International Journal of Ambient Energy

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An overview of concentrated solar energy and its

applications

Pushkaraj D. Sonawane & V. K. Bupesh Raja

To cite this article: Pushkaraj D. Sonawane & V. K. Bupesh Raja (2017): An overview of
concentrated solar energy and its applications, International Journal of Ambient Energy, DOI:
10.1080/01430750.2017.1345009

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Published online: 07 Jul 2017.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2017.1345009

An overview of concentrated solar energy and its applications

Pushkaraj D. Sonawanea and V. K. Bupesh Rajab
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sathyabama University, Chennai, India; b Department of Automobile Engineering, Sathyabama University,
Chennai, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Overview of the present-day concentrated solar energy (CSE) technologies is presented. Approaches to Received 12 March 2017
concentrating solar energy are reviewed and the current projects worldwide of CSE technologies are com- Accepted 18 June 2017
pared. This paper presents general descriptions, current projects and summary of the CSE technologies. KEYWORDS
Parabolic trough collectors (PTCs) technology is found to be a mature technology. The linear Fresnel col- Concentrated solar energy;
lectors (LFCs) technology is still in the experimental stage. The tower solar power (TSP) technology is solar energy; sun; solar
preferred for large scale due to the cheapness. Sterling/dish collectors (SDCs) technology is designed espe- concentrators; solar energy
cially for remote applications and has the highest overall efficiency and the highest operating temperature. applications
The application areas show that CSE can be used in a wide variety of systems, could provide significant
environmental and monetary benefits.

1. Introduction drop in efficiency and as a result reduction in life cycle. Fresnel

Recent years, the use of solar energy in various applications
is noteworthy. Driving force for this change is the continu-
ous research for an alternative power source due to the per-
ceived scarcity of fossil fuel. As the cost of fossil fuel continues
to rise, it has become even more popular. Solar energy is the
most abundant one and is available in both direct and indirect
forms of all the renewable sources of energy available. The sun
emits its energy in the form of radiation amounting to around
3.8×1023 kW. Our planet earth which is located about 150 mil-
lion km from the sun receives around 60% of solar radiation, i.e.
around 1.08×1014 kW. The rest is reflected back into space and
absorbed by the atmosphere. What we consume energy in the
whole world for 1 year, the earth receives that much energy in
just 1 h from the sun (Thirugnanasambandam, Iniyan, and Goic
2010; Coursehero 2016). For solar energy, the greatest advan-
tage as compared with other forms of energy is that it is clean
and without any environmental pollution. Fossil fuels have pro-
vided most of our energy over the past century because these
are much cheaper and more convenient than energy from alter-
native energy sources. Also, until recently, there was very little
concern about environmental pollution (Aboltins, Ruskis, and
Palabinskis 2012; Py, Azoumah, and Olives 2013).
Present-day solar energy, harnessing technology demands
high-grade energy for achieving compact plant size and very
efficient power generation with minimal payback period. But,
readily available solar energy is of low-grade energy. Concen-
trated solar energy (CSE) technology, therefore, can be a strong
alternative to cater the demand of energy in an efficient man-
ner. Huge initial investment is required for CSE, of which reflector
or mirror contributes 50% of the total cost of installation. As
well, due to unfavourable service conditions and environmen-
tal impacts, it gets degraded very early, which causes a concrete
lens as solar concentrator may prove to be a promising alter-
native in Photovoltaic/Thermal (PV/T) applications, due to its
potential to overcome techno-commercial constraints associ-
ated with conventional reflector-based CSE (Kumar, Shrivastava,
and Untawale 2015).
2. Approaches to concentrating solar energy
The direct beam component of solar radiation is captured by
CSE systems. Unlike flat plate PV, they are not capable of har-
nessing the solar radiation in cloudy or dusty environments or
other severe meteorological conditions. The CSE is best suited
to areas with clear skies and favourable weather conditions
(Aboltins, Ruskis, and Palabinskis 2012). Solar energy collectors
transform solar radiation energy to internal energy of the trans-
port medium. Solar collector is the major component of any solar
system. In solar collector, incoming solar radiation is absorbed
and then converted to heat, and finally this heat is transferred to
a fluid (that can be air, water or oil) flowing through the collector
and utilised in space conditioning equipment, or sent to a ther-
mal energy storage tank from which can be drawn for later use.
Two basic types of solar collectors are non-concentrating or sta-
tionary and concentrating solar collector. A non-concentrating
collector has the same area for intercepting and for absorbing
solar radiation, whereas as concave reflecting surfaces to inter-
cept and focus the sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiving
area, thereby increasing the radiation flux used in concentrating
solar collector (Kalogirou 2004; Fatigun et al. 2013).
Figure 1 shows the types of solar collectors which are
available in the market. The list shown in Table 1 (Kalogirou
2004) gives the details of collectors. Differentiation of the col-
lectors depends upon their motion, i.e. stationary, single-axis

CONTACT V. K. Bupesh Raja bupeshvk@gmail.com

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

2 P. D. SONAWANE AND V. K. BUPESH RAJA

Figure 1. Types of solar collectors (Sabiha et al. 2015).

Table 1. Solar energy collectors (Kalogirou 2004).

Motion Collector type Absorber type Concentration ratio Indicative temperature range (°C)
Stationary Flat plate collector (FPC) Flat 1 30–80
Evacuated tube collector (ETC) Flat 1 50–200
Compound parabolic collector (CPC) Tubular 1–5 60–240
Single-axis tracking 5–15 60–300
Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR) Tubular 10–40 60–250
Parabolic trough collector (PTC) Tubular 15–45 60–300
Cylindrical trough collector (CTC) Tubular 10–50 60–300
Two-axes tracking Parabolic dish reflector (PDR) Point 100–1000 100–500
Heliostat field collector (HFC) Point 100–1500 150–2000

tracking and two-axes tracking, and the temperature range of
the collector.
2.1. Stationary solar collectors
Stationary solar collectors are permanently fixed in position and
do not track the sun. Following are the stationary collectors:
(1) Flat plate collectors (FPCs);
(2) Evacuated tube collectors (ETCs);
(3) Stationary compound parabolic collectors (CPCs).
To obtain different temperature range, different collector
configurations can be used. For 30–800°C operating tempera-
ture range, FPC (Kalogirou 2004; Tyagi, Kaushik, and Tyagi 2012;
Sabiha et al. 2015) is the most suitable collector. Temperature
of 50–200°C is obtained with an ETC (Kalogirou 2004; Tyagi,
Kaushik, and Tyagi 2012; Sabiha et al. 2015). FPCs are the most
productive and mostly used solar collectors. But, FPCs have com-
paratively low efficiency and outlet temperatures.
Due to their low maintenance cost and simple design, FPCs
are the most popular collectors. In spite of its positive virtues, it
has the following drawbacks:
(i) Heat loss by convection through glass cover from collector
plate and
(ii) Absence of sun tracking.
Compared to FPCs, ETCs have considerably lower cost and
heat loss (Tyagi, Kaushik, and Tyagi 2012; Kumar 2013). The
presence of vacuum in the space in between the glass tubes
makes the convective heat loss negligible. ETC overcomes both
the drawbacks of FPCs. For sunny and warm climates, conven-
tional FPCs are designed. Performance of FPCs reduces during
cold, windy and cloudy days. FPCs are also greatly influenced
by the weather as system failure can take place due to mois-
ture and condensation which causes early erosion of internal
materials. In contrast, ETCs are suitable for unfavourable cli-
mates, have outstanding thermal performance, easy transporta-
bility and expedient installation (Tyagi, Kaushik, and Tyagi 2012;
Kumar 2013).
CPCs are called as non-imaging solar concentrators. CPC can
accept incoming radiation over a relatively wide range of angles.
Any radiation that is entering the aperture, within the collec-
tor acceptance angle, finds its way to the collector located at
the bottom, by the multiple internal reflections of the incident
radiations. The absorber can take a variety of configurations
(Kalogirou 2004; Kumar 2013).
2.2. Sun tracking solar collectors
By decreasing the area from which the heat losses occur, energy
delivery temperatures can be increased (Kumar 2013). If a large
amount of solar radiation is concentrated on a relatively small
collection area, temperatures far above those attainable by FPC
can be obtained. This is achieved by interposing an optical
device between the source of radiation and the energy absorb-
ing surface.
For concentrating collectors, many designs have been con-
sidered. Concentrators can be reflectors or refractors, having

their shape in the form of cylindrical or parabolic. These
reflectors are available as continuous single piece or as seg-
mented having numerous pieces. The receivers are gener-
ally convex, flat, and cylindrical or concave having glazed or
unglazed surfaces. The concentration ratio of the solar collec-
tors is the ratio of aperture to absorber area. It can vary from
unity to the order of 10,000. Increased concentration ratios mean
increased temperatures useful for the end application. But, these
collectors have increased requirements for precision in optical
quality and positioning of the optical system (Kalogirou 2004;
Fatigun et al. 2013).
Conventional concentrating collectors must follow the sun’s
daily motion, because of the apparent movement of the sun
across the sky. Two methods are used for tracking the sun’s
motion (Kelly and Gibson 2011). In the first method, altazimuth
method, which requires the tracking device to turn in both alti-
tude and azimuth, i.e. to make the concentrator follow the sun
exactly. This system is used in paraboloidal solar collectors (Kelly
and Gibson 2011). The second method is the one-axis track-
ing in which the collector tracks the sun in only one direction
either from east to west or from north to south. This system
is used in parabolic trough collectors (PTCs). To compensate
for the changes in the sun’s orientation, these systems require
continuous and accurate adjustment.
In order of deployment level following are the configurations
that are currently used commercially (Lovegrove and Stein 2012;
Starke et al. 2016):
(1) Parabolic trough collectors (PTCs);
(2) Central receiver tower or tower solar power (TSP);
(3) Linear Fresnel collectors (LFCs);
(4) Parabolodial dishes or sterling/dish collectors (SDCs)
By bending a sheet of reflective material into a parabolic
shape, PTCs are made. As shown in Figure 2, a metal black tube,
covered with a glass tube to reduce heat losses, is placed along
the focal line of the receiver. Due to considerable experience
with the PTC systems and the development of a small commer-
cial industry to produce and market these systems, parabolic
trough technology is the most advanced of the solar thermal
technologies.
Figure 2. Parabolic trough collector (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY 3
Industrial process steam generation using Parabolic Trough
Solar Collection project (Ruby, Steve [American Energy Assets,
California L. P.] 2012) demonstrated the use of solar collectors
that produce high temperature process heat for industrial use.
In this project, the feasibility of utilising the thermal energy from
the solar radiation to save the usage of natural gas in an existing
to up to 30% has been explored.
PTC technology is in operation in several commercial installa-
tions for over 28 years. Further, it shows that hybridisation of the
PTC solar field and the storage of the solar energy are feasible
(Baharoon et al. 2015).
For the large-scale installations meant for power generation,
central receiver tower arrangement is employed. This is also
known as TSP. The system has a central tower surrounded by a
large number of heliostats having individual two-axes tracking
systems, as shown in Figure 3. The solar energy is concentrated
by the heliostat field on a receiver mounted at the top of cen-
tral tower. Typical working fluids for this type of plants are water,
molten salt and pressurised air (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015).
Based on the positioning of the heliostats with the receiver
system, central receiver technology is classified into three con-
figurations. In the first configuration, the receiver is aligned in
the vertical plane with the heat transfer surface facing the north
direction and the collectors are located in the northern hemi-
sphere of the tower. The second configuration has the cylindrical
receiver with an exterior heat transfer surface with the collectors
are placed in circle configuration. In the third configuration, the
receiver has an enclosed heat transfer surface, and the collec-
tors are located north of the receiver. The aim of these config-
urations is to reduce the shadow effects of the heliostats. The
central receiver technology is preferably used in places where
large-scale utility power plants are planned having an energy
production of around hundreds of MWe. The amount of space
required is around 4.6 m2 /MWh/year. Tower power technology
is considered a more recent technology than PTC (Baharoon et al.
2015).
Figure 3. Central receiver tower (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015).
Figure 4. Linear Fresnel collector (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015).
4 P. D. SONAWANE AND V. K. BUPESH RAJA

The linear Fresnel reflectors, shown in Figure 4, are generally densely packed arrays (Baharoon et al. 2015). Due to low concen-
flat mirrors used to concentrate the solar radiation on absorber tration ratio than that of PTC, the lower operating temperatures
tubes like in PTCs. It uses line focus technique similar to PTCs are normally achieved and thus lead to lower efficiency. Fresnel
with lower capital costs due to the presence of light structural reflector is economical for applications requiring temperature
members without moving joints and lower optical efficiency of around 300°C (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015). The differ-
due to: ences between LFC and PTC technologies are shown in Table
2. LFCs are attracting increasing attention of researchers world-
(i) higher cosine losses because of blocking of reflected solar wide due to its many advantages. Such advantages include:
radiation by adjacent mirrors and shading of incoming solar (i) ultra-high temperature can be generated with Fresnel CSE
radiation at low sun positions, technology, (which is most suitable for various thermal energy
(ii) mirrors on horizontal plane cannot reach ideal parabola and applications); (ii) its compact and maintenance-free concentra-
(iii) shading by the fixed receiver. tor does not need a heat transfer fluid or heat exchanger; (iii) it
yields high thermal efficiency, requires reduced investment cost
However, it offers the promise of cost savings and reduced and has less payback period (Kumar, Shrivastava, and Untawale
land use by developing an advanced collector called Compact 2015). CSE is need of the time to encourage solar energy deploy-
Linear Fresnel reflector, which gives an option for much more ment. Important characteristics of Fresnel lens which suits CSE
are: non-imaging Fresnel lens enables optimum concentration
of solar beam as well as solar tracking misalignment may also be
Table 2. Comparison between PTC and LPC technologies (Baharoon et al. 2015).
compensated, low f-number supports small size and low cost of
Parabolic trough Linear Fresnel tracking. The collimating Groove-out configuration having low f-
Component technology technology
number is ideally the most efficient one (Kumar, Shrivastava, and
Mirrors Parabolic shape Flat ground mounted Untawale 2015).
(standardise mass
produced) The parabolic dish collector, shown in Figure 5, has a
Receiver Moves with the entire Fixes and separates from parabolic dish fitted with two-axes tracking system. The rays are
trough system around reflector system concentrated at a point where the receiver is placed. Inside the
the centre of mass
Support structure Heavy Light receiver, a heat exchanger is provided which allows the heat to
Piping system Need flexible connections Do not need be transferred to the working fluid. The arrangement looks like
On-site installation of Takes long time Faster and easier a satellite dish antenna. Commercially available large parabolic
Wind loads on collector High Low
Mirror surface per Lower than LFCs Higher than PTCs dish type collectors are costly due to high manufacturing cost
receiver involved due to very high precision required in its manufactur-
Optical efficiency High Low ing, and difficulties in their transportation (Suman, Khan, and
Land use High Low
Pathak 2015).
Among all CSE technologies, parabolic dish has special design
that allows deploying them individually or grouped together, for
application in remote locations, small-grid or end-of-line utility
applications, and to place them on uneven terrain or slopes sur-
face. Besides that, it has the highest overall efficiency because
the generating unit is placed along with the receiver of each
dish thus leads to reduction in the thermal losses. The main
drawback of dish technology is that it cannot be integrated with
the thermal storage system and the possibility of hybridisation
with another source of energy is low (Baharoon et al. 2015).
Table 3 compares the CSE technologies on the basis of different
parameters.

3. Summary of CSE technologies

PTC is a mature technology. Its ability for hybridising along with
the conventional plants and/or integrating it with the storage
Figure 5. Parabolic dish collector (Suman, Khan, and Pathak 2015). system is proven technically and commercially. Its levelised cost

Table 3. Comparison between CSE technologies (Zhang et al. 2013).

Land Cooling water Thermodynamic Operating

Technology Relative cost occupancy (L/MWh) efficiency T range (°C) Solar concentration ratio Outlook for improvements
PTC Low Large 3000 or dry Low 20–400 15–45 Limited
LFC Very low Medium 3000 or dry Low 50–300 10–40 Significant
TSP High Medium 1500 or dry High 300–565 150–1500 Very significant
SDC Very high Small None High 120–1500 100–1000 High potential through
mass production
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMBIENT ENERGY 5

generating capacity of under-construction CSE projects (refer

Figure 6) (Baharoon et al. 2015).

4. Applications of CSE
Applications of CSE is found in different fields (Rabl 1976;
Figure 6. The generating capacity of CSE operational, under-construction and Fernandez-Garcia et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2013; Francis and
under-development projects, by technology (Baharoon et al. 2015). Bupesh Raja 2015). The Fresnel lens are also becoming more
popular and being tried for different applications (Franc et al.
1986; Xie et al. 2011; Montes et al. 2014; Benmarraze et al. 2015).
of energy becomes low, compared with LFC when it is inte- Applications of CSE include the following domain:
grated with the storage system and TSP technologies. Globally,
there are 62 PTC operational projects with a total generating (i) Water heating,
capacity of 2751.41 MWe, which is 95.7% of the total power gen- (ii) Space heating,
erating capacity of all operational CSE projects. There are 20 (iii) Solar air conditioning,
projects under-construction with a total generating capacity of (iv) Refrigeration,
2122 MWe (73.4% of the total generating capacity of the under- (v) Solar power plant,
construction CSE projects) and 4 projects under-development (vi) Pumping irrigation water,
with a total generating capacity of 400 MWe (which is 28.57% (vii) Desalination,
of the total generating capacity of the under-development CSE (viii) Industrial process heat (IHP),
projects) (refer Figure 6) (Baharoon et al. 2015). (ix) Thermal power systems,
The LFC technology is still in the experimental stage. It has the (x) Solar furnaces,
lowest efficiencies among all the CSE technologies, and when its (xi) Solar chemistry,
optical efficiency is improved it will become the direct competi- (xii) Generation of clean electricity,
tor for PTC technology. Moreover, among all the CSE technolo- (xiii) Steam generation,
gies this technology has the lowest land use, and this advan- (xiv) Selective coatings,
tage makes it the best choice in urban areas. Currently, there (xv) Study of materials for high temperature applications,
are only six operational projects with a generating capacity of (xvi) Solar processing of materials,
59.65 MWe (2.07% of the total generating capacity of operational (xvii) Solar air turbine,
CSE projects) and there are five projects under-construction with (xviii) Solar fuels,
a generating capacity of around 166 MWe (5.74% of the total (xix) Solar cookers,
generating capacity of under-construction CSE projects) (refer (xx) Solar driers,
Figure 6) around the world and the most of them are prototypes (xxi) Solar chimneys,
(Baharoon et al. 2015). (xxii) Solar stove,
Tower power technology is the latest technology compared (xxiii) Solar lighting,
to PTC technology. The feasibility to integrating it with the (xxiv) Solar pumped laser,
storage system has been proved. The TSP technology is pre- (xxv) Solar cars,
ferred for large-scale utility power plants due to the cheap- (xxvi) Solar green houses and
ness than PTC and LFC. There are eight projects (operational) (xxvii) Solar reactors.
currently with a generating capacity of 64.42 MWe (2.24% of
the total generating capacity of the operational CSE projects), It should be noted that the applications of CSE are not lim-
four under-construction projects with a generating capacity ited to the above areas. There are many other applications which
of 602 MWe, which is 20.8% of the total generating capac- are not added into the list, either because they are not fully
ity of the CSP projects (under-construction) and five projects developed or under research and development.
with a generating capacity (under-development) of 1000 MWe,
which is 71.43% of the total generating capacity of the under-
development CSE projects (refer Figure 6) (Baharoon et al. 2015).
5. Conclusions
SDC technology is designed especially for remote applica-
tions, or grouped together as small-grid applications, and to The common types of approaches to concentrating solar energy
place them on uneven terrain or slopes surface. Among all the are presented in this paper. The various types of solar collec-
CSE technologies, this technology has the highest overall effi- tors described include FPCs, ETCs, stationary CPCs, PTCs, central
ciency and the highest operating temperature that reached receiver tower or TSP, LFCs, and parabolodial dishes or ster-
250–700°C. Moreover, it has zero water consumption, for the ling/dish collectors (SDCs). Summary of CSE technologies is dis-
wet/dry cooling system. Due to its high cost and its inability to cussed with reference to current CSE projects around the world.
integrate with thermal storage system and the impossibility of Additionally, typical applications of CSE are listed in order to
hybridisation with other energy source, currently only one com- show the reader the extent of CSE’s applicability. The applica-
mercial project (under-construction) is in the US. This project has tion areas show that CSE can be used in a wide variety of systems,
a generating capacity of 1.5 MWe, which is 0.052% of the total could provide significant environmental and monetary benefits.
6 P. D. SONAWANE AND V. K. BUPESH RAJA
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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