Earth Science for Civil Engineers

INS106E

Kayhan Develi, PhD

Asst. Prof.
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 The Structure of the Earth
Our planet, the Earth, is an oblate spheroid in shape. Roughly, it is made up
of three main concentric layers or spheres as

 The core at the Earth’s center ( 3486 km in radius)

 The mantle which surrounds the core ( 2885 km in thickness)
 The crust which floats on the top of the mantle

Yet, in detail, each of these three layers is also subdivided into different layers.
These layers differ in chemistry and physical properties and are distinguished
by the evaluation of the data on how seismic waves travel through the Earth.

 The core (barysphere), 16.2% of total Earth’s volume, is composed of two

layers as the inner and outer cores. The inner core is solid and believed
to comprise mainly iron (Fe) with some nickel (Ni). In the outer core, iron
is also accompanied by some sulphur (S). The outer core does not
transmit seismic S (shear) - waves, suggesting that it is in a molten liquid
state.

 The core is enveloped by the mantle which comprises about 82.3% of the
Earth’s volume. Based on small slivers of mantle material that have been
Adapted from Hallana Paula, 2013
brought to the Earth’s surface by tectonic activity, the mantle is believed to
be composed of peridotite, an ultramafic rock containing the silicate
minerals olivine and pyroxene. The mantle is mainly composed of two
layers as the lower and upper mantle.

The uppermost 100 km of the upper mantle is considered to be solid since

it does not absorb shear waves. This, together with the overlying crust, is
known as the lithosphere. In the term lithosphre, «lithos» means «rocks».
It is the zone of earthquakes, mountain formation and continental drift.
Thus, lithosphere is the main focus of Geology. The lithosphere has the
ability to glide over the rest of the upper mantle.

Because of increasing temperature and pressure, deeper portions of the

lithosphere are capable of plastic flow over geologic time. At the base of
the lithosphere shear wave velocities reduce and the waves are partially
absorbed. This suggests that the material is partially molten (only a few %)
and behaves plastically. This lower zone is known as asthenosphere and
extends to a depth of about 200 km. The hypocenter (focus) of a medium
depth-earthquake occurs in the asthenosphere.

Kayhan Develi, PhD 2

Figures not to scale
Asst. Prof.
 At a depth of about 200 km, the S (shear) wave velocity is indicative of solid
peridotite. Below about 200 km (depth below surface), the velocity of S-waves
increases gradually with depth in response to increasing pressure. At about
400 km, the S wave velocity increases rapidly. This is known as the transition
zone and is associated with a transition to closer atomic packing. The
properties of the mantle are believed to change very little down to about 700
km which marks another change in the atomic packing of the material. This is
the boundary between the upper and lower mantle. The transition zone
between the upper and lower mantle is the place for the hypocenters of deep
earthquakes. The lower mantle suggests little change in character down to its
base at a depth of 2885 km.

 The crust, 1.5% of the Earth’s volume, constitutes the topmost part of the
lithosphere. It is a cool, rigid and brittle material. The crust has two parts as
oceanic and continental crust. They are less dense than the rocks of
underlying upper mantle.

Oceanic crust is also named as basaltic crust. It is mostly composed of

silica, magnesium and iron rich mafic rocks. Thus, it is often referred as
SIMA which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant
minerals in the oceanic crust. The thickness of the oceanic crust beneath
the ocean floor varies between 5-15 km and density is approximately 3.2
gr/cm3.

Continental crust is mostly composed of silica and aluminium rich

acidic rocks. Thus, the term SIAL is often used to refer the continental
crust. SIAL stands for silicate and aluminium which are the most
abundant in continental crust. Continental crust contains significantly more
silica than the oceanic crust and the mantle. Continental crust is also
named as granitic crust. When compared to oceanic crust, continental
crust is much thicker reaching 70 km especially at highest mountain
ranges, but also slightly less dense to be 2.7 gr/cm3.

 The hydrosphere is all water found on and under the surface of Earth.
 The biosphere represents the habitat of all life on Earth.
 The atmosphere is the gases which envelopes the Earth. It is Earth’s air.

Kayhan Develi, PhD 3

Asst. Prof.
 Kayhan Develi, PhD
ISOSTASY Asst. Prof.

Earth crust may be thought as floating on the denser mantle like an iceberg on
water. When it gains weight due to mountain building then it sinks deeper into
the mantle (I).

If the tops of pre-existing mountains were chopped off due to erosion then the
some of the primary weight of the crust is removed and the crust floating on
the mantle would rise in response (II and III). This concept of the Earth’s crust
is known as isostasy.

A similar process also occurs throughout the glacial process. As such, the
formation of glacial ice on the Earth’s surface causes the crust to deform and
sink into the mantle due to increasing weight on the crust (I). Antarctica and
Canadian ice sheets can be given as examples.

If the glacial ice cap on the crust melts over the geological times, then isostatic
rebound occurs and the crust rises to its former position before glaciation (II
and III). Thus, it becomes more buoyant and floats higher in the mantle. For
example, the land mass in Scandinavia has risen in response to the melting of
the ice caps at the end of the last ice age. This process is known as isostatic
re-adjustment.

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Figures not to scale
 Plate Tectonics
The large-scale movements of the Earth’s lithosphere and its drive
mechanism is described by «the theory of plate tectonics». Although its
roots reach its forerunner «the continental drift theory» of the late 16th and the
early 20th centuries (by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and Alfred Wegener in
1912, respectively), the plate tectonics theory is a relatively new scientific
concept itself which emerged and matured as a widely accepted theory since
the 1960’s. The plate tectonics theory has been a revolution in our
understanding on how the dynamic of our planet works. It has supplied
explanations to the questions such as how our planet has been shaped, why
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in very specific areas around the
world, and how and why great mountain ranges like the Alps and Himalayas
formed.

Briefly, the plate tectonics theory states that the Earth’s outermost layer is
fragmented into a number of large and small solid slabs, called lithospheric
plates or tectonic plates. The plates float on hotter and more mobile plastic
mantle material (asthenosphere), and thus, they slowly and continuously move
relative to one another. The forces which drive the plates to move are resulted
from the circulation of mantle material in the asthenosphere due to
convection currents. The average rates of motion of these restless plates
generally range from 1 to 15 centimeters per year. Nearly all the world’s
earthquake and volcanic activity occur along or near boundaries between
plates. The plate motions and their effects on the Earth’s crust is the subject of
the science of plate tectonics.

The Major plates of Earth with different type plate boundaries

The rate of motion and the change in sizes and shapes are very slow
(e.g. 1-15 cm/yr) but continuous
Kayhan Develi, PhD 5
Asst. Prof.
 Convection Currents (Source of Drive Mechanism for the Plates)

It is accepted that convective flow in the mantle is the basic driving force of
plate tectonics. Convective flow occurs via huge thermal convection cells that
move very slowly, taking million of years to complete a cycle. Convection
cells transfer heat in a circular pattern. Hot material rises, cool material sinks.
Convective flow in the mantle is driven by the Earth’s internal heat engine
«core».

Due to its low density, hot magma rises upward. The rising magma cools then
close to surface and is carried away laterally in two opposite directions from
the ridge crest in «conveyer belt» fashion. Meanwhile, tensional forces
fracture or rift the crust at the ridge crest providing pathways for magma to
intrude and generate new slivers of oceanic crust.

The cooled magma moving laterally starts to sink downward again due to its
higher density caused by heat loss. The descending part of convection cell
causes subduction producing deep-ocean trench.

Rising part of convection cell causes rifting (mid-ocean ridge) This permanent circulation of the magma within the convection cell is named
Descending part of convection cell causes subduction (deep sea trench) as convection currents or convective flow, and generate the power to drive
the plates.

Plate Boundaries (Margins)

Three types of plate boundary are distinguished depending on the type of

relative movement and they are as follows;

I. Constructive or divergent plate boundaries

II. Destructive or convergent plate boundaries: subduction
i. Convergence of two oceanic plates (ocean–ocean convergence)
ii. Convergence of oceanic and continental plates (ocean–continent
convergence)
iii. Convergence of two continental plates (continent–continent convergence)
III. Conservative or transform plate boundaries (strike-slip faults)

As seen, the convergent type plate movement can also develop in three
different scenarios depending on the types of converging plates coupled as
At some boundaries they separate (divergent) while at others they collide (convergent) ocean-ocean, ocean-continent and continent-continent convergence.
or scrape past each other (transform).
Kayhan Develi, PhD 6
Figures not to scale Asst. Prof.
Kayhan Develi, PhD
I. Constructive or divergent plate boundaries
Asst. Prof.
Divergent plate boundaries generally begins its life on land first. Yet,
relatively mature stages continue under oceans due to development of a new
oceanic crust as product. Thus, this kind of plate movement is usually located
beneath the oceans. The relative movement of the plates is away from each
other. The major geologic processes at divergent plate boundaries can be
summarized as extensional stress, normal faulting, and basaltic
volcanism.

As two plates separate from each other, decompression induces partial

melting in the uprising mantle material and this mantle material generates
basaltic magma. This hot magma pushed up from the mantle rises to upward.
With the pressure of upwelling magma, the crust is uparched (upwarping or
doming) and thus stretched. This causes normal faulting which means
beginning of continental rifting and ultimately produce a fault-bounded rift
valley (A). Meanwhile, basaltic magma is injected into the rift system. The
East African Rift Valley and the Rhine Valley in Europe are the examples of
this early stage of rifting (A).

As the rifting continues, the two parts of the continent separate, and because
The life cycle of a divergent plate boundary
the base of the rift valley is so low, the sea invades and begins to flood
through it. Thus, a narrow seaway (linear sea) is thus developed (B). The
Red Sea and the Gulf of California are the examples of this next stage of
rifting (B).

The basaltic magma continues to be injected and oceanic crust begins to

form. As the continents continue to separate, more new oceanic lithosphere is
created under the sea, sea floor spreads due to newly created crust, and the
seaway develops into a new ocean (C and D). Therefore, the boundary
between the diverging plates is named as spreading centre or constructive
boundary. The ocean basin grows larger as spreading continues. Shallow
focus earthquakes is also associated with this spreading mechanism.

All of this continuous process, operating over millions of years, builds a chain
of submarine volcanic mountains on diverging plates with a rift valley
throughout the divergent plate boundary. This topographic feature is called as
mid-ocean ridge or oceanic spreading ridge which rises over 2 km from the
sea floor on either side of the spreading centre. Briefly, a mid-ocean ridge is
an underwater volcanic mountain system formed by divergent plate
Iceland sits atop the Mid-Atlantic Ridge tectonics. Examples of mid-ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the
The Red Sea rift East Pacific Rise.
separating Africa from Asia
along which the North American plate and 7
Figures not to scale
the Eurasian plate are slowly drifting apart
Kayhan Develi, PhD II. Destructive or convergent plate boundaries: subduction
Asst. Prof.
i. Convergence of two oceanic plates (ocean–ocean convergence)

If both plates at the convergent boundary are oceanic, one dives under the
other and descends into the asthenosphere when they collide, forming a
subduction zone. Oceanic plate plunging downwards into the mantle carries
water within it. The dehydration of the plate causes partial melting of the
mantle and part of the subducted plate resulting in generation of magma.
Because it is less dense than the surrounding rocks, the magma rises and
may be collected deep in the crust which forms the granitic plutons,
generally. If the magma reaches to the surface, erruptions onto the sea floor is
andesite lavas and these eruptions eventually result in the formation of an
arc of volcanic islands. The place of volcanic islands formed by rising
magma is also called as magmatic arc. Closer to the volcanic islands a deep
sea trench is commonly found. These trenches can reach up to 10 km in depth
below sea level as in the case of the Mariana trench which is the deepest
USGS part of the world’s oceans located in the coast of Japan of the Pacific ocean. It
is 2500 km long, 70 km wide. Pacific Plate is subducted beneath the Philippine
Plate. The islands of Japan and the Japan deep-sea trench are a result of this
oceanic–oceanic subduction. Other examples of island arcs resulting from this
type of subduction are the Aleutian, Java and Tonga Island chains. All have
the characteristic deep-sea trench, volcanic islands and seismic activity.

ii. Convergence of oceanic and continental plates (ocean–continent

convergence)

Where a subduction zone develops adjacent to a continent, which means the

convergence of oceanic and continental plates, the less-dense continental
crust will always resist subduction and hence override the oceanic plate.
The magmatic arc forms on the continent and the compressive stresses
may deform the continental margin into a fold mountain chain, such as the
Andes. Intrusion of granitic plutons within the deep roots of the mountain
chain occures. The magmas may rise to the surface resulting in andesitic or
even rhyolitic volcanoes. Explosive volcanism is common. High pressure
and high temperature metamorphism develops deep within the fold mountains.
The deep-sea trench is generally presented in convergent boundary. An
example of convergent boundary is the subduction of the Nazca Plate below
the South American Plate. The Peru–Chile deep-sea trench offshore and
USGS the Andes mountain chain in South America, which is the longest continental
mountain range in the world, with its many volcanoes are both products of
this subduction. Some of the world’s largest earthquakes occur here.
Formation of the Rocky mountains due to shallow angle (flat-slab) 8
Figures not to scale subduction of the Pacific oceanic plate underneath the North American
plate is another example.
 iii. Convergence of two continental plates (continent–continent convergence)

This type of condition occurs when two continental plates collide. Neither
plate is subducted into the mantle since continental crust is much less
dense than the mantle and hence too buoyant to be subducted. The
convergence results in one plate overriding the other for a short distance. In
this type of convergence, deep-sea trench does not develop. Instead the
two continents become compressed causing significant deformation by
folding and thrust faulting to form a high mountain chain. Ultimately the
two continents become ‘welded’ together with the fold mountain chain
marking the line of suture. Ophiolites may be found thrust into the suture
zone. High-grade metamorphic rocks associated with both high pressure
and high temperature are formed in the roots of the mountain chains along
with igneous intrusions of granite. There is little or no volcanism
associated with this type of convergence. The collision of India with Asia is
perhaps the best example of this type of convergence. Here the Eurasian
Plate is overriding the Indian Plate, creating a double thickness of crust
USGS and forming the highest mountain chain in the world. It is Himalayas
including more than 110 peaks. One of these peaks is Mount Everest, the
world’s highest, with an elevation of 8,850 metres.
Figures not to scale

III. Conservative or transform plate boundaries (strike-slip faults)

Transform boundaries are strike-slip faults along which two separate plates
slide horizontally past each other. These are also known as transforms
faults. They are generally vertical and may penetrate the entire thickness of
the lithosphere, most other types of faults involving the upper part of the crust.
Most transform faults are intimately associated with constructive plate
boundaries on the ocean floor and cut across mid-ocean ridges.

Continental transform faults are not as common as their oceanic equivalents.

Active continental transform faults are important because they are seismically
active and so represent a hazard to populated areas. These are not just single
faults but fault zones comprising many individual fractures. For example, the
San Andreas fault system is more than 100 km wide with its length more
than 1000 km. The Pacific plate is moving north-westward at about 6 cm/yr
relative to the North American Plate along the San Andreas fault. As a
result, earthquakes occur along its entire length. These are relatively shallow
focus earthquakes (up to 15 km deep). The famous San Francisco earthquake
of 1906 resulted from movement that produced a surface displacement of as
Kayhan Develi, PhD much as 6.4 m. Over the 30 million years that it has existed, the horizontal
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Asst. Prof. movement along the San Andreas fault has totaled about 300 km.
How Plate Tectonics Works in a Nutshell
1. There are two basic types of LITHOSPHERE: continental and oceanic.
CONTINENTAL lithosphere has a low density because it is made of
relatively light-weight minerals. OCEANIC lithosphere is denser than
continental lithosphere because it is composed of heavier minerals. A
plate may be made up entirely of oceanic or continental lithosphere, but
most are partly oceanic and partly continental.
2. Beneath the lithospheric plates lies the ASTHENOSPHERE, a layer of
the mantle composed of denser semi-solid rock. Because the plates are
less dense than the asthenosphere beneath them, they are floating on
top of the asthenosphere.
3. Deep within the asthenosphere the pressure and temperature are so
high that the rock can soften and partly melt. The softened but dense
rock can flow very slowly (think of Silly Putty) over geologic time. Where
temperature instabilities exist near the core/mantle boundary, slowly
moving convection currents may form within the semi-solid
asthenosphere.
4. Once formed, convection currents bring hot material from deeper within
the mantle up toward the surface.
5. As they rise and approach the surface, convection currents diverge at
the base of the lithosphere. The diverging currents exert a weak tension
or “pull” on the solid plate above it. Tension and high heat flow weakens
the floating, solid plate, causing it to break apart. The two sides of the
now-split plate then move away from each other, forming a DIVERGENT
PLATE BOUNDARY.
6. The space between these diverging plates is filled with molten rocks
(magma) from below. Contact with seawater cools the magma, which
quickly solidifies, forming new oceanic lithosphere. This continuous
process, operating over millions of years, builds a chain of submarine
volcanoes and rift valleys called a MID-OCEAN RIDGE or an OCEANIC
SPREADING RIDGE.
7. As new molten rock continues to be extruded at the mid-ocean ridge and
added to the oceanic plate (6), the older (earlier formed) part of the plate
moves away from the ridge where it was originally created.
8. As the oceanic plate moves farther and farther away from the active, hot
spreading ridge, it gradually cools down. The colder the plate gets, the
denser (“heavier”) it becomes. Eventually, the edge of the plate that is
farthest from the spreading ridges cools so much that it becomes denser
than the asthenosphere beneath it.
9. As you know, denser materials sink, and that’s exactly what happens to
the oceanic plate—it starts to sink into the asthenosphere! Where one
plate sinks beneath another a subduction zone forms.
10. The sinking lead edge of the oceanic plate actually “pulls” the rest of the
plate behind it—evidence suggests this is the main driving force of
subduction. Geologists are not sure how deep the oceanic plate sinks
before it begins to melt and lose its identity as a rigid slab, but we do know
that it remains solid far beyond depths of 100 km beneath the Earth’s
surface.
11. Subduction zones are one type of CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY,
the type of plate boundary that forms where two plates are moving toward
one another. Notice that although the cool oceanic plate is sinking, the
cool but less dense continental plate floats like a cork on top of the denser
asthenosphere.
12. When the subducting oceanic plate sinks deep below the Earth’s surface,
the great temperature and pressure at depth cause the fluids to “sweat”
from the sinking plate. The fluids sweated out percolate upward, helping to
locally melt the overlying solid mantle above the subducting plate to form
pockets of liquid rock (magma).
13. The newly generated molten mantle (magma) is less dense than the
surrounding rock, so it rises toward the surface. Most of the magma cools
and solidifies as large bodies of plutonic (intrusive) rocks far below the
Earth’s surface. These large bodies, when later exposed by erosion,
commonly form cores of many great mountain ranges [such as the Sierra
Nevada (California) or the Andes (South America)] that are created along
the subduction zones where the plates converge.
14. Some of the molten rock may reach the Earth’s surface to erupt as the
pent-up gas pressure in the magma is suddenly released, forming
volcanic (extrusive) rocks. Over time, lava and ash erupted each time
magma reaches the surface will accumulate—layer upon layer—to
construct volcanic mountain ranges and plateaus, such as the Cascade
Range and the Columbia River Plateau (Pacific Northwest, U.S.A.).
Kayhan Develi, PhD 10
Asst. Prof.
 Kayhan Develi, PhD
Diagram Explaining How Plate Tectonics Works Asst. Prof.

11 USGS
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/edu/dynamicplanet/nutshell.php
 In short, the relative movement of the plates at convergence (destructive)
boundary is toward each other. Two plates move toward one another.
Subduction zones (ocean-ocean and ocean-continent convergences) are one
type of convergent plate boundaries. In subduction, oceanic lithosphere
plunges into the mantle. Although oceanic crust is destroyed at this boundary,
it is the birthplace of continental crust. Subduction zones complement the
spreading centers. A subduction zone is characterized by the enormous
horizontal compression forces due to plate collision that result in large-scale
fracturing and movement of rock masses (i.e. faulting and folding). This
faulting triggers shallow and deep focus earthquakes.

Spreading zones create volcanoes, earthquakes (most commonly in ocean

basins)
Oceanic-oceanic convergent zones create volcanic island arcs,
earthquakes
Oceanic-continental convergent zones create mountains, volcanoes,
earthquakes
Continental-continental convergent zones create mountains, high plateaus,
earthquakes
Transform fault zones - where plates slide past each other create
earthquakes
Hot spots - randomly located, related to stationary zones of upwelling magma
-- volcanoes, earthquakes

Kayhan Develi, PhD 12

Asst. Prof.
 Kayhan Develi, PhD
Asst. Prof.

Evidence for Plate Tectonics

 Fit of the continental margins

 Match of continental geology
 Paleobiogeography (fossil distribution through time)
 Magnetic evidence for plate motions
 GPS measurements of present plate motions.

They are still moving

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