You are on page 1of 8

Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

An investigation of bottom ash as a pozzolanic material


Akkadath Abdulmatin, Weerachart Tangchirapat, Chai Jaturapitakkul ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Bangkok 10140, Thailand

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 Unmodified bottom ash (BA) is not a


good pozzolan.
 Ground BA can be used as a pozzolan
in the same way as fly ash.
 Ground BA mortar had strength
activity index higher than 100% after
28 days.
 This result can be used as a guideline
to use ground BA as a pozzolan in
concrete.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fly ash has been widely used as a pozzolan, but a huge quantity of bottom ash (BA) has been disposed in
Received 7 July 2017 landfills every year. Therefore, this paper addresses the development and recommendation of using BA as
Received in revised form 11 July 2018 a pozzolanic material. Mortar containing BA at a replacement rate of 20% by weight was used to study the
Accepted 12 July 2018
pozzolanic properties. The results showed that the BA needed to have particles retained on a No. 325
(45-mm) sieve at least 25% by weight to achieve the requirements for pozzolan class C and F as specified
by ASTM C618. The mortar containing BA from which the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve of 5% by
Keywords:
weight produced better compressive strength than control mortar after 28 days. Additionally, BA from
Bottom ash
Pozzolanic material
several sources had chemical properties favorable for acting as a pozzolanic material. This study’s find-
Strength activity index ings demonstrated that that BA with a proper fineness could be used as a pozzolanic material according
Fineness effect to ASTM C618. The utilization of BA is a good solution for the added value, as well as the reduction of BA
in landfills.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction BA, similar to fly ash, is a by-product of the coal power plants. At
the Mae Moh power plant, Thailand, the amount of coal ash has
Pozzolanic materials are commonly used for partially replacing been estimated as approximately 3.5  106 ton/year, of which 2.
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) to achieve properties of concrete 1  106 and 1.4  106 tons/year or approximately 60% and 40%,
or mortar depending on the demand of a user, and to reduce the respectively, were fly ash and BA. In Thailand, fly ash has been
cost due to the reduction in the use of OPC in the concrete mixture. widely utilized as a replacement for OPC in concrete construction.
Many pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash, bagasse ash, palm oil As a result, little or none of the fly ash has been sent to landfills.
fuel ash, and rice husk ash were studied [1–6], while bottom ash However, the large amount of BA has been disposed to landfills
(BA) was infrequently studied for use as a pozzolanic material. without utilization, and the amount tends to increase every year.
If BA continues to be disposed, many problems such as the cost
for BA disposal, loss of natural sites for BA disposal and environ-
mental impact surrounding BA disposal will become increasingly
⇑ Corresponding author.
acute.
E-mail address: chaijatura58@gmail.com (C. Jaturapitakkul).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.101
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
156 A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162

BA is formed from the melting of coal ash particles because the 2. Experimental program
temperature in the kiln is higher than the melting point of coal ash.
Therefore, BA has large particles with high porosity. For this rea- 2.1. Materials
son, many studies focus on the utilization of BA as a fine aggregate
in concrete or mortar [7–10]. However, the use of BA to replace fine The materials used in this study were bottom ash (BA), ordinary
aggregate had a bad effect on the workability and the mechanical Portland cement (OPC) which is type I in accordance with TIS 15
properties of concrete or mortar. For example, the increase in BA [23], and river sand graded to pass a No. 30 sieve and to be retained
content to replace fine aggregate in concrete caused a decrease on a No. 100 sieve.
in the workability and mechanical properties in terms of compres- The wetted BA obtained from Mae Moh power plant, Thailand,
sive strength, splitting tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity was oven-dried at 110 ± 5 °C (approximately 24 h) to reduce the
compared to the control concrete [11–13]. moisture content such that the BA could be ground easily. Next,
In Thailand, there is no or little utilization of BA as a pozzolanic the BA was sieved using a No. 4 sieve to eliminate several large
material in concrete construction because the knowledge regard- fractions (designated as OBA material) which was 17 ± 2% retaining
ing the use of BA as a pozzolanic material has been limited. Before on No. 4 sieve. The BA was then ground until the weight retained
using BA as a pozzolanic material, several properties such as chem- on a No. 325 (45-mm opening) sieve of 5 ± 2, 15 ± 2, 25 ± 2, 35 ± 2,
ical composition, influence of fineness, and crystallinity of BA 45 ± 2% by weight were obtained, designated as 5BA, 15BA, 25BA,
should be considered. Chindaprasirt et al. [14] found that the major 35BA and 45BA, respectively.
chemical composition of BA was similar to fly ash when both mate-
rials were obtained from the same source of coal and power plants.
2.2. Physical properties of materials
The amounts of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3, CaO, and SO3 in BA were 72.2,
16.5 and 2.4%, which was similar to 74.8, 16.6 and 2.6% of fly ash.
The particles retained on a No. 325 (45-mm opening) sieve, speci-
However, the 2.9% loss on ignition (LOI) of BA was slightly higher
fic gravity, and median particle size (d50) of OPC and those of BA
than the 0.8% LOI of fly ash [14]. The chemical compositions of
with different particle sizes were presented in Table 1. The particles
BA was in agreement with the specifications of ASTM C618 [15]
retained on a No. 325 sieve of 5BA, 15BA, 25BA, 35BA and 45BA
for pozzolanic material class F which had the total amounts of
were 3.7, 14.5, 24.0, 35.3 and 43.7% by weight corresponding with
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 higher than 70%, while SO3 and LOI must not
the median particle size (d50) of 4.3, 15.4, 24.2, 39.8 and 72.3 mm,
exceed 5.0 and 6.0%, respectively. Generally, the major drawback
respectively, while OBA had particles retained on a No. 325 sieve
of BA for using as a pozzolanic material is its large particles, which
at 96.3% by weight. The fineness modulus of the OBA was 2.09,
has more than 90% retained on a No. 325 (45-mm opening) sieve or
which was less than the fineness modulus of river sand (3.07).
the particle sizes are in ranges from 0.1 to 5 mm [16–18]. There-
Fig. 1 shows the particle size distributions of OBA and river sand
fore, the utilization of BA as a pozzolanic material, its fineness must
compared with the requirement of ASTM C33 [24]. OBA had a
be increased. Jaturapitakkul and Cheerarot [16] studied ground BA
cumulative particle size larger than 1 mm of 75% while the cumula-
with 2.8% by weight of the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve
tive particle size larger than 1 mm for the river sand was 55%. More-
replacing OPC in mortar and concrete. These researchers observed
over, the particle size lower than 0.7 mm of the OBA had cumulative
that the ground BA replacing OPC at rates of 10, 20 and 30% by
weight of binder could obtain a compressive strength for the BA
mortar higher than the control mortar. In addition, Cheriaf et al. Table 1
[19] reported that the pozzolanic activity of BA mortar could be Physical properties of materials.
improved by up to 27% when BA was ground to increase fineness
Materials Retained on a No. 325 Specific Median Particle
for 6 h. However, Hooi-Jun et al. [20] studied the BA obtained from Sieve (% by weight) Gravity Size, d50 (mm)
un-burn coal with different particle size of 63, 75, and 150 mm as
OPC 16.8 3.14 14.7
pozzolanic material. They found that use of BA with different par- 5BA 3.7 2.88 4.3
ticle sizes had slightly affected on compressive strength of mortar. 15BA 14.5 2.85 15.4
The improvement of BA as a pozzolanic material was studied by 25BA 24.0 2.83 24.2
Kim [21] who reported that the BA passing through No. 40 35BA 35.3 2.76 39.8
45BA 43.7 2.72 72.3
(425-mm) sieve and ground BA could produce the compressive OBA 96.3 2.33 400
strength of mortar similar to fly ash mortar with the same replace-
ment rate. Moreover, Oruji et al. [22] found that the compressive
strength of mortar containing BA with a median particle size of
4.5 mm at the cement replacement rates of 9.1, 23.1 and 33.3% by
weight of binder gave the compressive strength at 28 days higher
than the control mortar after 28 days while 41.2% replacement of
Portland cement by 4.5 mm BA gave higher compressive strength
than the control mortar at 90 days. Additionally, after normalization
for particle size, age, and replacement rate, the strength activity
index of BA mortar was less than fly ash mortar approximately 7%.
Although the previous studies proved that the ground BA could
be used as a pozzolanic material, the appropriate fineness should
be addressed. Therefore, this study proposes to demonstrate the
use of BA with different levels of fineness partially to replace the
as an alternative pozzolanic material and enhancement of the
new knowledge about the utilization of BA. If the BA could be used
in the concrete construction industry, it would not only reduce the
environmental problems due to sending the BA to landfills but
would also reduce OPC usage, as well as increasing the economic Fig. 1. Relationship between cumulative passing and particle size distribution of
value of the construction material. OBA and river sand compared to ASTM C33 [18].
A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162 157

passing values outside the limit line which was specified by ASTM
C33 [24]. This result demonstrated that OBA had finer particles
compared to river sand since the median particle size of BA was
400 mm while that of river sand was 850 mm.
The specific gravity of OBA was 2.33, increased to 2.88 depend-
ing on the fineness of ground BA. This result suggested that the
specific gravity increased with the increased fineness of the BA
because the porosity of BA is reduced by the grinding process.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results for OBA and 5BA
particles are presented in Fig. 2. Since the OBA particles results
from the melting of many coal ash particles, the OBA had large par-
ticles. Moreover, the rough surfaces, irregular shapes, and high
porosities were appeared on the OBA particle. In contrast, 5BA par-
ticles had smoother surfaces and smaller particle sizes than the
OBA particles, and the irregular shapes have also appeared. How-
ever, the grinding process could reduce the sizes, as well as the
porosities of the BA particles, as shown in Fig. 2b.

2.3. Chemical compositions

Table 2 presents the chemical compositions of OPC, 5BA and fly


ash. The main chemical composition of 5BA was SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3,
and CaO, which were 35.6, 19.6, 14.9, and 18.7% by weight, respec-
tively. The values of SO3 and LOI were 1.7 and 3.6% by weight,
respectively. The chemical composition of 5BA met the require-
ments for fly ash class F as specified by ASTM C618 [15], which
requires a minimum of SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 values of 70% by
weight and the maximum requirements for the SO3 and LOI values
of 5 and 6% by weight, respectively. The CaO composition in 5BA
was 18.7% by weight, which was notably high. The study of
McCarthy et al. [25] found that 5BA of this study could be classified
as an intermediate-calcium oxide content (between 10% and 20% of Fig. 2. Images of OBA and 5BA particles. (a) OBA particles. (b) 5BA particles.
the CaO).
In addition, the chemical composition of 5BA was similar to fly
ash from the same source since BA had SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 values Table 2
Chemical composition of OPC, 5BA and fly ash.
of 70.1% by weight while 70.9% by weight of the three oxides was
obtained in the case of fly ash [26]. This finding indicated that the Chemical composition (%) OPC 5BA Fly ash*
chemical composition of 5BA was consistent with a pozzolanic Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 20.9 35.6 36.2
material; therefore, it is possible to develop BA for use as a poz- Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 4.8 19.6 19.7
zolanic material, such as fly ash. Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.4 14.9 15.0
Calcium oxide (CaO) 63.3 18.7 20.2
2.4. Normal consistency and setting time Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.7 1.7 2.1
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.3 2.4 2.5
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.3 1.2 0.9
OPC was replaced by BA at each fineness at a rate of 20% by Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.4 2.3 2.8
weight to cast BA-cement pastes, while control paste (CT) was Loss of ignition (LOI) 2.9 3.6 0
the mixture with 100% OPC. The normal consistency and setting SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 – 70.1 70.9
times of the BA pastes and the CT paste were determined in accor- *
Result from Tongsanitgarn et al. [26].
dance with ASTM C191 [27].

2.5. Mortar mixtures 1–2.75 by weight in accordance with ASTM C311 [28]. Control
mortar (CT) was cast using 100% by weight of OPC as a binder,
The mix proportion of mortar in this study was tabulated in while the BA mortars were cast using a binder in which OPC was
Table 3. A ratio of binder to fine aggregate was set constant at replaced by BA at each fineness at a rate of 20% by weight of binder.

Table 3
Mix proportion of mortar.

Mortar Retained on a Sieve Mix Proportion (% by W/B Ratio Flow Water


No.325 of BA (%) weight) Requirement (%)
OPC BA
CT 100 0.65 108 100
5BA 3.7 80 20 0.65 105 100
15BA 14.5 80 20 0.66 109 101
25BA 24.0 80 20 0.67 112 102
35BA 35.3 80 20 0.68 110 105
45BA 43.7 80 20 0.70 113 107
OBA 96.3 80 20 0.77 110 118
158 A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162

The flow of the CT mortar was controlled between 110 ± 5, while setting times of ground BA pastes were in the range of 120–125
the flow of the BA mortar was controlled at ±5 of the CT mortar and 190–200 min, respectively. These values were attributed to
flow by adjusting the mixing water. the free water in the mixture being rapidly adsorbed into the
Cubic 5 cm mortars were cast to determine the compressive porosity of the OBA particles before setting. A similar result for
strength according to ASTM C 109 [29]. The average compressive the setting time could be detected when using coarse fly ash to
strength of mortar from five specimens was studied at 3, 7, 14, replace OPC [31]. For the 5BA, 15BA, 25BA, 35BA and 45BA parti-
28, 60 and 90 days. In addition, the strength activity indices of cles, their porosities were reduced by grinding so that more free
the BA mortars were determined when they were compared to water has remained in the mixture, resulting in slightly retarding
the strength of the CT mortar. the setting times compared to OBA paste.

3. Results and discussion 3.2. Water requirement

3.1. Setting times of paste The water requirement of mortars is tabulated in Table 3 show-
ing that the replacement of 20% by weight of high fineness 5BA did
The normal consistency and setting times for the pastes are not affect the water requirement of the mortar, while the 15BA,
presented in Fig. 3. The normal consistency of the BA pastes was 25BA, 35BA, and 45BA mortars increased water requirements
between 26 and 27%, which was slightly less than the normal con- slightly. Furthermore, the use of OBA in the mortar mixture
sistency of the CT paste, which was 25%. The initial and final set- resulted in the increase in the water requirement up to 118% of
ting times of CT paste were 108 and 180 min, respectively. The the CT mortar because the higher porosity of the OBA particles
setting times of all BA pastes should be consistent with the absorbed more water. However, the high porosity of the OBA par-
requirements specified by ASTM C150 [30], where the initial set- ticles could be reduced by grinding, which resulted in a decrease of
ting time was not less than 45 min and not more than 375 min water absorption into the particles. This result conforms to the
for the final setting time. Since the replacement OPC with BA at a result of Jaturapitakkul and Cherarot [16], who reported that the
rate of 20% by weight resulted in decreasing C3A and C3S in the ground BA with 2.8% by weight of the particles retained on a No.
paste, the setting times of the BA pastes were slightly slower com- 325 sieve could reduce the water requirement of the mortar to
pared to CT paste. 98% of the CT mortar due to its smooth surfaces compared to the
The setting times of the BA pastes were slightly affected by the OPC particles, while the OBA mortar required water up to 114%
BA fineness. Additionally, the replacement OBA in the paste tended of the CT mortar.
to slightly decrease the setting time of the paste compared to BA When the water requirements of the BA mortars were consid-
pastes. For example, the initial and final setting times of OBA paste ered with a maximum limitation of the water requirement of
were 113 and 185 min, respectively, while the initial and final 105% for pozzolan class C and class F [15], 5BA, 15BA, and 25BA
mortars needed a water requirement of less than 105% compared
to the CT mortar, while the water requirement of 35BA mortar
was 105% of the CT mortar. Moreover, the large BA particles of
45BA and OBA in the mortars did not achieve the minimum water
requirement for pozzolan class C and class F. Therefore, the parti-
cles of BA should be reduced to retain less than 25% by weight
on a No. 325 sieve to maintain the water requirement of the mortar
to be less than 105% of the CT mortar.

3.3. Compressive strength

The compressive strengths of mortars at the curing ages


between 3 and 90 days are presented in Table 4. At the early ages
(3–14 days), all BA mortars had less compressive strength than the
CT mortar. The 20% by weight of BA that partially replaced OPC
reduced the hydration products in the mortars, resulting in a
decrease in the compressive strength at the early stages, support-
ing the studies of Cheriaf et al. [17] who reported that before 14
days, the pozzolanic activity of bottom ash with lime was very
Fig. 3. Normal consistency and setting times of CT and BA pastes. low and pozzolanic activity started after 28 days.

Table 4
Compressive strength and strength activity index of mortar.

Mortar Compressive Strength (MPa) – Strength Activity Index (%)


3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days 60 days 90 days
CT 23.8 ± 0.6-100 30.2 ± 0.9-100 32.6 ± 1.4-100 40.1 ± 2.4-100 45.5 ± 2.6-100 47.2 ± 1.3-100
5BA 21.1 ± 0.7-89 28.0 ± 1.2-93 31.4 ± 1.5-96 40.9 ± 2.2-102 46.7 ± 1.6-103 49.8 ± 1.1-106
15BA 19.6 ± 0.3-82 26.1 ± 1.0-86 29.1 ± 1.2-89 36.7 ± 1.3-91 42.8 ± 2.5-94 45.3 ± 1.8-96
25BA 18.3 ± 1.0-77 25.6 ± 0.7-85 27.5 ± 0.7-84 34.8 ± 1.9-87 39.3 ± 0.8-86 40.4 ± 1.6-86
35BA 17.5 ± 1.4-73 22.2 ± 0.7-74 24.0 ± 1.4-74 30.2 ± 2.0-75 35.4 ± 1.5-78 36.3 ± 1.1-77
45BA 16.2 ± 0.7-68 20.6 ± 1.1-68 23.2 ± 1.4-71 27.6 ± 0.9-69 31.2 ± 1.2-69 33.4 ± 1.1-71
OBA 11.5 ± 0.8-48 14.3 ± 1.1-47 16.3 ± 2.3-50 19.8 ± 1.8-49 24.1 ± 0.9-53 25.1 ± 1.4-53

Bold italics value are strength activity index as the percentage of mortar.
A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162 159

At 28 days, the 5BA mortar had a compressive strength of 40.9 The presence of the large BA particles in the mortar not only
MPa, which was as good as the compressive strength of the CT reduced the strength activity index due to small surface area but
mortar. The pozzolanic reaction requires calcium hydroxide also reduced the strength activity index due to the high porosity
(Ca(OH)2) from the hydration product of OPC, so the pozzolanic of the particles. Therefore, the particles of BA retained on a No.
activity of BA could be observed more clearly after 28 days. After 325 sieve at more than 25% by weight were not suitable to be used
28 days, the compressive strength of the 5BA mortar became as a pozzolan material since these particles gave a low pozzolanic
higher than the compressive strength of the CT mortar. For exam- reaction.
ple, the compressive strength of the 5BA mortar at 60 and 90 days
was 46.7 and 49.8 MPa, respectively, while the CT mortars had the 3.5. Strength activity index of BA mortar compared to fly ash mortar
compressive strengths of 45.5 and 47.2 MPa at 60 and 90 days,
respectively. This behavior can be explained by the larger pores BA was generated from coal combustion like fly ash. Therefore,
in the paste being filled to become finer pores by increasing the
the strength activity index of BA was compared with fly ash mortar
secondary calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium aluminate from previous research [38–41], and the comparison is shown in
hydrate (CAH) products from the pozzolanic reaction. Moreover,
Fig. 4. In general, the as-received BA from the power plant had lar-
the Ca(OH)2 in the paste was also transformed into CSH product, ger particles than the fly ash. However, when BA was ground to
which is the primary product to carry the compressive strength small particles similar to the fly ash particles, the strength activity
of the paste [32,33]. The 15BA, 25BA, 35BA, 45BA and OBA mortars indices of the ground BA mortars at 7 and 28 days were not signif-
still had compressive strengths lower than the CT mortar for the icantly different from the fly ash mortars, which could be observed
ages of the mortars up to 90 days. The BA mortars (except the from the slope of the trend line.
5BA mortar) had higher W/B ratios than the CT mortar, especially, At 7 days, as shown in Fig. 4a, the strength activity index of the
the OBA mortar had a W/B ratio of 0.77. BA tended to be the same as the strength activity index of the fly ash
The compressive strength of mortar or concrete containing poz- with the same particle sizes because the strength of the pozzolan
zolanic material could be improved by an increase in the fineness mortar showed a contributed from hydration products and a pack-
of the pozzolanic material [34,35], which was similar to the com- ing effect more than pozzolanic products at the early ages (not more
pressive strength of BA mortar. The use of high fineness bottom than 7 days). This result could be explained more clearly by the
ash in 5BA mortar could increase the compressive strength of the study of Tangpagasit et al. [42], who reported that the fly ash with
mortar approximately to a level two times higher than the OBA the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve of 0 to 29% by weight had a
mortar after 28 days. For example, the compressive strength of strength activity index due to pozzolanic reaction of 6 to 0.5% at
OBA was 19.8 MPa at 28 days while the compressive strength of 7 days, respectively, and increased of 20–3.5% at 28 days. The
5BA mortar was 40.9 MPa at the same age. This result indicates difference in the pozzolanic reaction between BA mortar and fly
that the high fineness of BA easily reacted with Ca(OH)2, so the
use of BA as a pozzolanic material required an increase in the fine-
ness of the BA by grinding to achieve a good compressive strength.

3.4. Strength activity index

ASTM C618 [15] specifies that the strength activity index of


pozzolan mortar should not be less than 75% of the CT mortar.
5BA, 15BA and 25BA mortars (see Table 4) achieved a strength
activity index greater than 75% of CT mortar since the age of the
mortar was 3 days. The 5BA mortar showed a strength activity
index of 93% of CT mortar at 7 days and increased to 102 and
106% at 28 and 90 days, respectively, while the strength activity
index of the 35BA mortar was 74% of the CT mortar at 7 days
and increased to only 75 and 77% of CT mortar at 28 and 90 days,
respectively.
The strength activity index of mortar containing small particles
of BA was similar to other pozzolanic materials [31,36,37], since
the strength activity index increased with the curing age. The
strength activity indices of 5BA, 155BA and 25BA mortars
increased very fast at the curing ages between 3 and 28 days. For
example, the strength activity indices of 5BA, 15BA and 25BA mor-
tars at 3 days were 89, 82 and 77% of the CT mortar and increased
to 102, 91 and 87% of the CT mortar at 28 days and 106, 96 and 86%
of the CT mortar at 90 days. Moreover, the different behavior of the
strength activity index was also found in 35BA, 45BA, and OBA
mortars. The strength activity indices of 35BA, 45BA, and OBA were
almost constant, even though their curing ages were increased. For
instance, 35BA and 45BA mortars had strength activity indices at
3–90 days between 73–77% and 68–71% of CT mortar, respectively.
Moreover, the strength activity index of the OBA was very low,
approximately 50% of the CT mortar. This result indicated that
the BA with the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve at less than
Fig. 4. Relationship between strength activity indices and particles retained on a
25% by weight exhibited good pozzolanic material properties. No. 325 sieve of BA and fly ash at 7 and 28 day. (a) Strength activity indices of BA
However, larger BA particles acted as slow reactive materials in and fly ash mortars at 7 days. (b) Strength activity indices of BA and fly ash mortars
the mortar, resulting in a decrease in the strength activity index. at 28 days.
160 A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162

ash mortar could be observed more clearly at 28 days, as shown in In case of LOI, the commonly effects due to the higher LOI of
Fig. 4b. The BA mortar required smaller particles of BA at 10% by pozzolanic material were discoloration, poor air entrainment,
weight retained on a No. 325 sieve to achieve a strength activity segregation, and low compressive strength of the concrete [43].
index similar to fly ash mortar. For instance, the mortar containing In addition, the high LOI resulted in an increased water demand
BA with 15% by weight of particles retained on a No. 325 sieve had a of the fresh concrete, since the unburned carbon that appeared in
strength activity index similar to mortar with fly ash that had par- the form of the larger porous particles would absorb water [44].
ticles retained on a No. 325 sieve of 25% by weight, attributed to the Therefore, ASTM C618 [15] limits the LOI value for fly ash Class F
fly ash containing a higher content of amorphous phase particles and Class C as less than 6.0%. In this study, 4 sources out of 21
than the BA particles [14]. This finding was an indication that the sources had LOI values higher than 6.0%. The maximum, minimum,
BA had pozzolanic properties similar to fly ash. However, the poz- and average values for LOI of BA were 15.9, 0.9 and 4.8%, respec-
zolanic properties of the BA depended on the amorphous phase, tively. Mostly, the high LOI value of BA was found from fluidized
the chemical properties and the fineness of BA. bed coal combustion, while the low LOI value of BA was obtained
from pulverized coal combustion. The above results suggest that
3.6. Chemical composition of BA for use as a pozzolanic material the primary chemical specification of BA for use as pozzolanic
material could follow the specification of fly ash in accordance
The use of BA as a pozzolanic material should consider several with ASTM C618 [15], i.e., the total amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and
factors such as the chemical composition, the particle size of BA, Fe2O3 should be at least 50%. Additionally, SO3 and LOI values
the water requirement and the strength activity index of the mor- should be less than 5.0 and 6.0%, respectively.
tar. The chemical composition of BA varied depending on the
source. The summary of the chemical compositions of BA from var- 3.7. Fineness of BA for use as a pozzolanic material
ious sources is tabulated in Table 5.
The chemical properties of BA from 23 sources was considered The fineness of the pozzolanic material was a very important
with the specified values from ASTM C618 [15]. Class F and Class C factor on the rate of pozzolanic reaction. However, the increasing
fly ashes were specified to have a total amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and BA fineness required more energy consumption due to the grinding
Fe2O3 of at least 70% and 50%, respectively. The total amount of process. Therefore, the selection of BA fineness should be consid-
SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 in BA ranged from 65.0 to 94.1%, and aver- ered in conjunction with the water requirement and strength
aged of 80.0%. From 21 sources (out of 23 sources), the total activity index of the mortar. ASTM C618 [15] defined that the par-
amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 were higher than 70% and the rest ticles retained on a No. 325 sieve of fly ash class C and class F
of the sources had a summation of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 of more should be less than 34%, corresponding to the water requirement
than 50%. The average value of SO3 was 1.0% and the SO3 values of of mortar of less than 105% of the control mortar and the strength
all 23 BA sources were relatively low at 0 to 4.1%, which was lower activity index of the mortar should be higher than 75% at 7 days or
than 5.0% as specified by ASTM C618 [15]. 28 days. As mentioned above in Section 3.2, the BA mortar with the

Table 5
Chemical compositions of bottom ash from several research studies.

No. References Chemical Composition (%)


SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O LOI SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
1 [17] 56.0 26.7 5.8 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.2 2.6 4.6 88.5
2 [45] 51.0 15.0 9.6 2.6 4.0 0.2 0.5 1.3 15.7 75.6
3 [16] 48.1 23.5 10.6 11.7 3.5 1.8 0.1 3.5 4.0 82.1
4 [46] 42.4 31.4 6.4 17.6 1.5 2.3 0.0 1.1 10.2 80.2
5 [47] 44.3 21.5 6.4 17.6 1.3 2.2 0.3 0.8 – 72.1
6 [48] 61.8 17.8 7.0 3.2 1.3 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.6 86.6
7 [49] 50.5 28.4 10.7 2.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 3.8 2.3 89.5
8 [50] 57.9 22.6 13.0 2.0 3.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.7 93.5
9 [51] 56.0 16.7 9.7 4.4 5.1 0.7 0.1 1.4 4.7 82.3
10 [14] 38.8 21.3 12.1 16.5 1.7 2.4 1.0 2.5 2.9 72.2
11 [7] 56.0 26.7 5.8 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.2 2.6 4.6 88.5
12 [52] 61.4 21.9 6.8 2.6 2.1 0.0 0.4 3.5 1.8 90.0
13 [53] 51.5 18.8 9.6 5.1 0.9 0.0 0.5 2.5 10.9 79.8
14 [54] 48.8 10.1 6.1 11.8 5.6 4.1 0.9 2.3 9.8 65.0
15 [55] 39.3 21.3 13.5 16.5 2.6 1.5 1.0 2.1 1.4 74.1
16 [55] 40.3 17.4 13.6 11.8 7.6 0.0 2.8 1.5 4.4 71.3
17 [55] 35.5 16.8 15.1 13.3 8.4 0.0 3.8 1.8 4.7 67.4
18 [56] 48.1 23.5 10.6 11.7 3.5 1.8 0.1 3.5 3.4 82.1
19 [57] 47.5 20.7 6.0 4.2 0.8 1.0 0.3 0.8 0.9 74.2
20 [58] 46.0 22.3 10.6 11.5 3.5 1.8 0.1 2.4 4.0 79.0
21 [59] 56.4 29.2 8.4 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 1.3 0.9 94.1
22 [60] 46.6 23.6 12.4 11.3 1.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 – 82.6
23 This study 35.6 19.6 14.9 18.7 2.4 1.7 1.2 2.3 3.6 70.1
Maximum 61.8 31.4 15.1 18.7 8.4 4.1 3.8 3.8 15.7 94.1
Minimum 35.5 10.1 5.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 65.0
Average 48.7 21.6 9.8 8.6 2.7 1.0 0.7 2.0 4.8 80.0
ASTM C618 [15] Class C 5.0 6.0 50.0
Class F 5.0 6.0 70.0

Underline values are the chemical composition values which not met the requirement for pozzolan class F as specified by ASTM C618.
A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162 161

BA particles retained on a No. 325 sieve at less than 25% by weight


could achieve the water requirement of less than 105% of the con-
trol mortar. Fig. 4a and b show the relationship between the
strength activity index and pozzolan particles retained on a No.
325 sieve at 7 and 28 days, respectively. BA with particles retained
on a No. 325 sieve at approximately 34% by weight in the mortar
could achieve the strength activity index of 75% at 7 and 28 days.
However, to ensure that BA could produce the strength activity
index of mortar higher than 80% at 7 or 28 days, the BA particles
should be retained on a No. 325 sieve at 25% by weight. In addition,
BA with the particles retained on a No. 325 sieve of less than 5% by
weight had the water requirement the same as CT mortar and pro-
duced a strength activity index of approximately 100% at 28 days.
This result should be considered in using BA as a pozzolan in pro-
ducing high strength concrete.
Fig. 5. Relationship between particles retained on a No. 325 sieve and grinding
time.
3.8. Economical and useful of using bottom ash

Currently, BA from Mae Moh power plant in Thailand has been 4. Conclusions
disposed in landfill, which generates the cost due to disposal pro-
cess approximately 3.2 USD (102 THB) per ton [61]. Therefore, the This study obtained a satisfactory result. According to the
utilization of BA as a pozzolanic material is a good solution to results and discussion, the following conclusions can be drawn:
reduce the disposal cost. However, the development of BA as a poz-
zolanic material need to increase its fineness by a grinding process. 1. The replacement of BA slightly retarded setting times of BA
Fig. 5 compares a grinding process between clinker and BA when paste compared to cement paste. Moreover, the BA fineness
10 kg of BA or cement clinker is ground by the Los Angeles machine did not significantly affect the setting times of the BA pastes.
(laboratory scale) using 50 kg of ball mills with various diameters. 2. Although 5BA mortar (the BA particles retained on a No. 325
The grinding time for clinker was 330 min to obtain the particles of sieve were approximately 5% by weight) produced a compres-
less than 15% retained on a No. 325 sieve (similar size to OPC), sive strength lower than the CT mortar at the early age, the
while it took only 90 min for the BA to obtain the particles of less compressive strength of 5BA mortar could be as good as or bet-
than 5% retained on a No. 325 sieve. This finding suggested that the ter than CT mortar after 28 days.
BA was easier to grind than the clinker and meant that the energy 3. BA could be developed to be used as a pozzolanic material the
consumption due to the grinding process of BA was considerably same as fly ash. However, its pozzolanic property depended
less than that of the clinker. on the physical and chemical properties of BA.
The cost of ground BA (including of energy, worker, maintenance 4. To use BA as a pozzolanic material, the chemical properties
of grinding machine) to have particles retained on a No. 325 sieve of should follow ASTM C618 for fly ash Class F or Class C. In addi-
less than 5% by weight (by grinding machine in industrial scale) is tion, the BA must be ground until the particles retained on a No.
approximately 2.2 USD (70 THB) per ton and can be marketed to 325 sieve are at least 25% by weight to achieve a good poz-
customer more than that as approximately 3.4 USD (110 THB) per zolanic material.
ton [61]. This suggested that the use of ground BA is not only reduce 5. The utilization of BA as a pozzolanic material presents a good
the cost from disposal process but also increase the BA value. In solution for reducing the cost of concrete production, amount
addition, the main cost material in concrete production is OPC of BA in landfills and environmental impacts due to reduction
because it has many processes such as limestone explosion, decar- of OPC usage.
bonation of limestone, clinker heating and grinding to have a suit-
able size. Obviously, if OPC is reduced in the concrete mixture by Conflict of Interest
replacing OPC with BA as a pozzolanic material, the cost of concrete
will decrease depending on the replacement rate. None.
Moreover, it is wildly known that cement production is one of
the main reasons for a CO2 emission problem. In Thailand, cement
was produced at approximately 37 million tons/year, among the Acknowledgment
top 15 countries in the world [62]. According to Habert et al.
[63], the CO2 released from the cement production was 1.02 tons/- The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial supports from
ton of cement, separate from the decarbonation of the limestone, the Office of the Higher Education Commission, Thailand, for sup-
the carbon-based fuels used for heating the clinker (1450 °C), and porting this work under the Strategic Scholarships Fellowships
the grinding process of 0.53, 0.39 and 0.1 tons, respectively. The Frontier Research Networks (specific for Thailand’s southern
CO2 released due to Thailand cement production was approxi- region) for the Thai Doctoral Degree Program. Thank also extend
mately 38 million tons/year. The use of BA to replace OPC is a good to Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) for support-
alternative choice to reduce CO2 due to the cement production. The ing bottom ash.
reduction of CO2 emission was up to the replacement of OPC by BA
in concrete mixture. i.e., the CO2 emission due to the process of
References
decarbonation of the limestone and the carbon-based fuels used
for heating the clinker was reduced. This indicates that the use of [1] P. Chindaprasirt, S. Rukzon, Pore structure changes of blended cement pastes
BA as a pozzolanic material has more benefit such as decreasing containing fly ash, rice husk ash, and palm oil fuel ash caused by carbonation, J.
of disposal area, increasing of its value, and reducing the cost of Mater. Civ. Eng. 21 (11) (2009) 666–671.
[2] W. Wang, C. Lu, Y. Li, G. Yuan, Q. Li, Effects of stress and high temperature on
concrete production. Additionally, this is a good choice to reduce the carbonation resistance of fly ash concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 138 (2017)
CO2 due to the reduction of cement consumption. 486–495.
162 A. Abdulmatin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 186 (2018) 155–162

[3] S. Abbas, S.M. Kazmi, M.J. Munir, Potential of rice husk ash for mitigating the [35] W. Tangchirapat, R. Buranasing, C. Jaturapitakkul, Use of high fineness of fly
alkali-silica reaction in mortar bars incorporating reactive aggregates, Constr. ash to improve properties of recycled aggregate concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22
Build. Mater. 132 (2017) 61–70. (6) (2009) 565–571.
[4] B.A. Salami, M.A.M. Johari, Z.A. Ahmad, M. Maslehuddin, Durability [36] N.M. Altwair, M.A.M. Johari, S.F.S. Hashim, Strength activity index and
performance of palm oil fuel ash-based engineered alkaline-activated microstructural characteristics of treated palm oil fuel ash, Int. J. Civ.
cementitious composite (POFA-EACC) mortar in sulfate environment, Constr. Environ. Eng. 11 (5) (2011) 100–106.
Build. Mater. 131 (2017) 229–244. [37] K. Ganesan, K. Rajagopal, K. Thangavel, Evaluation of bagasse ash as
[5] A. Rerkpiboon, W. Tangchirapat, C. Jaturapitakkul, Strength, chloride supplementary cementitious material, Cem. Concr. Compos. 29 (6) (2007)
resistance, and expansion of concretes containing ground bagasse ash, 515–524.
Constr. Build. Mater. 101 (2015) 983–989. [38] K. Kiattikomol, C. Jaturapitakkul, S. Songpiriyakij, S. Chutubtim, A study of
[6] H. Myadraboina, S. Setunge, I. Patnaikuni, Pozzolanic index and lime ground coarse fly ashes with different finenesses from various sources as
requirement of low calcium fly ashes in high volume fly ash mortar, Constr. pozzolanic materials, Cem. Concr. Compos. 23 (4) (2001) 335–343.
Build. Mater. 131 (2017) 690–695. [39] B. Felekoğlu, S. Türkel, H. Kalyoncu, Optimization of fineness to maximize the
[7] L. Andrade, J. Rocha, M. Cheriaf, Influence of coal bottom ash as fine aggregate strength activity of high-calcium ground fly ash–Portland cement composites,
on fresh properties of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2) (2009) 609–614. Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (5) (2009) 2053–2061.
[8] S.C. Kou, C.S. Poon, Properties of concrete prepared with crushed fine stone, [40] K.H. Obla, R.L. Hill, M.D. Thomas, S.G. Shashiprakash, O. Perebatova, Properties
furnace bottom ash and fine recycled aggregate as fine aggregates, Constr. of concrete containing ultra-fine fly ash, ACI Mater. J. 100 (5) (2003) 426–433.
Build. Mater. 23 (8) (2009) 2877–2886. [41] L. Jiang, V. Malhotra, Reduction in water demand of non-air-entrained
[9] G. Kim, J. Jang, H.R. Khalid, H. Lee, Water purification characteristics of concrete incorporating large volumes of fly ash, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (11)
pervious concrete fabricated with CSA cement and bottom ash aggregates, (2000) 1785–1789.
Constr. Build. Mater. 136 (2017) 1–8. [42] J. Tangpagasit, R. Cheerarot, C. Jaturapitakkul, K. Kiattikomol, Packing effect
[10] E. Baite, A. Messan, K. Hannawi, F. Tsobnang, W. Prince, Physical and transfer and pozzolanic reaction of fly ash in mortar, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (6) (2005)
properties of mortar containing coal bottom ash aggregates from Tefereyre 1145–1151.
(Niger), Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (2016) 919–926. [43] N. Chusilp, C. Jaturapitakkul, K. Kiattikomol, Effects of LOI of ground bagasse
[11] P. Aggarwal, Y. Aggarwal, S. Gupta, Effect of bottom ash as replacement of fine ash on the compressive strength and sulfate resistance of mortars, Constr.
aggregates in concrete, Asian J. Civ. Eng. 8 (1) (2007) 49–62. Build. Mater. 23 (12) (2009) 3523–3531.
[12] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Effect of coal bottom ash as partial replacement of sand [44] C.D. Atisß, Strength properties of high-volume fly ash roller compacted and
on properties of concrete, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 72 (2013) 20–32. workable concrete, and influence of curing condition, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (6)
[13] H. Kim, H. Lee, Use of power plant bottom ash as fine and coarse aggregates in (2005) 1112–1121.
high-strength concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2) (2011) 1115–1122. [45] I. Kula, A. Olgun, V. Sevinc, Y. Erdogan, An investigation on the use of tincal ore
[14] P. Chindaprasirt, C. Jaturapitakkul, W. Chalee, U. Rattanasak, Comparative waste, fly ash, and coal bottom ash as Portland cement replacement materials,
study on the characteristics of fly ash and bottom ash geopolymers, Waste Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (2) (2002) 227–232.
Manage. 29 (2) (2009) 539–543. ß . Targan, A. Olgun, Y. Erdogan, V. Sevinc, Influence of natural pozzolan,
[46] S
[15] ASTM C618, Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural colemanite ore waste, bottom ash, and fly ash on the properties of Portland
pozzolan for use in concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015. cement, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (8) (2003) 1175–1182.
[16] C. Jaturapitakkul, R. Cheerarot, Development of bottom ash as pozzolanic [47] F. Canpolat, K. Yılmaz, M. Köse, M. Sümer, M. Yurdusev, Use of zeolite, coal
material, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (1) (2003) 48–53. bottom ash and fly ash as replacement materials in cement production, Cem.
[17] N.F. Basirun, M.H.W. Ibrahim, N. Jamaludin, R.P. Jaya, A review: The effect of Concr. Res. 34 (5) (2004) 731–735.
grinded coal bottom ash on concrete, in: MATEC Web of Conferences. EDP [48] Y. Bai, F. Darcy, P. Basheer, Strength and drying shrinkage properties of
Sciences, 2017, 01007p. concrete containing furnace bottom ash as fine aggregate, Constr. Build. Mater.
[18] B. Kim, P. Monica, Compaction characteristics and corrosivity of Indiana class- 19 (9) (2005) 691–697.
F fly and bottom ash mixtures, Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (4) (2008) 694–702. [49] L. Andrade, J. Rocha, M. Cheriaf, Aspects of moisture kinetics of coal bottom ash
[19] M. Cheriaf, J.C. Rocha, J. Pera, Pozzolanic properties of pulverized coal in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (2) (2007) 231–241.
combustion bottom ash, Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (9) (1999) 1387–1391. _ Yüksel, T. Bilir, Ö. Özkan, Durability of concrete incorporating non-ground
[50] I.
[20] H. Jun Ng, M.M.A. Bakri Abdullah, S.J. Tan, A.V. Sandu, K. Hussin, blast furnace slag and bottom ash as fine aggregate, Build. Environ. 42 (7)
Characterisation and understanding of Portland cement mortar with (2007) 2651–2659.
different sizes of bottom ash, Adv. Cem. Res. 30 (2) (2018) 66–74. [51] H. Kurama, M. Kaya, Usage of coal combustion bottom ash in concrete mixture,
[21] H.K. Kim, Utilization of sieved and ground coal bottom ash powders as a coarse Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (9) (2008) 1922–1928.
binder in high-strength mortar to improve workability, Constr. Build. Mater. [52] S. Kizgut, D. Cuhadaroglu, S. Samanli, Stirred grinding of coal bottom ash to be
91 (2015) 57–64. evaluated as a cement additive, Energy Sources Part A 32 (16) (2010) 1529–
[22] S. Oruji, N.A. Brake, L. Nalluri, R.K. Guduru, Strength activity and 1539.
microstructure of blended ultra-fine coal bottom ash-cement mortar, Constr. [53] I.B. Topcu, M.U. Toprak, Properties of geopolymer from circulating fluidized
Build. Mater. 153 (2017) 317–326. bed combustion coal bottom ash, Mater. Sci. Eng., A 528 (3) (2011) 1472–1477.
[23] TIS 15, Portland cement Part 1 specification, Thai Industrial Standards, [54] M. Ucurum, Ö. Toraman, T. Depci, E. Yoğurtçuoğlu, A study on characterization
Bangkok, Thailand, 2004, 1–12. and use of flotation to separate unburned carbon in bottom ash from Cayirhan
[24] ASTM C33, Standard specification for concrete aggregates, ASTM International, power plant, Energy Sources Part A 33 (6) (2011) 562–574.
West Conshohocken, PA, 2016. [55] V. Sata, A. Sathonsaowaphak, P. Chindaprasirt, Resistance of lignite bottom ash
[25] G. McCarthy, J. Solem, O. Manz, D. Hassett, Use of a database of chemical, geopolymer mortar to sulfate and sulfuric acid attack, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34
mineralogical and physical properties of North American fly ash to study the (5) (2012) 700–708.
nature of fly ash and its utilization as a mineral admixture in concrete. MRS [56] S. Inthata, W. Kowtanapanich, R. Cheerarot, Prediction of chloride permeability
Proc. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989, 03. of concretes containing ground pozzolans by artificial neural networks, Mater.
[26] P. Thongsanitgarn, W. Wongkeo, A. Chaipanich, C.S. Poon, Heat of hydration of Struct. 46 (10) (2013) 1707–1721.
Portland high-calcium fly ash cement incorporating limestone powder: effect [57] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Strength properties and micro-structural properties of
of limestone particle size, Constr. Build. Mater. 66 (2014) 410–417. concrete containing coal bottom ash as partial replacement of fine aggregate,
[27] ASTM C191, Standard Test Methods for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement Constr. Build. Mater. 50 (2014) 246–256.
by Vicat Needle, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013. [58] P. Onprom, K. Chaimoon, R. Cheerarot, Influence of bottom ash replacements
[28] ASTM C311, Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or as fine aggregate on the property of cellular concrete with various foam
Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland Cement Concrete, ASTM International, contents, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2015 (2015).
West Conshohocken, PA, 2017. [59] M. Singh, R. Siddique, Properties of concrete containing high volumes of coal
[29] ASTM C109, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic bottom ash as fine aggregate, J. Cleaner Prod. 91 (2015) 269–278.
Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens, ASTM International, [60] N. Latifi, A. Marto, A.S.A. Rashid, J.L.J. Yii, Strength and physico-chemical
Conshohocken, PA, 2016. characteristics of fly ash–bottom ash mixture, Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 40 (9) (2015)
[30] ASTM C150, Standard Specification for Portland Cement, ASTM International, 2447–2455.
West Conshohocken, PA, 2016. [61] EGAT, Communication with Mae Moh power plant, Electricity Generating
[31] C. Jaturapitakkul, K. Kiattikomol, S. Songpiriyakij, A study of strength activity index Authority of Thailand (EGAT), Thailand. June 4, 2018.
of ground coarse fly ash with Portland cement, Sci. Asia 25 (1999) 223–229. [62] The Statistics Portal. Major countries in worldwide cement production from
[32] V. Papadakis, S. Tsimas, Supplementary cementing materials in concrete: Part 2011 to 2016 (in million metric tons), (2016). https://www.statista.com/
I: efficiency and design, Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (10) (2002) 1525–1532. statistics/267364/world-cement-production-by-country/, (10 January, 2017).
[33] A. Memon, S. Radin, M.F.M. Zain, J.-F. Trottier, Effects of mineral and chemical [63] G. Habert, C. Billard, P. Rossi, C. Chen, N. Roussel, Cement production
admixtures on high-strength concrete in seawater, Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (3) technology improvement compared to factor 4 objectives, Cem. Concr. Res.
(2002) 373–377. 40 (5) (2010) 820–826.
[34] S.J. Choi, S.S. Lee, P.J. Monteiro, Effect of fly ash fineness on temperature rise,
setting, and strength development of mortar, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 24 (5) (2011)
499–505.

You might also like