Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59

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Hydrometallurgy

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Metallurgical processes for the recovery and recycling of lanthanum from

various resources—A review
Shivendra Sinha, Abhilash ⁎, Pratima Meshram, Banshi Dhar Pandey
CSIR- National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Various processes for the recovery of lanthanum from metallurgical and non-metallurgical resources are
Received 31 July 2015 reviewed. Lanthanum is present as a major constituent of monazite, fluorocarbonate ores, bauxite and associated
Received in revised form 17 November 2015 residues, tailings and waste liquors of rare earths, aluminium, etc. Phosphate rock, optical glasses and Ni-MH bat-
Accepted 7 December 2015
teries serve as the most recent and high concentration secondary resources of lanthanum. This review discusses
Available online 9 December 2015
the various methods of hydro-/pyro-metallurgical origin, leaching, solvent extraction, precipitation and other
Keywords:
pre-treatment options for lanthanum recovery. A separate section on recovery of lanthanum by selective
Lanthanum biosorption from various model and actual solutions is also included. The need to develop new extraction sys-
Ores tems with high lanthanum selectivity in the areas of leaching and solvent extraction are probable improvement
Secondary resources trend for the future.
Leaching © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Solvent extraction
Sorption

1. Introduction
Lanthanum is light group rare earth element with atomic number 57
and atomic weight 138.9055 was discovered by Sweden chemist Carl
Gustav Mosander in 1839 (Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2004). The chem-
istry of lanthanum culpably involved its formation of the ionic +3 oxi-
dation state and its higher basicity compared among 17 rare earth
elements which determines the extent to which cation hydrolyzes in
aqueous solution and relative stability of salts and by exploiting this
chemical feature, it can be separated by a variety of techniques like sol-
vent extraction, ion exchange, fractional precipitation methods (Yu,
1995; Chi and Xu, 1999; Vierheilig, 2014; Xie et al., 2014a, 2014b;
Weeden et al., 2015). There are no ores which contain only lanthanum
as the metal component, it is found in minerals that include all the lan-
thanoid elements, It mainly occurs in monazite (Ce, La, Y, Th)PO4 and
bastnäsite (La, Ce)FCO3 ores in appreciable quantities (Clark, 1984;
Lottermoser, 1992; Chi and Tian, 2007). Whilst lanthanum found in
traces in the ores of aluminium, iron, zinc and gold (Maksimovic and
Panto, 1991; Frietsch and Perdahl, 1995; Xu et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009;
Kuzmin et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2013; Ismail et al., 2014; Jaireth et al.,
2014). Monazite deposits in India, Malaysia, Australia, Brazil, China,
South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the United States, constitutes the
second largest segment while bastenite deposits constitutes larger por-
tion of world's rare earth resources, occurs mainly in China and
⁎ Corresponding author at: CSIR, National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, India.
Tel.: +916572345274; fax: +916572345213.
E-mail address: abhibios@gmail.com (Abhilash).
Australia (Clark, 1984; Wood, 1990a, 1990b; Chi et al., 2000a, 2000b;
Noumav, 2008). In India, Monatize is found to be association with
heavy minerals like ilmenite, rutile, zircon etc. in concentrations of
0.4–4.3% of total heavies in the beach and inland placer deposits of
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal. Al-
though Bastnäsite has been reported in association with carbonatite
from Purulia distt, West Bengal and monazite has been reported from
carbonatite occurrence of Sung Valley (Meghalaya),Sevattur
(Tamilnadu) and Samchampi (Assam), by geological survey of India
(Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2004).
Lanthanum is the 28th most abundant element within in the earth
crust (~ 32 ppm), although exits in soil (~ 26 ppm, ranging from 1 to
120 ppm), seawater (~ 5 ppt) and nil in atmosphere (Henderson,
1984). Lanthanum content in unoxidized ores ranges from 20 to
100 pm and averages 30 ppm, its direct variation in content with potas-
sium and aluminium suggest that the lanthanum is concentrated in clay
intensively exits in concentrates of carbocaneous materials from host
rocks and unoxidized ores ranged from 160 to 222 ppm (Radtke,
1936; Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2004). The main ores from which it
is extracted today are monazite and bastnäsite, where lanthanum
makes up 25% and 38% of the minerals, respectively (Gupta and
Krishnamurthy, 2004). Allanite and cerite also contain lanthanum, but
these ores are not mined for their lanthanum content in particular
(Table 1). The main mining regions of the aforementioned ores making
up the world production of lanthanum exceeding over 12,500 mt/year.
The reserves of this element are thought to be in the region of 6 mt. De-
spite being one of the rare earths, lanthanum is probably one of the least
rare, occurring in a tonnage similar to that of lead and tin combined

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.12.004
0304-386X/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
48 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
Table 1
Prevalent mineral resources of lanthanum with % La content and occurrence.
Mineral Chemical formula % La content Occurrence
Monazite (La, Ce, Nd, Th)·PO4 25
Bastnäsite — La (La, Ce)·CO3F 35
Fergusonite — (Ce, La, 15–24
Ce Nd)·NbO4/Ce0.6La0.3Y0.1NbO4·0.3(H2O)
Gadolinite — Ce (Ce, La, Nd, Y)2·Fe2+ Be2Si2O10 10.9–14
Loparite (Ce, La, Na, Ca, Sr)·(Ti,Nb)·O3 11.89–13.84 U.S.A., China, Russia
Parisite-Ce Ca(Ce,La)2(CO3)3F2 23.27
Yttrocerite (Ca, Ce, La, Y)·F3. xH2O 8.5–11.5
Allanite (Ca; La)2 (Al, Fe 2+, 0.075–7.17
Fe3+)3(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Stavelotite-(La) La3Mn2+3Cu(Mn3+,Fe3+,Mn4+)26[Si2O7]6O30 1–2
Rhabdophane (Ce, La)PO4 1.8–2.0
Hornblende (La, Ce,Ca,Na,K)2−3(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Ti,Al)5 5 USA
(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2
(Golev et al., 2014; Goonan, 2011a, 2011b; Massari and Ruberti, 2013).
Lanthanum metal itself is produced by reacting lanthanum fluoride and
calcium metal, however lanthanum is only commercial in its other
forms such as, lanthanum oxide, carbonate, chloride, fluoride, nitrate
and sulphate (Gschneidner, 1980; Gschneidner et al., 2002). But, the
high price of lanthanum twinned with absence of reliable sources and
long term production has limited its commercial applications. Lantha-
num is a rare and expensive metal because of its scarce distribution
and difficulties associated with its extraction (Stwertka, 2012; Emsley,
2011; Gray, 2012, Binnemans et al., 2013).
There are no such commercial uses for pure lanthanum metal, but
there are for its alloys, although its compounds have been found
wider applications in automobile catalytic convertors, ceramics, fluid
catalytic cracking, glass additives, battery alloys, phosphors, glass
polishing industries. The properties of lanthanum led to exploitation
in many areas like Ni-MH batteries, high strength and conductive cop-
per alloys, potentiometric chlorine gas sensors, high temperature lan-
thanum zirconium coatings, lanthanum carbonate as a medication,
petroleum cracking catalysts, electron dense tracer in molecular biolo-
gy, LaB6 in electron microscopes, La–Ba radiometric dating to estimate
age of rocks and ores, in carbon arc lamps, additive in liquid phase
sintering, optical glasses (~40% usage of lanthanum oxide), lanthanum
hexa-aluminate as thermal barrier coating for gas turbine application,
lanthanum-chromite based materials for solid oxide fuel cell intercon-
nects, as alloying element in many Bi–Te, Bi–Se–Te, Mg alloys, in the ze-
olite catalysts used in petroleum refining, in hybrid cars (Hendrick,
1985; Nakai et al., 1988; Chau and Lu, 1995; Gadow and Lischka,
2002; Kim and Shim, 2003; Fergus, 2004; Gupta and Krishnamurthy,
2004; Ji et al., 2005; Shijie et al., 2006; Tliha et al., 2007; Emsley, 2011;
Dziubaniuk et al., 2012; Dejiu et al., 2013; Di Girolamo et al., 2014). Lan-
thanum hydroxide is used for adsorption of phosphates from waste
water under the influence of chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and hydrogen
carbonate and even lanthanum phosphates monoliths act as efficient
perchlorate adsorbents (Sankar et al., 2014; Xie et al., 2014a, 2014b).
The applications of lanthanum are increasing because of its significant
chemical properties over other metals.
The recovery of lanthanum from its ores in substantial quantity usu-
ally involves pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical process or com-
bined pyro–hydro metallurgical process. However, the energy
consumption is higher in pyrometallurgical processes. Lanthanum
found ameliorated in slags, residues, tailings and primarily produced
as a by product during processing of various ores. Currently, hydromet-
allurgical processes, which mainly involve leaching, solvent extraction
References
India, China, Korea, U.S.A., Maksimovic and Panto (1991); Frietsch and Perdahl (1995);
Malaysia, Australia, Brazil Xu et al. (2006); Li et al. (2009); Kuzmin et al. (2012); Wang
South Africa, Sri Lanka, et al. (2013); Ismail et al. (2014); Jaireth et al. (2014)
Thailand
China, Australia Clark (1984); Wood (1990a, 1990b); Chi et al. (2000a, 2000b)
Northern China, Ukraine Gupta and Krishnamurthy (2004)
Norway Gupta and Krishnamurthy (2004)
Chakhmouradian et al. (1999); Rofer and Kaasik (2000); Gupta
and Krishnamurthy (2004)
Russia, Brazil Zaitsev et al. (1998); Manfredi et al. (2013); Gupta and
Krishnamurthy (2004)
U.S.A. Gupta and Krishnamurthy (2004); Sverdrup (1968)
India, U.S.A. Abhilash et al. (2014); Jordens et al. (2014)
Belgium Bernhardt et al. (2005)
USA Clark (1984)
Aide and Aide (2012)
and precipitation are most commonly used for lanthanum recovery. In
this review, the metallurgical processes involving the intricate ways to
recover lanthanum from various resources, depending on the different
types and amounts of impurities are reviewed in consideration of
selecting processes to recover lanthanum and incorporating the process
for the production of the metal in bulk quantity. The selectivity of ex-
traction can be improved using biosorption as a technique comparative
to solvent extraction and co precipitation, which also reviewed in pres-
ent work.
2. Metallurgical process for the recovery and recycling of lanthanum
from various sources
2.1. Monazite
Monazite is a phosphate mineral which constitutes 10–40% La along
with noteworthy elements like Ce, Sm, Pr and Nd, 4–12 wt.% thorium
and a variable amount of uranium. Monazite is found throughout the
world in placer deposits, beach sands, and is also a component of the
Bayan Obo deposit (Thompson, 1980). In India, the estimate of mona-
zite is 10.21 million ton (mt) in 2005 which has gone up to 11.93 mt
in 2013. Monazite having high chemical and thermal stability, when
attacked by strong hot acid led to transformation of phosphate ion to
di-hydrogen phosphate salt and phosphoric acid, bequeathing the
metal ions as water soluble salts which spiflicate the phosphate matrix
present in the mineral (Jiang et al., 2005). Metallurgical processing of
monazite results in pulverization of rare earth complexes due to forma-
tion of phosphides. So, the separation of individual metal led to an es-
sential requirement to remove phosphorus from the ore, which
decompose at higher temperature due to their high thermal stability.
Decomposition of monazite studied with the influence of 10% mixture
of NaCl–CaCl2 was found to be 79% at roasting temperature of 750 °C
in 1 h; whereas charred coal at 1400 °C in 2 h led to 98%
dephosphorization efficiency, even CaO in CaO–CaCl–CaCl2 has ability
to decompose monazite in temperature range varying from 610 to
700 °C (Shuchen et al., 2007; Wenyuan et al., 2006).
Lanthanum recovery from monazite was investigated using Na2CO3
at temperature of 900 °C in both reducing and sulphidizing environ-
ment, in which extraction was made from water leached residue that
selectively leaches the oxysulphide phase formed with 3.5 wt.% hydro-
chloric acid (Merritt, 1990). Chi et al., 2000a, 2000b reported a novel
method for the recovery of RE containing lanthanum from weathered
black earth slime using SO2 leaching followed by ammonium chloride
 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
roasting resulting in a product of 92% purity at a RE recovery greater
than 64%. Pressure leaching, electro-generated chlorine leaching and
concentrated sulphuric acid leaching were performed to investigate
the leaching of lanthanum and other rare earth elements, derived
from monazite concentrate at various temperature ranges (Shin et al.,
2012). Extraction of lanthanum and other rare earths from monazite
mineral was studied using NaOH fusion, withal Korean monazite
dephosphorised with 50% NaOH (w/v) at 170 °C and 100 g/L pulp den-
sity in 4 h followed by investigation of the leaching behaviour under dif-
ferent chemical reaction controlled model. Whilst the rare earth
hydroxide (including lanthanum) left after alkaline leaching in auto-
clave was dissolved in 6 N HCl at 90 °C, 60 g/L pulp density for 2 h to re-
cover 95% REMs (Panda et al., 2014). Pyro-hydrometallurgy extraction
of rare earths constituting lanthanum, of original and dephosphorized
Korean monazite has been demonstrated by acid treatment. The process
suggest direct leaching of both the samples at elevated temperature for
2 h and pulp b100 g/L resulting 36% recovery of lanthanum for 2-stage
leaching in case of original sample while in other 91.1% recovery were
achieved in single stage leaching (Kumari et al., 2013). Effect of roasting
on monazite using soda and alkali beneficiation were studied in temper-
ature range 400–900 °C, and leachability were studied in order to ascer-
tain the effect using 6 M HCl, Temp = 80 °C, pulp = 30 g/L and t = 1 h.
Lanthanum recovery is slightly higher in case of alkali beneficiated sam-
ple about 97.57%, having La about 13.85 wt.% in alkali roasted sample
(Kumari et al., 2015). However in India, extraction of rare earth from
monazite is commercial in operation. Indian monazite is dissolved in
65–70% NaOH and is processed at high temperature of 980–1190 °C.
In the process of chlorination, monazite is mixed with charcoal and
heated at 900 °C (Lee and Jeon, 2010; Panda et al., 2014; Shin et al.,
2012). Hydrochloric acid leaching of monazite was investigated by hot
digestion method resulting N 90% rare earth oxides (Kim et al., 2010).
Fig. 1. Process flow sheet for the recovery of lathanum from monazite (Soe et al., 2008; El-Nadi, 2012).
49
Murthy and Gupta (1980)) studied the sulfuric acid process for the re-
covery from monazite containing lathanum. Lanthanum is extracted
from Moemeik Myitsone Monazite containing 13% La2O3, which was
first digested with caustic soda where optimized condition was obtain-
ed at monazite to caustic ratio of 1:2.75, digestion time of 3 h and tem-
perature of 140 °C. In hydrochloric acid dissolution, 1.5 kg acid per kg
monazite, dissolution time 1 h and temperature 79 °C, where nitric
acid digestion process for time 1 h and temperature 90 °C were tested.
Precipitation was carried out three times using ammonium hydroxide.
After 3rd precipitation, 96.0% lanthanum oxide was obtained. So the se-
lective precipitation process gives high purity within shorter time and
with lower cost although the solvent extraction process gives higher re-
covery (Soe et al., 2008). El-Nadi (2012) deduced the synergistic separa-
tion of lanthanum and neodymium derived from Egyptian monazite,
using organophosphorus reagents namely trioctylphosphine oxide
(TOPO) and trialkylphosphine oxide (TRPO) in kerosene and the sug-
gested process for the extraction of lanthanum from monazite shown
in Fig. 1.
2.2. Bastnäsite
Bastnäsite is a fluorocarbonate mineral, has the largest proven re-
serve among all rare earth minerals in the world (Kanazawa and
Kamitani, 2006). Generally, a bastnäsite concentrate containing about
60% REO having 33% lanthanum with significant amount Ce, Nd, Pr
along with Sm and Gd, or distinctly more lanthanum and less neodym-
ium and heavies as compared to commercial monazite (Chi, 1989; Chen,
2011). In 1980s, Mountain Pass bastnäsite was the world's major source
of lanthanides, later to which Chinese massive deposits of bastnäsite at
Bayan Obo, Inner Mongolia, provides the majority of the world's lantha-
nides. Bayan Obo bastnäsite occurs in association with monazite, and
50 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
unlike carbonatite bastnäsites, is relatively closer to monazite lantha-
nide compositions (Zelikman, 1966; Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 1992;
Kul et al., 2000; Chi et al., 2004; Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2004;
Huang et al., 2005).
The separation process for bastnäsite ores may horde operations like
gravity magnetic concentration, flotation using a fatty-acid or
hydroxamate-based collector system (Fuerstenau et al., 1982;
Fuerstenau and Pradip, 1991; Fuerstenau and Herrera-Urbina, 1992;
Chi et al., 2001). In general, the conventional method used for extracting
lanthanum and other rare earths from the bastnäsite concentrate em-
ploys sulfuric acid roasting and sodium hydroxide treatment. In China,
bastnäsite concentrate uses flotation to beneficiate rare earth oxides
around 66%, whilst the concentrate is then decomposed using sulphuric
acid roasting, followed by extracting lanthanum by leaching with hy-
drochloric acid, thereafter lanthanum oxide including other rare earth
oxides are recovered from leachate of rare earth chlorides by precipita-
tion using oxalic acid, on the characteristic of their basicity difference,
followed by calcination of rare earth oxalates (Shaw, 1959; Gupta and
Krishnamurthy, 1992; Chi et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2002, 2003). However,
the conventional methods (e.g., sulphuric acid roasting) for extracting
lanthanum and other rare earths from the bastnäsite concentrate are in-
efficient due to intensive energy requirement and lead to serious envi-
ronmental issues resulting from HF and SO2 evolution, withal chloride
roasting process followed by hot water leaching causes a significant
Fig. 2. Process flow sheet for the recovery of lanthanum from bastnasite concentrate (Chi et al., 2004).
loss of rare earths, because the rare earth fluorides formed from
bastnasite decomposition are water-insoluble (Chi and Wang, 1996;
Topkaya et al., 2000; Kul et al., 2008; Zhang and Huang, 1997, Zhu and
Chi, 1999; Zhu et al., 2000a, 2000b; Zhu et al., 2003; Xu, 1995). Chi
et al., 2004 deduced a novel process to extract rare earth from bastnasite
derived from Weishan Mine having lanthanum ~ 35.06% among total
rare earth elements ~ 66.52%, using MgO/Ore: 0.15/1 to minimize the
formation of rare earth fluoride that results in transformation of rare
earth elements into their oxides at 500 °C for 1 h, followed by direct am-
monium chloride roasting at 325 °C, 1 h and, thereby leaching using H2O
with S/L = 1/8 at 75 °C for 2 h, followed by precipitation using oxalic
acid and conversion to oxide by roasting at 900 °C for 2 h, which results
recovery up to RE oxides up to 95% purity and the respective flow sheet
shown in Fig. 2. Wen-zhong et al. (2002a, 2002b) developed a process
for the recovery of lanthanum and other rare earths from the Baotou
rare earth concentrate by fixing the fluorine and chlorinating the RE
with ammonium chloride in the ore and the optimum conditions
were obtained by fixing the fluorine of the ore 80 min, with the MgO
dosage m(ore)/m(MgO) = 3∶1 at 600 °C; chlorinating the fixed fluorine
calcine 80 min. With NH4Cl dosage m(NH4Cl)/m(ore) = 2∶1 at 500 °C,
the RE recovery reaches 85%. Decomposition and extraction of rare
earths including lanthanum ~ 31.6% among total REEs were studied
from bastnäsite of Baotou origin using NH4Cl, chloridizing roasting,
salammoniac roasting and also by carbocholoration-oxidation (Guocai
 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
et al., 2000; Jun et al., 2000; Li-qing et al., 2007; Shi et al., 2002; Wu et al.,
2004, 2007) have been investigated. A mixture of rare earth double sul-
fates was produced from a Turkish bastnasite-containing ~ 8.1% La by
sulfuric acid baking results in recovery of rare earths up to 90% and
subsequent water leaching and precipitation with 1.25 times the stoi-
chiometric amount of sodium sulphate at 50 °C for reasonable decon-
tamination of the rare earth double sulfate salt from impurities such
as Th, Fe, Al and Mg was possible. The total rare earth double sulfate
(TREDS) content was ~90% and analysed 17.3% La with other rare earths
with traces of impurities and the respective flow sheet shown in Fig. 3
(Kul et al., 2000).
2.3. Bauxite and red mud
Bauxite is characterized by a particular enrichment of aluminium-
hydroxide minerals, such as gibbsite, boehmite and/or diaspore with
silica, iron oxides, titania and other trace impurities like Ga, V, rare
earths and other metal. Lanthanum is found to be present ~ 50–
60 ppm among the total rare earths b 2%, depending upon the source
of bauxite (Mohapatra et al., 2000; Mohapatra et al., 2012;
Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al., 1995, 2002; Zhou et al., 2008; Samal
et al., 2013; Abhilash et al., 2014).Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al., 1996
had described the hyrometallurgical feasibility for extraction of lantha-
num from bauxite of Jamaica origin achieving a very meagre extraction
(~11%) and co-extraction of other impurities is high which is undesir-
able. However, its concentration enriched in red mud obtained as a
by-product in Bayer's treatment for alumina production. Mohapatra
et al., 2000 reported that lanthanum content enriched almost twice
(64.81 ppm to 112.46 ppm) from bauxite of Indian origin, after Bayer's
treatment.
Fig. 3. Process flow sheet for the recovery of lanthanum double sulphate saltfrom bastnasite concentrate (Kul et al., 2000).
51
Bauxite containing high aluminium hydroxides, largely used for pro-
duction of alumina through the Bayer's process (based on digestion
with sodium hydroxide under elevated pressure and temperature),
since the overall refining led to production of large quantity of solid
waste called red mud or bauxite residue (Glenister and Thornber,
1985; Anand et al., 1996; Hind et al., 1999; Mohapatra et al., 2000;
Agatzini-Leonardou et al., 2008; Klauber et al., 2011; Pandey, 2011;
Raghavan et al., 2011; Rai et al., 2012). Among its complex chemical
and mineralogical characteristics, association of rare earths is reported
in red mud matrix (Mohapatra et al., 2000; Ochsenkühn-Petropulu
et al., 1995, 2002; Zhou et al., 2008; Samal et al., 2013; Abhilash et al.,
2014). However, lanthanum content in red mud varies from ~ 30–
120 ppm (Mohapatra et al., 2000; Abhilash et al., 2014). In India, lantha-
num content in red mud varies from 70 to 100 ppm, which is found to
be association with Al–Si matrix (Mohapatra et al., 2000; Abhilash
et al., 2014) and the overall composition shown in Table 2.
Extraction of lanthanum from red mud via hydrometallurgical route
is proven to be useful due to environmental concerns. Leaching is per-
formed using H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 and using SO2 gas in diluted stream.
In general, the lixiviant for lanthanum leaching efficiency from red
mud is found to be in order HNO3 N HCl N H2SO3 N H2SO4 and further
separation using solvent extraction (DEHPA, Cyanex 301, Cyanex 923,
Cyanex 272) is reported (Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al., 1995, 2002;
Abhilash et al., 2014). Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al., 1996 reported the
extraction of lanthanum from red mud derived from Jamaica origin,
Greece. Lanthanum is found to be associated with rare earth mineral hy-
droxyl bastnaesite (Nd, La). However, leaching studies are carried out
using aforementioned lixiviates, HNO3 and HCl have similar recoveries
although HNO3 have higher selectivity compared to HCl. Using 0.5 M
HNO3, up to 30% La recovery was achieved under the following
52 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
Table 2
Chemical composition of Indian red mud (Abhilash
et al., 2014).
Constituents % using crystallization (by heating the acid in autoclave for 1 h at 200 °C
Al2O3 19.97
SiO2 10.23
Fe2O3 37.03
TiO2 11.98
V 0.68
La 0.007
Ce 0.011
Nd 0.0005
Sc 0.005
Y 0.001
condition S/L: 1/50, temperature 25 °C in 24 h, as compared to other
lixivants of same concentration and under same condition. Maximum
recovery of ~ 39% La was achieved using 3 M HNO3 for L/S ratio: 1/50,
pH b 0 at 25 °C in 24 h. Abhilash et al., 2014 carried out extraction of lan-
thanum from Indian red mud where lanthanum is found to be associat-
ed with Allanite (La) mineral. It was found to achieve 99.9% recovery
using 3 M H2SO4 at ambient temperature (~ 35 °C), S/L: 1/100 in 1 h.
Whilst separation feasibility was checked with different extractants, it
has been found that Cyanex 301 had higher specificity for lanthanum
compared to DEHPA and Cyanex 272 with 0.15 M organic concentration
at pH 2 and shaking for 20 min. However complete purification of lan-
thanum extraction is under study from Indian red mud (Abhilash
et al., 2014).
2.4. Phosphate rock and it by-products
Phosphorite, phosphate rock or rock phosphate is a sedimentary
rock which constitutes higher content of phosphate bearing minerals.
The phosphate content of phosphorite is at least 15 to 20%, which is a
large enrichment over the typical sedimentary rock content of less
than 0.2%. However phosphate rock contains lanthanides ranges 0.1–
0.8% where lanthanum, cerium and neodynium make 80% of total lan-
thanides (Habashi, 1985; Koopman and Witkamp, 2000). While in the
production of elemental phosphor, slag produced called phosphogyp-
sum which have lanthanides averages 0.01–0.1%, although phosphate
rock of the Kola Peninsula in Russia can contain up to 1.0 wt.% of rare
earths (El-Didamony et al., 2012; Habashi, 1985; Skorovarov et al.,
1992; Zielinski et al., 1993).
2.4.1. Phosphate rock
In acid treatment of phosphate rock, most of the rare ~70–80% of the
rare earths (lanthanum making up to 80%) ended up in phosphogypsum
and the rest dissolved in the leach solution, which also contains the
phosphoric acid. It is reported that rare earths are less incorporated in
the phosphogypsum, if leaching was performed at lower temperature
and lower acid concentration (Altschuler et al., 1967). lanthanum con-
centration in phosphate rock (Kola USSR, Florida USSR, Khouribga
Morroco, Al-Mahameed Egypt and Lao-Kai Vietnam) ranges from
21.8–31.4% among lanthanides ~ 0.8–1% (Altschuler et al., 1967;
Bliskovs et al., 1969) and the average concentration of rare earths in
phosphogypsum is 0.4 wt.% (Habashi, 1985; Lokshin and Tareeva,
2010, Lokshin et al., 2011). Extraction of lanthanum and other rare
earths from phosphate rock had been reported using H2SO4, HCl and
HNO3, although HNO3 leaching much favourable, however H2SO4 is
commercial in extraction process due to economical reasons and it is ev-
ident that HNO3 leaching doesn't produce phosphogypsum (Aly and
Mohammed, 1999; Habashi, 1985; Lokshin et al., 2002a, 2002b,
Lokshin and Tareeva, 2010). Recovery of lanthanum including other
rare earths from phosphate rock using HNO3 leaching, HCl leaching
and subsequent solvent extraction using tri-butyl phosphate (TBP)
from HNO3 leach liquor were shown in Fig. 4 respectively.
2.4.2. Phosphoric acid
Recovery of lanthanum and other rare earth oxides was developed
from aforementioned phosphoric acid from phosphate rock treatment
and it was found that crystal formed have 98% lanthanides originally
present in the form of phosphates, while it is preferred to deflourinate
acid for achieving purity),and the processing followed by leaching
with HNO3 and partial neutralization using NH4OH for subsequent
oxalic acid precipitation, and the precipitate was calcined at 1000 °C
to yield crude oxides (Bunuş and Dumitrescu, 1992; Bunuş et al.,
1994; Koopman et al., 1999a, 1999b; Wang et al., 2010). Wang et al.
(2011) carried a centrifugal extraction of lanthanum (up to 22.8% over
total lanthanides) and other rare earths from wet phosphoric acid.
Even solvent extraction using octyl pyrophoshoric acid, TOPS 99,
Tulsion CH-96, T-PAR, synergistic mixture of DOPPA-TOPO and solid–
liquid extraction using solvent-impregnated resin resins was reported
(Bunus, 2000; Krea and Khalaf, 2000; Kumar et al., 2010, 2011;
Radhika et al., 2011; Reddy et al., 2009). Habashi (1985), given a flow
sheet for the recovery of rare earths including lanthanum from wet pro-
cess phosphoric acid having lanthanides about 1 g/dm−3, were shown
in Fig. 5.
2.4.3. Phosphogypsum
Phosphogypsum is the main by-product of the production of phos-
phoric acid and it is formed by the acidic digestion of phosphate rock
(Koopman and Witkamp, 2000). However the lanthanide concentration
averages about 0.4–0.8% depending on acid digestion, where lanthanum
makes 60–75% of the total lanthanides. About half of the rare earths
present in phosphogypsum can be recovered by leaching the phospho-
gypsum at ambient temperature with 0.1–0.5 M H2SO4 solution in a
solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:10 (Habashi, 1985). The leaching efficiencies
can be increased by a gravity flow of the H2SO4 solution through a col-
umn packed with phosphogypsum (Lokshin et al., 2011). Another
method for enhanced H2SO4 leaching is the mechanical activation of
phosphogypsum by ball-milling (Todorovsky et al., 1997).The rare
earths containing lanthanum 78.5% among total lanthanides, can be re-
covered from the leaching solution by precipitation, for instances as so-
dium rare-earth double sulphates (Lokshin and Tareeva, 2010), or by
solvent extraction (Habashi, 1985). However recovery of the lanthanum
and rare earths by solvent extraction studied with nonyl–phenyl phos-
phoric acid (NPPA) or by selective precipitation with hydrofluoric acid
(Jarosiński et al., 1993). Phosphogypsum, by reaction with ammonium
carbonate undergoes decomposition, so that ammonium sulphate
fertiliser and calcium carbonate are formed. The lanthanum ~ 80%
among total lanthanides reported to be recovered by dissolution of
CaCO3 in HNO3, followed by selective removal of the rare earths by sol-
vent extraction and precipitation. Although CaCO3 can be calcined to
CaO and leaching with an NH4Cl solution, results in a rare-earth rich res-
idue. When phosphate rock is leached with a HNO3 solution, all the lan-
thanum containing rare earths are solubilised as nitrates, thereby by
subsequent solvent extraction or precipitation (Habashi, 1985).
2.5. Nickel metal hydride spent batteries
Nickel-metal hydride batteries (NiMH) contain rare earths (RE) and
a variety of valuable metals such as nickel and cobalt. The batteries are
in use are mainly AB or AB2 type or in mixture, where A stands for La
or rare earth alloys and B for Ni, Co and Al respectively. Nowadays, La
has been substituted by Misch metal, where lanthanum making up to
18–28% of the total mixture (Ruetschi et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 1998).
While there is a need of recycling of aforementioned batteries due to en-
vironmental concerns (Reddy et al., 2005; Kao et al., 2006; Barandas
et al., 2007a, 2007b).
Hydrometallurgical routes are the basis of processing spent Ni-MH
batteries for recovering lanthanum and other precious metals. However,
leaching with HCl or H2SO4 was performed and the leachate is
 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
Fig. 4. Process flow sheet for the recovery of lanthanum oxide from phosphate rock (Habashi, 1985; Aly and Mohammed, 1999).
submitted to a series or combination of different separation techniques
(Pietrelli et al., 2002, 2005; Bertuol et al., 2009; Li et al., 2009; Provazi
et al., 2011; Gasser and Aly, 2013; Larsson et al., 2012). Pietrelli et al.,
2002 developed a process for the selective separation of lanthanum con-
taining rare earth mixture using precipitation using NaOH from mixture
of AB5 and AB2 NiMH batteries. The leaching performed using 2 M
H2SO4 at 20 °C for 2 h, where ~ 92.5% La including other rare earths
and precious metals were extracted, and precipitation was performed
using NaOH until pH b 1.5. XRD analysis revealed that five peaks of
NaLa(SO4)2.H2O confirmed with La2O3 and NaHSO4 of pure analytical
grade reagents (Fig. 6A). A similar leaching process was applied for
the mixture of NiCd and NiMH battery by Li et al. (2009), where the pre-
cipitate with ~97.8% of lanthanum and neodymium was conditioned in
2 M HCl and subjected to separation using synthetic adsorbent (LDH +
Cyanex 272) and the respective flow sheet is given in Fig. 6B. The LDH-
carrier is economic and efficient where the same LDH can be used for
more than seven times (Gasser and Aly, 2013). However, extraction of
lanthanum was performed using 70% Cyanex 923, 20% TBP and 10% ker-
osene (O: A: 3.5:1, 3–5 steps) from the leach liquor obtained by leaching
with 8 M HCl, followed by stripping of loaded organic with 1 M NaNO3
and 1 M HCl to obtain stripped solution containing lanthanum and other
precious metals (Larsson et al., 2012). Fernandes et al., 2013 proposed a
flow sheet for recovering lanthanum in form of lanthanum oxalate
(La2(C2O4)3 from spent Ni-MH batteries is shown in Fig. 6C.
2.6. Optical spent glasses
Lanthanum-containing glass with higher high refractive index and a
low dispersion, find many applications in optical lenses, for use in cam-
eras, microscopes, binoculars or microscopes can contain ~ 40 wt.% of
53
La2O3 (Yu and Chen, 1995; Pandey, 2011).The lanthanum oxide used
in lenses must be of high purity with meagre or almost free content of
other coloured transition metals and rare earth impurities (Yu and
Chen, 1995). The addition of lanthanum oxides in optical glass is in
the range of 30–40% and the total world production of optical glass is
about 20,000 t/year. Supposing 15% optical glasses are discarded, the
amount of spent optical glass is around 3000 t/year. Thus, on an average,
lanthanum content taken to be 30%, the spent optical glass contains
900 t lanthanum oxide. It is estimated that upon recycling spent optical
glass could yield about 900 t of lanthanum oxides per year, which plays
a spectacular role in estimated worldwide end use of lanthanum. Jiang
et al. (2004, 2005) developed process is potentially apply for recycling
such secondary RE resources as spent ophthalmic glass and spent opti-
cal fibre, besides spent optical glass. Jiang et al. (2004, 2005) recovered
lanthanum following hydrometallurgical route from a spent borosilicate
optical glass containing 43.12 wt.% La2O3. It has been found that lantha-
num and other rare earth borosilicates are not convenient to directly
dissolve by hydrochloric acid, so conversion to insoluble lanthanum hy-
droxide using hot concentrated optimal sodium hydroxide solution (55
wt %) at 413 K, followed by leaching using 6 M HCl as lixiviant at L/S of 8
and 363 K for 30 min. With the proposed process, lanthanum in the
glass was recovered as an aqueous solution of lanthanum chlorides con-
taining 36.5 g/L La with recovery of 99.4% La.
2.7. Ocean sea nodules
Deep sea nodules generally contains nickel (1.25–1.5%), copper
(1–1.4%), cobalt (0.2–0.25%) Mo (~ 0.05%), with 100 ppm La among
the total REE content of ~500–1000 ppm (Acharya et al., 1999; Anand
et al., 1988; Fuerstuenau and Han, 1977; Fuerstuenau and Han, 1980;
54 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
Fig. 5. Process flow sheet for the recovery of lanthanum oxide from wet phosphoric acid (Habashi, 1985; Wang et al., 2010).
Mishra et al., 2011; Han and Fuerstenau, 1975; Jung, 1993). There are
various technologies developed, using pyrometallurgical and hydro-
metallurgical process, for the recovery of precious metals unlike rare
earths. However there is complexity in extraction of lanthanum and
other rare earths from the slag obtained after pyro-treatment for the re-
covery of other precious metals except rare earths (Acharya et al., 1999;
Das et al., 1986; Han and Fuerstenau, 1975; Koschinsky et al., 2011;
Jung, 1993; Lokshin et al., 2002a, 2002b; Monhemius, 1986;
Senanayake, 2011; Zhang et al., 2001). Extraction of lanthanum and
other rare earths from the sea nodules derived from Clarion–Clipperton
fracture zone (Korea mining site) of the North East Pacific Ocean was in-
vestigated with different reagents and the chemical composition were
shown in Table 3. It has been found that the lanthanum extraction effi-
ciency with respect to each of the reagents can be ordered as
H2SO4 N H2SO3 + H2SO4 N NaOH NH2SO3. However, lanthanum leaching
efficiency increased with the H2SO4 concentration and maximum
recovery ~55.4% was attained at 3 M concentration, 10% pulp density,
2 h, 30 °C (Parhi et al., 2013).
2.8. REE slag
Generally, REE slag was obtained from reduction smelting of magne-
tite ore containing monazite. REE slag (derived from Hongcheongun in
Korea), was obtained by using silica (silica/ore: 1/50) as flux and coke
(coke/ore: 1/7.14) as a reducing agent for smelting in arc furnace for
2 h at 1500 °C for iron extraction. However rare earth content in ores
originally as ~3% was concentrated to 9% REEs in the slag after iron re-
covery, where lanthanum content in REE slag makes up to 2.76 wt.%
and the overall elemental composition were shown in Table 4 (Kim
et al., 2014). Extraction of lanthanum via hydrometallurgical route
was studied from REE slag under the conditions of 1.5 g slag per L in
0.3 M H2SO4, 750 rpm, for 5 h at 30–80 °C. Leaching kinetics was
found to be described in two stages. The initial leaching rate was con-
trolled by chemical reaction, while the apparent activation energy of
the chemical reaction rate controlling step was determined to be
10.0 kJ mol−1, using Arrhenius equation. As leaching of lanthanum in-
creased, the reaction rate was controlled by diffusion through an ash
layer. The apparent activation energy of the second stage was deter-
mined to be 24.8 kJ mol−1. The leaching rate and extent of leaching of
lanthanum from the slag increased with an increase in leaching temper-
ature (Kim et al., 2014).
2.9. Alternate methods of separating lanthanum
The conventional methodologies like solvent extraction and ion-ex-
change has disadvantages such as high requirement of reagents, sec-
ondary metabolites, and low selectivity in addition to more time
consumption (Chunhua, 2007; Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2004;
Kratochvil and Volesky, 1998; Takahashi et al., 2012; Tewari et al.,
2005; Xiong et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2013). Now-a-days adsorption catch-
ing an eye with an emerging technique of bio-sorption, with an advan-
tages over traditional way like cost efficient, high efficacy or selectivity
for metal extraction, regeneration with no chemical sludge and other
metabolite generation with an exclusive characteristics of faster kinetics
of adsorption and desorption, and its major applicability in situ process
technologies (Akkaya, 2012; Kanazawa and Kamitani, 2006; Kratochvil
and Volesky, 1998; Palmieri et al., 2000; Takahashi et al., 2012; Tewari
et al., 2005; Das, 2012).
Adsorption of lanthanum have been attempted using different bio-
adsorbents like bacteria, activated carbon from rice husk, bamboo char-
coal and algae, among which algae was proven to be efficient one for
lanthanum uptake (Diniz and Volesky, 2005; Kratochvil and Volesky,
1998; Palmieri et al., 2002; Qing, 2010). In this context, algae like Sar-
gassum polysystum, Sargassum fluitans showed a potential for lantha-
num uptake. However higher ability was observed using Pseudomonas
species, and with ~ 98% lanthanum efficiently desorbed out from the
biomass using CaCO3 (Diniz and Volesky, 2005). Powdered tree leaves
of Platanus orientalis or activated carbon from rice husk/agro-waste
 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59 55

Fig. 6. Process flow sheet for the recovery of (A, B) lanthanum chloride (Pietrelli et al., 2005; Li et al., 2009); (C) lanthanum oxalate (Fernandes et al., 2013) from spent NiMH batteries.

Table 3 materials are viable and inexpensive in use (Aoyama et al., 2000;
Chemical composition of deep sea nodules (Parhi et al., 2013). Awwad et al., 2010; Banat et al., 2003; Kazy et al., 2006; Nevskaia
Name of elements Concentration (mg/kg) et al., 1999; Xu and Xing, 2001). Different parameters influencing the
Y 94.03
adsorption process such as pH, temperature, biosorbent dosage, initial
La 100 metal concentration, contact period and agitation rate have also been
Ce 298 evaluated in these scanty studies. The pH dependence of lanthanum
Pr 37.7 bio sorption was observed efficiently in the range pH ~ 4–7, exceeding
Nd 148
which resulted in hydrolysis of the metal ions which leads to co-
Sm 37.9
Eu 10.3 precipitation of gelationous hydroxides (Esposito et al., 2001; Fiol
Gd 37.5 et al., 2006; Kazy et al., 2006; Palmieri et al., 2000; Qing, 2010; Sert
Tb 6.63 et al., 2008; Shibi and Anirudhan, 2005). However, the temperature of
Dy 32.6 ~25–35 °C have meagre effect but with the increase around 45 °C affect-
Ho 6.71
Er 16.7
ed the performance as reported using Agrobacterium sp. HN1, Calluna
Tm 2.68 vulgaris and Zoogloea ramigera (Aksu et al., 1992; Bhainsa and
Yb 1.61 D'Souza, 1999; Panda et al., 2006). Biosorbent dosage (~15–200 ppm)
Lu 2.7 in general is agreement with metal concentration range of 15–
Th 27.6
300 ppm in case of Agrobacterium sp. HN1, where lanthanum uptake in-
U 4.91
Mn 2,392,000 creases with cell concentration at 150 rpm and 30 °C (Shuxia et al.,
Fe 373,000 2011). Although, an increase in biomass concentration caused interfer-
Cu 8800 ence between the binding sites thus retaining the contact time to 5–8 h
Co 1530 (Esposito et al., 2001; Gadd et al., 1998; Pagnanelli et al., 2000). This tool
Ni 10,200
can be very specifically targeted to separate a relatively pure solution of
56 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59

Table 4
Chemical composition of REE slag (Kim et al., 2014).

La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu U Fe Ca Mg Ba Sr Y

Element 2.76% 4.60% 0.41% 1.14% 830.7 158.5 278.1 23.5 53.6 5.4 16.8 0.8 9.0 1.6 1.8 0.7% 13.9% 7.1% 2.16% 9.84% 122
concentration ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

lanthanum and other rare earth elements too, which can be a topic of
wide interest.
3. Future directions of research
Lanthanum as an element commonly occurs in other metals ores and
different metallurgical waste residues. This review has put in place ef-
forts to pile up the information about the different resources that
show some potential for the recovery of lanthanum namely monazite,
bastnäsite, phosphate rock, bauxite, sea nodules, some industrial by-
products like phosphoric acid, phosphogypsum, red mud (Bauxite resi-
due), REE slag and industrial products like optical spent glasses, Ni-MH
spent batteries. The overall summary is tabulated in Table 5. Bases on
availability, content and recyclability, optical spent glasses, NiMH
spent batteries are the most promising resources including the primary
sources of monazite and bastnäsite. Considering lanthanum extraction
from aforementioned resources, hydrometallurgical processes is proven
to be most eminent process with an advantage of meagre energy con-
sumption and high efficiency compared to pyro-metallurgical process-
es, although the process consisting of ore pre-treatment, leaching,
solvent extraction. However, the co-extraction of metal impurities like
iron, silica, titanium, rare earths and other trace impurities could inter-
fere in lanthanum extraction. Although the leaching is performed with
different mineral acids ranges from lower to higher concentration,
which inherently led to co-extraction of impurities in larger amount,
that actually interfere in purification/separation process like solvent ex-
traction and precipitation, inhibiting lanthanum purity. In respect of
these commonly used techniques, bio-sorption proves more influential
with low cost and high selectivity. The main lessons learnt from this re-
view address to the lack of selectivity by addressing a selective organic
extractant (acidic or neutral) in solvent extraction process, whilst frac-
tional precipitation and biosorption led to increase the overall efficiency
of lanthanum extraction. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new ex-
traction systems with high lanthanum selectivity or modify the existing
one in the areas of leaching and solvent extraction which overall im-
proves the efficiency of lanthanum extraction. Since lanthanum is pro-
duced from various aforementioned resources, although there is need
to relocate more lanthanum containing resources like traces are
ascertained in fly ash, blast furnace slag and flue dust, which actually
needed to explore so that it contributes as a useful part in the overall

Table 5
Leachability of lanthanum from various different resources and respective conditions.

Source Resource Pre-treatment Leaching Extraction Pulp Temperature References

description reagent (%) (g/L)

Monazite Primary, phosphate Dephosphorised with 50% NaOH HCl ~95 60 79–90 °C Kumari et al. (2013); Panda et al. (2014);
mineral (w/v) at 170 °C, 10% mixture of Shuchen et al. (2007); Shin et al. (2012);
NaCl–CaCl2, CaO–CaCl–CaCl2 Wenyuan et al. (2006)
Bastnäsite Primary, Sulfuric acid roasting H2SO4 ~90 30 60 °C Chi et al. (2004); Kanazawa and Kamitani
fluorocarbonate HCl ~98 30 90 °C (2006); Kul et al. (2000); Kul et al. (2008);
mineral Using MgO/ore: 0.15/1–3/1 H2O ~95 125 75 °C Wen-zhong et al. (2002a, 2002b); Xu (1995);
transformation of rare earth fluoride Zhang and Huang (1997), Zhu and Chi (1999);
to oxide followed direct ammonium Zhu et al. (2000a, 2000b); Zhu et al. (2003)
chloride roasting at 325 °C, 1 h
Bauxite Primary, aluminium Direct leaching HCl ~11 20 25 °C Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al. (1996)
hydroxide mineral
Red mud Secondary, bauxite Direct leaching H2SO4 ~21–99.9 10–20 25–35 °C Abhilash et al. (2014); Ochsenkühn-Petropulu
residue HCl 33 20 et al. (1996); Ochsenkühn-Petropulu et al.
HNO3 35 20 (1995, 2002)
Phosphate rock Primary, phosphate Direct leaching H2SO4 45 20 25–45 °C Habashi (1985); Lokshin and Tareeva (2010),
rich sedimentary HCl 40 20 Lokshin et al. (2011)
rock HNO3 35 20
Phosphoric acid Secondary, Heating the acid in autoclave for 1 h HNO3 35 20 55 °C Bunuş and Dumitrescu (1992); Bunuş et al.
by-product of at 200 °C (crystals formed with 98% (1994); Habashi, 1985; Koopman et al. (1999a,
phosphate rock lanthanides) 1999b); Wang et al. (2010)
Phosphogypsum Secondary, Mechanical activation using ball H2SO4 ~78.5 100 Ambient Jarosiński et al. (1993);Habashi (1985); Lokshin
by-product of mill temperature and Tareeva (2010), Lokshin et al. (2011);
phosphate rock Todorovsky et al. (1997)
Spent nickel Secondary, spent Direct leaching H2SO4 ~92.5 100 20 °C Bertuol et al. (2009); Gasser and Aly (2013);
metal hydride mobile, laptop HCl ~97.8 40 25–35 °C Larsson et al. (2012); Li et al. (2009); Pietrelli
batteries batteries et al. (2002, 2005); Provazi et al. (2011);
Ruetschi et al. (1995); Zhang et al. (1998)
Optical spent Secondary, Conversion to hydroxide using hot HCl ~99.4 8 90 °C Jiang et al. (2004, 2005)
glasses microscope, conc NaOH (55 wt %) at 140 °C
binoculars, cameras
etc.
Ocean nodules Primary, Pacific Direct leaching H2SO4 ~55.4 10 35 °C Acharya et al. (1999); Anand et al. (1988);
Ocean nodules Fuerstuenau and Han (1977); Han and
Fuerstenau (1975); Jung (1993);Parhi et al.
(2013)
REE slag Secondary, Reduction smelting in arc furnace H2SO4 60–99.9 15 30–80 °C Kim et al. (2014)
reduction smelting for 2 h at 1500 °C for iron extraction
slag of magnetite
ore containing
monazite
 S. Sinha et al. / Hydrometallurgy 160 (2016) 47–59
production of lanthanum. It is suggested that alteration or improvement
in process opted in extraction of lanthanum from optical spent glasses
and NiMH, proposed to be most promising lanthanum resources for
its production in the future.
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