as PPC. It gets strength slowly but final strength is same as that of
OPC. It possesses better impermeability compared to OPC. Addition to concrete helps in getting
dense concrete and it reacts with free lime. Hence, chances of blisters appearing latter is eliminated.
Heat of hydration is reduced, which is essential in mass concrete works.
• Surkhi, blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fame and rice husk ash are the pozzolanic materials.
MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS
1. Glass and glass wool It is manufactured by fusion of silica with varying proportions of oxides of
sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesia. They are fabricated by blowing, drawing, pressing,
rolling or casting. After annealing they are given treatment by tempering, opaque making, silvering,
bonding or cutting. It can be made stronger than steel and lighter than cork.
Types of glass are many:
(1) Common glass; (2) Soda lime glass; (3) Potash lime glass; (4) Potash lead glass; (5) Coloured
glass; (6) Special glasses.
Special glasses are fibre glass, wired glass, safety glass, bullet proof glass, shielding glass,
ultraviolet ray glass, structured glass, glass blocks, ribbed glass, perforated glass and glass wool,
etc.
2. Plastics Plastic is a natural synthetic material, which has a property of being plastic at some stage
of its manufacture. Synthetic material nay be phenol, formaldehyde, cellulose vinyl, etc. At present
there are more than 1000 varieties of plastic.
• Synthetic of plastics are polymers. Polymerization is the process in which relatively small
molecules, called monomers combine chemically to produce a very large network molecules, called
polymers.
• Classification of the plastics may be on various basis.
1. On the basis of structure: Homogeneous plastics and heterogeneous plastics.
2. On the basis of physical and mechanical properties. Rigid plastics, semi-rigid plastics, soft
plastics and elastomers.
3. On the basis of thermal properties: Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastic. Thermoplastics
soften on heating and harden on cooling. The process of softening and hardening can be repeated
several times. Thermosetting plastic undergo chemical changes at 127 – 177° C and set into
permanent shape under pressure. Reheating will not soften them.
• Advantages of plastic are — they can be moulded easily, do not rust, resist chemical action, light
in weight and possess high strength to weight ratio. Disadvantage is that they have low modulus of
elasticity.
3. Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP) In these glass fibres provide stiffness and strength while
resin provides a matrix to transfer load to fibres. GFRP is used for door and window frames,
partition walls, roofing sheets, skylights, water tanks, for making chairs and tables.
4. Asbestos Asbestos is a naturally available mineral substance. It is fire-proof, acid-proof. It is a
good insulator of heat and electricity. It is used with cement to produce asbestos cement sheets for
roofing, wall panelling, to cover fuse and electric boxes, for making down take pipes, etc.
5. Bitumen, asphalt and tar These are called bituminous materials and their main constituent is
hydrocarbon.
(a) Bitumen: It is obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum. It is specified by term
penetration, say 80/100 means penetration of standard needle is 80 to 100 mm at a temperature of
25°C. It is used for damp proof course, roofing felt.
(b) Asphalt: It is bitumen mixed with inert material like sand, gravel and crushed stone. It is found
in natural form. It is artificially manufactured also. It is used for waterproofing floors and roofs,
lining reservoirs and swimming pools, for grouting expansion joints.
(c) Tar: It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal, wood or mineral tar. It is used for road
work, anti-termite treatment and waterproofing.
6. Fly Ash It is a by-product in coal based thermal plants. Its particles can fly in ordinary air. At one
time it was considered a nuisance but now it is used as a useful material in manufacturing bricks,
for stabilizing soil and to improve workability of concrete.
7. Steel Putty It is a plaster filler which can be applied with knife to fill dents in steel plates. It has
good adhesive property and dries hard.
8. Adhesive, sealants and joint fillers
• An adhesive is a material used to join two or more surfaces. Asphalt, shellac and cresin are natural
adhesives which are used to glue papers. Rubber is another natural adhesive used to join plastic,
glass and rubber. There are many synthetic varieties of adhesives like melamine resin, phenoil resin,
urea resin and polyvinyl resin. They are used for joining plywood and laminated products.
Starch glue, animal glue, casein glue (glue from skimmed milk), sodium silicate glue are also
available for joining various materials.
• Sealants: Sealants are the substances used to seal cracks or joints between wall and window
frames, glazing and window frame or between roofing sheets. Elastomeric sealants are most
efficient. They are based on silicon, acrylic or polysulphide.
• Joints fillers: To prevent seepage of water through construction joints, these materials are used.
They should be compressible and resilient. The common joint fillers used are built in strips of
metals, bitumen treated felt and cork bound rubber.
9. Heat, electrical and sound insulating materials
• Thermal comfort may be achieved by providing air spaces by using aerated concrete, hollow
blocks, using blast furnace slag in mortar and concrete and providing insulators and reflecting
paints.
• Electric insulators are used to separate the conductors carrying electric current. Mica, asbestos,
porcelain, rubber, leakalite are electrical insulators. Paraffin and chlorinated diphenyl are liquid
insulators which are used in transformers. In refrigerators thermocol is used.
• In auditoriums and cinema halls, sound insulators are required. The commonly used sound
insulators are cellular concrete, asbestos, gypsum plaster, pulp boards, perforated plywood, glass
mineral wool, etc.
10. Waterproofing and damp-proofing materials
• Preventing passage of water from one side of a surface to other side under normal hydrostatic
pressure is known as waterproofing while damp-proofing is to prevent transfer of water by capillary
action.
• Bituminous materials, integral compounds, epoxy based materials, slurry coat and elastomeric
materials are various waterproofing materials.
11. Thermocol It is a general-purpose crystal polysterene. It can be cut easily with knife or saw. It
contains 3–6 million discrete cells/litre. It has insulating efficiency against heat, sound, humidity
and shock. It is used as packing material and display board.
12. Epoxy It is a thermosetting polymer. It possesses excellent mechanical and adhesive properties.
It is used with paints also.
13. Polyurethene It is a product produced by mixing polymeric diol or triol with a silicon surfactant
and a catalyst. This has elasticity of rubber, combined with the toughness of metal. It is used for
making gaskets, tiers, bushings, shoe soles, pipes, waterproofing chemicals, etc.
14. Geosynthetics These are synthetic materials made of nylon, PVC, polypropylene etc. They last
long even when buried under soil. Geotextiles, geogrids, geomembranes and geocomposites are
commonly used geosynthetics. These materials are used for soil stabilization.
15. Ferrocement Wire meshes embedded with cement and baby jelly is known as ferrocement.
They are used for making door/window frames and shutters, partition walls, signboards, furnitures
and even boats.
16. Cladding materials Cladding materials are used to enhance aesthetic appeal of walls, kitchen
slab, stairs, roofs, ceiling, etc. Slate, granite, marble, clay tiles, mosaic, glass, wall papers etc. Are
the commonly used cladding materials in buildings.
17. PVC building products Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is versatile plastic. Its properties can be easily
modified by addition of other compounds. PVC pipes, door and window frames, partition walls,
kitchen cabinets, tiles and false ceiling are very popular products.
Water
Water is one of the most important elements in construction and is required for the
preparation of mortar, mixing of cement concrete and for curing work etc. The quality of
water used has a direct impact on the strength of the motor and cement concrete. The water
used for curing and mixing must be free from high quantities of alkalis, acid, oils, salt, sugar,
organic materials, vegetable growth, etc that might be harmful to bricks, concrete or iron.
Impurities in water can cause metal corrosion, introduce unwanted silt and clay into
the concrete, adversely affect the hardening process of concrete and also reduce the strength
by even 25%. Thus the need to ensure the quality of water used during construction is vital.
Some of the major parameters lay down by the IS 456:2000 for quality of water to Concrete.

PH, Organic solids, Suspended matter, Chlorides and Sulphates

Types of solids Limits

Organic solids 200 mg/liter

Inorganic solids 3000 mg/liter

Sulphates 400 mg/liter

2000 mg/liter for plain concrete.

Chlorides
500 mg/liter for reinforced concrete work.
 Suspended matter 2000 mg/liter

MORTAR
Mortar is an intimate mixture obtained by adding water to dry mixture of sand and binding material
like clay, lime or cement.
Classification of Mortar:
1. On the basis of bulk density: Heavy weight, if weight is more than 15 kN/m3, light weight, if its
weight is less than 15 kN/m3.
2. On the basis of application: Brick laying mortar, finishing mortar.
3. On the basis of binding material: Mud mortar, lime mortar, surkhi mortar, cement mortar and
gauged mortar.
The proportions of cement to sand for various works used are show below.

S. No. Name of work Cement: sand

1 Brickwork below ground level 1 : 3 to 1 : 4

2 General brickwork and stone masonry 1:6
3 For arch work 1:3
4 Damp-proof course 1:2
5 External plastering and ceiling plastering 1:4
6 Internal plastering 1 : 5 to 1 : 6
7 Pointing 1 : 2 to 1 : 3
.
The strength obtained with different proportion is as shown below:
(1) 1: 3 Mix – 10 N/mm2; (2) 1: 4 Mix – 7.5 N/mm2; (3) 1: 5 Mix – 5. N/mm2; (4) 1: 6 Mix – 3.0
N/mm2; (5) 1 : 8 Mix – 0.7 N/mm2.
Cement mortar may be prepared by hand mixing or by machine mixing.
Mortars with special properties are also used: Fire resistant, sand absorbing, X-ray shielding,
packing mortar and decorative mortars are the special mortars.
CEMENT CONCRETE
Cement concrete is an intimate mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water. Occasionally
some admixtures are added to introduce special properties. Water lubricates aggregates, activates
chemical reactions and gives workability to mix.
Important properties of Fresh concrete in plastic stage (green concrete) are
Workability
Shrinkage
Segregation and
Bleeding.
Workability of Concrete
Workability is the amount of work to produce full compaction.
The important facts in connection with workability are:
(1) If more water is added to attain the required degree of workmanship, it results into concrete of
low strength and poor durability.
(ii) If the strength of concrete is not to be affected, the degree of workability can be obtained:
by slightly changing the proportions of fine and coarse aggregates, in case the concrete mixture is
too we; and
by adding a small quantity of water cement paste in the proportion of original mix, in case the
concrete mixture is too dry.
(iii) The workability of concrete is also affected by the maximum size of the coarse aggregates to be
used in the mixture.
Test for Workability - Slump Test, Compaction Factor Test, Vee-Bee Test, Vee Bee
Consistometer, Flow Test.
Slump Test
Slump test is the most commonly used method of measuring consistency of concrete which can be
employed either in laboratory or at site of work.
It is not a suitable method for very wet or very dry concrete and stiff mix.
It does not measure all factors contributing to workability.
The diameter of the rod is 16 mm and its length is 60 cm. The strokes to be given for ramming vary
from 20 to 30.

Recommended Slumps of Concrete

Compaction Factor Test

In the compaction factor test the degree of workability is measured in terms of internal energy
required to compact the concrete thoroughly.
A compaction factor of 0.95 represents flowing concrete having high workability; 0.92 plastic
concrete having medium workability; 0.85 stiff plastic concrete having low workability and a
compaction factor of 0.75 represents stiff concrete having very low workability.
The compacting factor test is designed primarily for use in the laboratory but it can also be used in
the field.
The degree of compaction called the compacting factor is measured by the density ratio i.e., the
ratio of the density actually achieved in the test to density of same concrete fully compacted.
Workability, Slump and Compacting Factor of Concrete with 20 mm or 40 mm Maximum Size of
Aggregate
Vee-Bee Test
This is carried out in such a manner that the specimen concrete in the test receives more or less
same treatment in respect of the method of placing as it would in actual execution of the work. This
test is preferred for finding workability of stiff concrete mix having very low workability.
In this test a Vee-Bee time of 5 to 3 seconds represent stiff plastic concrete having medium
workability, 10 to 15 seconds represents stiff concrete of low workability and Vee-Bee time to 18 to
10 seconds represent very stiff concrete having very low workability.
Vee Bee Consistometer
This is a good laboratory test to measure indirectly the workability of concrete.
This test consists of a vibrating table, metal pot, a sheet metal concrete a standard iron rod.
The time required for the shape of concrete to change from slump concrete shape to cylindrical
shape in second is known as Vee Bee Degree.
This method is very suitable for very dry concrete whose slump value cannot be measured by slump
test but the vibration is too vigorous for concrete with a slump greater than about 50 mm.
Flow Test
This is a laboratory test which gives an indication of the quality of concrete with respect to
consistency cohesiveness and the proneness to segregation.
The spread or the flow of the concrete is measured and this flow is related to workability.

The value could range anything from 0-150%.

It can be realized that the compacting factor test measures the inherent characteristics of the
concrete which relates very close to the workability requirements of concrete and as such it is one
of the good test to depict the workability of concrete.
The Factors that Affect the Workability of Concrete are
01. Water Content of the Concrete Mix:
Water content will have important influences on the workability in given volume of concrete. The
higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of concrete,
which affect the workability.
Water requirement is mainly associated with absorption by aggregates surface& filling up the voids
between aggregates.
However, Adding Extra Water to the Concrete Mix can be Disadvantageous, as given below:
The strength of the concrete may get reduced.
More quantity of water comes out from the surface of concrete resulting into bleeding.
Cement slurry also escapes through the joints of formwork resulting into the loss of cement from
concrete.
02. The Size of Aggregates:
Workability is mainly governed by the maximum size of aggregates. Water and paste require, will
be not less if a chosen size of aggregates for concrete is bigger. Consequently, for a given quantity
of water content & paste, bigger size aggregate will give higher workability.
Note: On the site, the maximum size of aggregate to be used will depend upon the many factors
such as the handling, mixing and placing equipment, the thickness of section and quantity of
reinforcement. Later two are very important.

03. The shape of Aggregates:

The Shape of Aggregates Seriously Influences the Workability of Concrete:
Angular, flaky & elongated aggregate reduces the workability of concrete.
Rounded or sub rounded aggregates increase the workability due to the reduction of surface area for
a given volume or weight. Therefore, an excess paste is available to give better lubricating effect.
Rounded shape aggregate has less frictional resistance and gives a high workability as compared to
angular, flaky or elongated aggregates.
Note: River sand & gravel provide greater workability to concrete than crushed sand.
04. Surface Texture of Aggregates:

The roughly textured aggregates have more surface area than smoothly rounded aggregates of the
same volume. Smooth rounded or glassy aggregates will give better workability than roughly
textured aggregates. A reduction of inter particle frictional resistance offered by smooth aggregates
also contributes to higher workability.
05. The Porosity of Aggregates:
Porous and non-saturated aggregate will require more water than non-absorbent aggregates. For the
same degree of workability, latter will require less water. Overall, this factor is only of secondary
importance.
06. Grading of Aggregates:
Grading of aggregates has the greatest influence on workability. The better the grading of
aggregates, the less is the amount of void in concrete so well-graded aggregates should be used.
When total voids are less in concrete, the excess paste is available to give better lubricating effect.
With excess amount of concrete paste present in the mixture, it becomes cohesive & fatty that
prevents segregation of particles & least amount of compacting efforts is required to compact the
concrete.
For a given workability, there is one value of coarse aggregate / Fine aggregate ratio, which needs
the lower water content.
07. Uses of Concrete Admixtures:
This is one of the commonly used methods to enhance the workability of concrete. Concrete
admixtures such as plasticizer and super plasticizers greatly improve the workability.
Air entraining agents are also used to increase the workability. Air entraining agents creates a large
number of very tiny air bubbles. These bubbles get distributed throughout the mass of concrete and
act as rollers and increase the workability.
Mineral admixtures like Pozzolanic materials are also used to improve the workability of concrete.
08. Ambient Temperature:
In hot weather, if temperature increases, the evaporation rate of mixing water also increases and
hence fluid viscosity increases, too. This phenomenon affects the flow ability of concrete and due to
fast hydration of concrete, it will gain strength earlier which decreases the workability of fresh
concrete.
Shrinkage of Concrete
The property of diminishing in volume during the process of drying and hardening is termed
Shrinkage. It depends mainly on the duration of exposure. If this strain is prevented, it produces
tensile stress in the concrete and hence concrete develops cracks.
Segregation
Segregation in concrete is a case of particle segregation in concrete applications, in which
particulate solids tend to segregate by virtue of differences in the size, density, shape and other
properties of particles of which they are composed.
It is caused when coarse aggregate is separated out from the finer materials resulting in large voids,
less durability and less strength.
Some rules-of-thumb are developed for deciding the quantity of water in concrete.
Weight of water = 28% of the weight of the cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate.
Weight of water = 30 % of the weight of the cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate
Bleeding of Concrete
If excess water in the mix comes up at the surface causing small pores through the mass of concrete,
it is called bleeding. Bleeding is one form of segregation, where water comes out to the surface of
the concrete, being lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding can be
easily identified in the field by the appearance of a thin layer of water in the top surface of freshly
mixed concrete
Properties of hardened concrete:
(1) compressive strength; (2) tensile strength (3) modulus of elasticity (4) shrinkage (5) creep (6)
coefficient of thermal expansion
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The characteristics strength is defined as the strength of concrete below which not more than 5% of
the test results are expected to fall. As per IS: 456 concrete mix always designed for the target mean
strength computed as,
Target mean strength = Characteristics strength + (1.65 x standard deviation)
M20 is the minimum grade of concrete for use in RCC work.
Characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member
The characteristic strength of concrete in flexural member is taken as 0.67 times the strength of
concrete cube.
Design strength (fd) and partial safety factor for material strength
The strength to be taken for the purpose of design is known is known as design strength and is
given by
Design strength (fd) = Characteristic strength
Partial safety factor for material strength
The value of partial safety factor depends upon the type of material and upon the type of limit state.
According to IS code, partial safety factor is taken as 1.5 for concrete and 1.15 for steel.
Design strength of concrete in member = 0.45fck

2. TENSILE STRENGTH
Flexural strength is one measure of the Tensile strength of concrete. In concrete structure one set of
visible cracks occur under flexure to compute load factor against cracking.
Tensile strength / Flexural strength / Modulus of rupture (fcr)
Fcr = 0.7√fck N/mm2
The tensile strength of concrete in direct tension is obtained experimentally by split cylinder.
It varies between 7 to 15% of compressive strength.

3. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Modulus of elasticity of concrete which is significantly influenced by the following factors.
Type of the aggregates used,
Type of cement and
Mix proportions
This property is required for the computations of deflections of structural concrete members which
forms an important limit state in the design of concrete members. In the absence of test data, the
modulus of elasticity of concrete is normally related to the compressive strength and is computed by
the empirical relation recommended by IS: 456-2000 code and is expressed as,
Ec=5000√fck
Where Ec is the short term static modulus of elasticity of concrete expressed in N/mm2
fck is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete expressed in N/mm2.
4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
The ingredients of concrete and environmental conditions like temperature and humidity influence
the total shrinkage of concrete. Water content in concrete significantly affects the shrinkage. The IS:
456-2000 recommends the total shrinkage strain as 0.0003 in the absence of test data. Drying
shrinkage in plain concrete may result in surface cracks. Shrinkage of concrete also influences the
deflections of reinforced concrete members.
5. CREEP OF CONCRETE
The inelastic time dependent strain developed in a concrete emeber under sustained loading is
referred to as creep of concrete. Creep of concrete is influenced by following factors.
Cement content,
W/C ratio,
Temperature and humidity,
Size of structural element,
Type of loading and period of loading.
In the absence of reliable experimental data, the creep coefficient is expressed as the ratio of
ultimate creep strain/elastic strain at various ages of loading as recommended by IS: 456-2000 are
given below.
Age at Loading Creep Coefficient
7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
 1 year 1.1
Creep of concrete significantly affects the deflections of reinforced concrete flexural members.
Higher creep coefficient results in large deflections. The value of creep coefficient is useful in the
computation of time dependent deflections in reinforced concrete members.
6. COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, influenced mainly by the type of aggregate used
in concrete is required for the design of structures like chimneys, water tanks, silos etc. the values
recommended in IS:456-2000 are compiled below.
Type of Aggregate Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for Concrete
Quartzite 1.2 to 1.3 x 10-5
Sandstone 0.9 to 1.2 x 10-5
Granite 0.7 to 0.95 x 10-5
Basalt 0.8 to 0.95 x 10-5
Lime stone 0.6 to 0.9 x 10-5
The operations involve in concreting are
Mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and curing.
Mixing of Concrete
Batching
1. Volume Batching.
2. Weight batching.
Mixing
Hand mixing – Used on small scale of concreting. 10% additional cement used.
Machine mixing
Sometimes, for major jobs concrete mixer machine is used to mix the concrete. A typical concrete
mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. Concrete mixers of several designs and
capacities are available. A simple concrete mixer essentially consists of a central drum which can be
rotated about an axis.
It may be of tilting or non-tilting design. For achieving thorough mixing, the mixer drum is
provided with steel blades fixed at various angles.
Concrete mixers are of two general designs: the batch mixer and the continuous mixer.
In the batch mixer, only a small quantity of concrete is prepared at a time.
In the continuous mixer, predetermined proportions of ingredients are continuously fed from the top
and volumes of concrete ready for use are available regularly.
Methods for Proportioning Concrete Mixes
1. Minimum voids method
The quantity of sand used should be such that it completely fills the voids of the coarse aggregate
and similarly the quantity of cement used should be such that it fills the voids of sand. However in
actual practices the quantity of sand used in the mix is kept 10% more than the voids in the coarse
aggregate and the quantity of cement is taken 15% more than the voids in the sand.
2. Maximum density method
Method of minimum voids was later improved by Fuller. For maximum density of mix
He gave following expression.
D = Maximum size of aggregate.
P = % by weight of matter finer than diameter d.
3. Abram's water-cement ratio law
This law states that for any given conditions of test the strength of workable concrete mix is
dependent only on the water cement ratio. It means that if the concrete is fully compacted, the
strength is not affected by aggregate shape, type or surface texture or the aggregate grading.
According to this law, the strength of mix increases with decrease in water content.

In terms of crushing strength after 7 days curing where P7 is cylinder crushing

strength in kg/cm2 and x is water cement ratio by volume.

In terms of crushing strength after 28 days curing where P25 is cylinder crush
strength after 28 days curing.
Strength of concrete increases with age.

Transportation and Handling

After being mixed, concrete is transported to the site in such a way to prevent segregation and to
keep the mix uniform.
Concrete from platforms or mixers has to be transported to the job place. The coarse aggregates are
most likely to segregate or separate out quickly from the mix during transport.
Hence great care must be exercised to prevent their segregation. All sorts of jerks to the transporting
medium must be avoided.
Further, no water should be mixed with concrete while it is being transported. This will destroy the
effect achieved by mixing the ingredients.
Careless dropping at the place of construction will also result in segregation of coarse aggregates.
This must also be avoided.
Any method of transportation should protect the concrete from the effect of weather.
Common methods used for transporting concrete are: manual transport in iron pans; in
wheelbarrows, in concrete buggies and pipelines, belt conveyors, Pump and chutes.
Placing of Concrete
There after it is laid or deposited in the formwork of suitable material according to the design
requirement.
The placement of a concrete is a very important operation, which largely determines the success of
a structure and its durability.
Therefore, great care has to be taken in handling concrete from mixing place to the job as well as
while placing it in the formwork.
Formwork
When concrete is to be placed in a building for particular members as floors, walls, beams,
columns, arches, and sills, etc., proper formwork is first made from suitable material to hold the
fresh concrete.
The role of this formwork is no less important in the ultimate quality of concrete work than any
other aspect of concrete making.
It is necessary that:
The formwork is correctly designed and properly tied up.
The formwork is perfectly watertight so that there is no loss of water from the fresh concrete, after
it is placed in this formwork.
The form work is quite rigid and strong as to bear the load of the concrete.
Before placing the concrete, the inner surfaces of the formwork must be cleared, cleaned and wet.
This last precaution is necessary to prevent loss of water from fresh concrete.
While placing, it is necessary that concrete is dropped vertically into the formwork. Inclined placing
increases chances of segregation.
Compaction of concrete
To make your structure strong and long lasting, it is very important that your structure is nonporous
or impermeable. Porous concrete can lead to various problems like leakages, corrosion etc. These
can happen if proper compaction is not done after placing of concrete.
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air as far as possible
from the concrete to achieve the highest possible density of the compacted mass.
The main purpose of compaction of concrete is to get a dense mass without voids, to get the
concrete to surround all reinforcement and to fill all corners.
In the process of mixing, transporting and placing of fresh concrete, air bubbles are likely to get
entrapped in the concrete. The lower the workability, the higher is a number of air bubbles
entrapped.
Air bubbles occupy between 5 to 20 percent volume of the total concrete. If the air is not removed
fully, it can reduce the bond between the concrete and reinforcement and/or any other embedded
parts and the structure loses its strength considerably.
Compaction is done in different methods, which are given below.
01. Manual compaction
02. Mechanical compaction with vibrators
Compaction of concrete with vibrators is divided into the following types:
a) Internal Vibrators - Internal vibrators which sometimes called spude or poker vibrators are
usually applied to compact concrete in beams, walls, columns, and slabs. Not only does vibrators
performance is influenced by concrete workability but also by frequency, amplitude, and head
dimensions of vibrators.
b) External Vibrators - There are two major types of external vibrators which are
Table or surface vibrator- The Table vibrator is widely suitable for compacting concrete surfaces
such as floors and slabs. It adequately consolidates slabs up to 20 cm thickness; internal vibration is
required for higher slab thicknesses., and
Form vibrator- form vibrators can be advantageous for constructing pipes, masonry units, and
other types of precast concrete. However, it is not recommended to employ form vibration at the top
of vertical forms such as columns because it could cause gaps between concrete the molds as a
consequent of in and out movements, so internal vibration is better to use in this case..

Curing: It is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture and temperature in a freshly laid
concrete. Curing should be done well in first 2 weeks and continued for another 1–2 weeks. If
curing is not satisfactory shrinkage cracks may develop and durability is reduced. The various
methods of curing are:
(1) Spraying water; (2) Covering with gunny bags; (3) Ponding; (4) Steam curing and (5) Applying
curing compounds.
Mix Design
Concrete mix design is the process of finding right proportions of cement, sand and aggregates for
concrete to achieve target strength in structures. So, concrete mix design can be stated as Concrete
Mix = Cement: Sand: Aggregates.
The concrete mix design involves various steps, calculations and laboratory testing to find right mix
proportions. This process is usually adopted for structures which requires higher grades of concrete
such as M25 and above and large construction projects where quantity of concrete consumption is
huge..
Benefits of concrete mix design is that it provides the right proportions of materials, thus making
the concrete construction economical in achieving required strength of structural members. As, the
quantity of concrete required for large constructions are huge, economy in quantity of materials
such as cement makes the project construction economical.
Concrete Mix design of M20, M25, M30 and higher grade of concrete can be calculated.
Admixtures - Concrete admixtures (additives) enhances the properties of concrete for
applications in construction with special requirements. Concrete additives are used to achieve
desired workability in case of low water cement ratio, and to enhance setting time of concrete for
long distance transportation of concrete.
Properties of admixture:
Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease water content at the same
workability.
Retard or accelerate time of initial setting.
Reduce or prevent settlement.
Modify the rate or capacity for bleedings.
Reduce segregation.
Improve pump ability.
Reduce the rate of slump loss.
Types of admixtures:
Accelerating admixtures - Accelerating admixtures are used for quicker setting times of concrete.
It provides higher early strength development in freshly cast concrete.
Main uses of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures
These admixtures are suitable for concreting in winter conditions
During any emergency repair work
In case of early removal of formwork

Retarding admixtures - The function of retarding concrete admixture is to delay or

extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete. These are helpful for concrete that
has to be transported to long distance in transit mixers and helpful in placing the
concrete at high temperatures, specially used as grouting admixture and water reducers
results in increase of strength and durability.
Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers: - These admixtures are used for following
purposes:
To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same
workability as an admixture free mix.
To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce the
heat of hydration in mass concrete.
To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations
Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
The commonly used admixtures are Ligno-sulphonates and hydrocarbolic acid salts.
Plasticizers are usually based on lignosulphonate, which is a natural polymer, derived
from wood processing in the paper industry.

Air-entraining admixtures - These are generally used to improve workability, ease of

placing, increased durability, better resistance to frost action and reduction in bleeding.
The common Air-Entraining agents are natural wood resins, neutralized vinsol resins,
polyethylene oxide polymers and sulfonated compounds.
Super plasticizing admixtures - At a given w/c ratio, this admixture increases the
workability, typically by raising the slump from 75 mm to 200 mm.
b) The second use of this admixtures is in the production of concrete of normal
workability but with an extreme high strength (super plasticizer can reduce the water
content for a given workability by 25 – 35 percent compared with half that value in
the case of conventional water reducing admixtures). The concrete using this
admixture can be placed with little or no compaction and is not subject to excessive
bleeding or segregation.
The commonly used super plasticizer is as follows:
i) Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (S M F C)
ii) Naphthalene formaldehyde condensate (S N F C)
iii) Modified ligno-sulphonates and other sulphonic esters, acids etc.
Exposure condition of concrete
There are five levels of environment exposure of concrete for which durability
requirements of concrete depends. These are:
Mild exposure
Moderate exposure
Severe exposure
Very severe exposure, and
Extreme exposure
These are the environments to which the concrete will be exposed during its
working life. The durability requirement, like clear cover to reinforcement steel is
governed by these exposure conditions.
Table below shows exposure conditions of these environments.
Sr. No Environment Exposure Conditions
Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
1 Mild
conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing
whilst wet, Concrete exposed to condensation and rain,
2 Moderate
Concrete in contact or buried under non-aggressive soil /
ground water.
Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting
3 Severe and drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe
condensation.
Concrete completely immersed in sea water, concrete
exposed to coastal environment, concrete surfaces exposed
4 Very severe
to sea water spray, corrosive fumes or severe freeing
conditions whilst wet.
Concrete in contact with or buried under aggressive sub-
soil / ground water, surface of members in tidal zone,
5 Extreme
members in direct contact with liquid / solid aggressive
chemicals.
Different exposures with normal weight aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size
 Plain Concrete Reinforced Concrete

Exposure
Conditions Minimum Minimum
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
cement cement
free water- grade of free water- grade of
content content
cement ratio concrete cement ratio concrete
kg/cum kg/cum

Mild 220 0.60 – 300 0.55 M 20

Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25
Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30
Very
260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
Severe
Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40

Durability of Concrete
The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without
deterioration for a long period of years is known as durability. OR
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering
action, chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering
properties.
Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
It normally refers to the duration or life span of trouble-free performance. Different
concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the exposure
environment and properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to tidal
seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.
Concrete will remain durable if:
The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
sulphates and silt.
Factors affecting durability of concrete

Cement content - Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent

segregation and bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the
workability will be reduced leading to inadequate compaction. However, if water is
added to improve workability, water / cement ratio increases and resulting in
highly permeable material.
Compaction - The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by
inadequate compaction. Usually it is being governed by the compaction
equipments used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork

Curing - It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture

retention and to ensure hydration process occur completely

Cover- Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability- It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be

noticed that higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a
proper curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover
could provide a low permeability concrete

Grades of Concrete

Concrete grades are denoted by M10, M20, and M30 according to their
compressive strength.

The “M” denotes Mix design of concrete followed by the compressive strength
number in N/mm2
“Mix” is the respective ingredient proportions which are Cement: Sand:
Aggregate or Cement: Fine Aggregate: Coarse Aggregate.
Note
The Minimum grade of concrete for Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) is M15
The Minimum grade of concrete for Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is M20
The Minimum grade of concrete for RCC in coastal area is M30
The Minimum grade of concrete for PCC in coastal area is M20

Concrete Grade and Mix Ratio Table

Concrete Characteristic Compressive Strength
Group Mix Ratio
Grade (N/mm2)
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 N/mm2
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 N/mm2
Ordinary Concrete M10 1:3:6 10 N/mm2
M15 1:2:4 15 N/mm2
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 N/mm2
M25 1:1:2 25 N/mm2
Standard Concrete Design
To M50 50 N/mm2
Mix
 Design
M55 55 N/mm2
High Strength Mix
Concrete Design
To M70 70 N/mm2
Mix

Different Concrete Works

1. Plain concrete
2. R.C.C.
3. P.S.C.
4. Precast concrete
5. Special concrete.
To meet the requirements of special situations, the following types of concrete are
manufactured:
1. Fibre reinforced concrete (FRC).
2. Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
3. High performance concrete
4. Light weight concrete - density between 500 to 1800 kg/m3
5. Self-compacting concrete.