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DYE SENSITISED SOLAR CELL

PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY:

SANDEEP (MSCC-105-2K17)
( Univ. Roll number 17001751045)
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UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF:

Dr. NOBLE TOMER

(Asst. Prof, Department of HAS, YMCA)

DEPARTMENT OF HAS
YMCA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
NH-2 SECTOR 6, MATHURA ROAD,
FARIDABAD, HARYANA - 121006
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “DYES SENSITISED SOLAR
CELL”by SANDEEP submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science, under Department of Humanity and Sciences
YMCA University of Science and Technology Faridabad, is a bonafide record
of work to the best of my knowledge and may be placed.

Dr. NOBEL TOMER

(Assistant Professor)

Department of Humanity and Science

YMCA University of Science and Technology Faridabad

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express our sincere thanks and a deep sense of gratitude to YMCA University
of science and technology for providing us this golden opportunity to undergo project work
training.
I would like to acknowledge the Department of HAS, YMCA University of Science and
Technology, for providing necessary facilities.
I am very much greateful to Dr Nobel tomer (Asst. Prof.) of YMCA for permitting us to
undertake our project.
I would like to thank Proff. Raj Kumar for their continuous support and guidance.
Contents
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1) Introduction. …………………………….6 A
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2) History of photovoltaic cell… ……………………………9 M
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3) Operation principle of Dssc. .……………………….. F
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4) Efficiency measurement of Dssc………………. #

5) Experiment………………………………………………

6)

Summary and Overall conclusion

References

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1. Introduction.
The global energy consumption is increasing year by year. In 1998, it was P
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12.7TW, but in 2050, it is expected to be around 26.4 to 32.9TW and in 2100, G
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it will increase up to 46.3 to 58.7TW [1]. The yearly increase in global energy \*
consumption will result in the rise of demands towards natural resources such M
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as coal, petroleum and natural gas. These natural resources will take thousand R
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of years to form and it cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. E
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So alternative source of energy is needed and dye sensitised solar cells (DSSC) are O
promising alternative for future large scale power production from renewable R
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energy sources. As a novel renewable and clean solar to electricity conversion A
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system DSSC's are considered viable substitutents to the conventional silicon-based #
photo voltic cells. DSSC are expected to be used for future clean energy due to
their low fabrication cost, simple preparation technique and environmental
friendliness.
Due to the need of time and popularity of the photo voltic cell at the present time
there are a lot of type of PV cells has been developed and research work is still in
progress to increase the efficiency and to decrease the installation cost .Photo
voltic cells work same as the p-n junction diode and has same basic construction.
In this generation, a solar cell, which also known as photovoltaic cell is one
of the promising options of renewable energy. A solar cell is a photonic device
that converts photons with specific wavelengths to electricity. Solar cell is
divided into two groups which are the crystalline silicon and thin film (Fig. 1).
The first and second generation of photovoltaic cells are mainly constructed
from semiconductors including crystalline silicon, III-V compounds, cadmium
telluride and copper indium selenide/sulfide [2].

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Fig-1. (Structure of DSSC)

DSSC, which was invented by Michael Gra¨tzel and BrianO’Re- gan in 1991, is a
device that converts visible light energy into electrical energy based on the
sensitization of the wide band gap semiconductors [2, 3] by suitable regenerative
dyes. A DSSC consists of a porous wide band gap semi- conductor thin film layer
like (TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Nb2O5) coated on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) or indium
doped tin oxide (ITO) photo anode electrode, a dye, a platinum (Pt) or carbon or

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conductive polymer thin film counter electrode and an electrolyte normally
containing I-/I3- redox couple. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is most commonly used as
photo anode in DSSC application since it is nontoxic, inert, and has a large energy P
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bandgap as well as good optical and electrical properties and, thus, can be G
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efficiently sensitized by a dye [4]. In DSSC, the dye plays an important role in \*
harvesting solar energy and converting it to electrical energy with the aid of a M
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semiconducting photo anode. Therefore, the cell performance is mainly dependent R
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on the type of dye used as a sensitizer in which the absorption spectrum and the E
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anchorage of the dye to the surface of TiO2 are important parameters in O
determining the efficiency of the cell [5, 6]. Several metal complexes and organic R
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dyes have been synthesized and used as sensitizers. Among these, ruthenium A
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based complexes are considered as the most efficient sensitizers because of their #
intense charge -transfer absorption over the entire visible range and highly efficient
metal-to-ligand charge transfer [2, 3, 7]. However, these advantages are offset by
their rarity, high cost, complicated synthetic routes, and environmental threat.
Thus, an alternative organic dye such as natural dyes is suggested with similar
characteristic with an acceptable efficiency [8–10]. Recently, research has focused
on the easily available dyes extracted from natural sources because of their large
absorption coefficients, high light- harvesting efficiency, complete biodegradation,
low cost, simple and safe preparation and eco-friendly.
Thus far, several dyes such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, beta- lains and
chlorophylls extracted from parts of different plants (such as Jathropha curcas,
Citrus aurantium, red cabbage and etc.) have been used as sensitizers in DSSC [11,
12].

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2. History of photo voltic cell
Photovoltaic (PV) is a device that directly converts sunlight into electricity without P
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pollution, sound, or moving parts, there by making it long lasting and dependable. G
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PV is an elegant method that takes advantage of the sunlight [13,14]. The basis on \*
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the mechanism of PV devices depends on the charge concept that separates at an E
interface of two materials with different conduction mechanisms [15]. The history R
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of PV surfaced in the 19th century when Charles Fritts fabricated the primitive E
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photo voltaic cell composed of selenium and a thin layer of gold [16,17]. After O
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1873, the first panchromatic film, rendering realistic images into black and white, M
followed the great work of Hermann Wilhelm Vogel, in which he discovered a A
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method for increasing the photographic emulsion sensitivity and associated silver #

halide emulsions with dyes to produce black and white photographic films. Silver
halides are insensitive to much of the visible light because they have band gaps at
2.7– 3.2 eV. This achievement can be considered the first significant study on the
dye sensitization of semiconductors [18,19]. In 1905, Albert Einstein described how
photon absorption causes photoelectric effect, and was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1921 [5]. Russel Ohl fabricated silicon solar cell in 1941. In 1954, Bell Lab
announced the production of silicon solar cells with over 6% efficiency [20]. The
schematic of the silicon cells, which are merely silicon (semiconductor) p–n
junctions, is shown in Fig. 1. When n-type and p-type semiconductors are joined, a
motion of electrons and holes across the junction occurs until equilibrium is
reached. This phenomenon is called the equalization of the Fermi energy level in
the materials. N-type semiconductors obtained through the addition of
pentavalent impurity atoms (doping), such as phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony,
share free electrons, there by significantly increasing silicon conductivity. The
addition of trivalent impurity atoms, such as boron, gallium, and aluminum, which
has one valence electron less than the silicon atoms, creates P-type
semiconductors [21,22].

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a) First generation is a term that refers to the p-n junction photovoltaic,

typically made from mono- and poly-crystalline silicon doped with other elements
[23,24]. Both single (mono) and multi (poly)-crystalline photovoltaic require long
fabrication processes and enormous amount of silicon materials. The PV devices
that have recorded the highest efficiency are the first generation cells based on
mono crystalline silicon. However, these cells have high fabrication cost and
composition [25]. From 1954 to 1960, Hoffman developed a method to increase
the PV cell efficiency from 2% to 14% [26].

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b) Thin film photovoltaic cells are the second generation
of PV devices based on amorphous polycrystalline compound semiconductors. P
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Historically, amorphous silicon (A-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium G
gallium selenite (CIGS), and to date, thin-film polycrystalline silicon, have been E
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regarded as key thin- film candidates, among which the CdTe thin film technology M
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is the most expensive [27,28]. The three types of thin film cell structures include R
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mono or single junction, double or twin junction, and multiple junctions. The main E
difference among these structures is the number of p–i–n junction layers. F
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Depositing thin material layers with various band gaps improves cell efficiency, but R
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increases cost due to several processes or methods involved in depositing each A
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layer of materials during fabrication. #

However, the efficiency of these cells is less than the efficiency of wafer-based
silicon solar cells that currently dominate the commercial PV market [29].
Numerous scientists are working on the development of thin film devices that
decrease the high cost of production and improve the efficiency of cells [30,31].
The first and second generations of PV devices are fundamentally constructed from
semiconductor materials [32,33].
The development of low-cost PV cells has been the topic of intensive research over
the last three decades.

c) The third generation PV cell technologies differ from first and

second generation technologies by looking forward to optimize the efficiency and
notably decrese costs(34).
DSSC, which was invented by Michael Gra¨tzel and BrianO’Re- gan in 1991, is a
device that converts visible light energy into electrical energy based on the
sensitization of the wide band gap semiconductors by suitable regenerative dyes.

3. Operation principle of DSSCs

The absorption of light photon in DSSC occurs in the dye molecule layer [35].
Nanocrystalline TiO2 provides the indispensable major surface area for dye
molecule absorption.The dye (sensitizers) collect photons and produce the excited
electrons (Sn) from the highest occupied molecular orbital in the ground state to

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the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) in the excited state (Fig. 2). This
process is described by Eq. (1).
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The dye injects an excited electron into the conduction band of nanoporous TiO2 A
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film and ZnO or SnO2, which are used in solar cells [36–37]. The dye molecules that E
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lost an electron are then oxidized (Eq. 2). The injected electron travels through the M
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nano- porous TiO2 thin film toward the conductive electrode (anode), and is R
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simultaneously extracted to a load where the work performed is delivered as an E
electrical energy (Eq. 3). The electron, finally travels back through an external load F
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and reaches the cathode (counter electrode). The electron is transferred to the R
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electrolyte at the cathode. The electrolytes containing I-/I3- are used as brokers A
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between the cathode (carbon plated counter electrode) and the TiO2 #

photoelectrode. Thus, the oxidized dye receives electron from I- ion redox to
replace the lost electron [38–39], and the iodide molecules are then oxidized into
Tri-iodide ions (I3-). This process is described by Eq. (4). The I3- ions float around
until they reach the cathode to compensate its missing electron from the counter
electrode. The I- is regenerated by the reduction of I3- at the cathode, and the
circuit is completed by the immigration of electron through the external load (Eq.
5). The electron motion in the conduction band of the wide band gap
semiconductor nanoporous TiO2 film is escorted by the charge-compensating
cation diffusion in the electrolyte relative to the semiconductor surface. Therefore,
the generation of electric power in DSSC does not cause permanent chemical
transformation [37,40].

S+ Photon ----- S* ( Absorption) ……………….. (1)

S* + TiO2 ------e- TiO2)+ s+ (Injection processs) …….……………. (2)

e-(TiO2)+C.E---TiO2+ e-(C.E)+(electrical energy) ……………… (3 )

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s+ +3/2 I - - ---S + I/2I3 - ( Regeneration of dye) ………………... (4)
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- + e- - + C.E.
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----- 3/2 I
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½ I3 (C.E) (Regeneration reaction) …………….(5) \*
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(DSSC principle of operation)

(Fig-2)

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4.The efficiency mearsument of DSSC
The solar energy-to-electricity conversion efficiency (η) of DSSCs can be P
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defined by the following conversion efficiency formula (Eq. 6) [41-45]: E
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η =P(max)/Pin (6) M
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where, Pmax is the maximum output power and Pin is the input power E
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(incident light) measured in mWcm^-2.

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The fill factor (FF) of the DSSC is a measure of series resistance and junction T
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quality of the cell, which can be defined using as follows (Eq. 7):

FF = Pmax/JsC X Voc (7)

where Jsc and Voc are the short circuit currents (measured in mAcm^-2)

and the open circuit voltage, respectively.

FF: is the Fill Factor is the defined ratio Imax.Vmax/Isc.Voc.

Pin: Solar Power Input into the solar cell.
Voc: The voltage across the open circuit.

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b) DYE PREPARATION
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First, we prepare a sample of the dye that will be used. It is important to note that A
the desirable dye molecule should meet certain criteria such as matching with the G
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solar spectrum, having a long-term operational stability and roughness of the \*
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semiconductor surface as well as a high redox potential. For our case, we used E
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natural dye from raspberries juice (Fig.3 & 4). We started with crushing raspberries. G
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Then we added 12 ml of 95% ethanol to the crashed strawberries as well as 12 ml F
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of acetic acid. We then filter the dye until we end up with an evenly red liquid. R
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c) Electrode and Electrolyte

Preparation:
The next thing is to make the redox couple that will act as a mediator that facilitates
the regeneration reaction. In our case we used KI/I2 as redox couple (0.5 M of I2
and 0.05 M of KI). We got I2 as little grains that we mixed with water and stirred to
get a liquid. We then added KI I powder form and stirred the whole mix with water
until we got a brownish liquid.

6. Natural Dye Vs. Synthetic Dye:

Upon absorption, the dye used charges the TiO2 particles positively by transferring
most of its protons [46]. In other words, the degree to which a sensitizer is
protonized needs to be optimized in order to achieve high conversion efficiency
[46]. When using natural dye, the dye molecules exhibit a relatively stable
photochemical behavior. However, it has been shown from research that organic
dye degrades the TiO2 particle [47]. It’s where the synthetic comes into play with
metal alloys. In our case, by using synthetic dye, we’ve postponed the degradation
factor, but also, affected the photochemical stability by replacing natural dye
molecule by synthetic ones, lowering the overall efficiency

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 Dye sensitized solar cells are the most efficient third-generation solar M
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technology available & is greatly used in applications like rooftop solar R
collectors. The power production efficiency is around 11%, as compared G
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to thin-film technology cells which are between 5% and 13%, and F

traditional commercial silicon panels which operate between 12% and O

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15%. M
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 In a silicon solar cell, it acts both as a source of electrons as well as an T
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electric field provider, whereas in a DSSC, the semiconductor is used
mainly for charge transport & the photo electrons are supplied by a
different source(dye).
 DSSCs work even in low-light conditions. Hence they are very popular
under cloudy weather conditions and non-direct sunlight, where
traditional cells would be a failure. The cutoff in DSSC is so low they have
been proposed for indoor usage, to collect energy for small devices from
the lights in houses.
 A traditional solar cell is encased in glass with a metal at back for
increasing its strength. Such setup may cause a decrease in its efficiency,
as the cells heat up internally. However DSSCs are built up with only a
thin layer of conductive plastic on the front side to allow radiation of heat
much easily & quickly and therefore operate at low internal
temperatures. Also the cell’s mechanical structure is such that it
indirectly leads to higher efficiencies in higher temperatures.

DISADVANTAGES

 DSSCs are not considered as an option, for large-scale deployments

where higher-cost higher-efficiency cells are more viable.DSCC is not
manufactured in commercial scale yet.The sharp cut in silicon solar

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 panels costs have led other types of solar technology like Solar Thermal
and Thin Film Technology taking a back seat.
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 One of the major concerns in a dye sensitized solar cell design is the use G
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of the liquid electrolyte, which is not very stable at varying temperatures. \*
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The electrolyte can freeze at low temperatures cutting power production E
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and causing physical damage. Sealing the panels becomes a difficult task, E
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when the liquid expands at higher temperatures. O
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 Another major drawback is the electrolyte solution, which contains A
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volatile organic solvents and must be carefully sealed. Replacing the #

liquid electrolyte with a solid has been a major ongoing field of research.

7. Problems related with DSSC technology

There are a lot of problems which are to be solved which are as follows-

 The installation and manufacturing cost of the DSSC are very high because
platinum, gold , titanium are used in formation a complete solar cell so an
alternative of all these expensive metals should be find which should be
cheap.
 The overall efficiency of the DSSC is less than the other type of solar cell so
an effort on increasing the efficiency should be done.
 The DSSC do not work well towards the light with low intensity so this aspect
of the solar cell should be developed.
 Transparent type DSSC are not well at their performance and a lot of effort
is still needed in this field.

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 These type of the solar has shorter life because of the leakage and
vaporization of the electrolites.
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 DSSCs are becoming the future of energy because of its cost effectiveness A
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they are easy to fabricate and simple to manipulate. They also perform
better at the diffuse light and under higher temperature conditions
compared to other solar cell technologies. To date, conversion efficiencies
over 13% have already been obtained with single junction DSSC. However,
towards full commercialization efficiency levels are need to reach 15% to
complete with existing technologies.
 Besides efficiency, challenges also include further improvement of device
stability as well as reduction of material and manufacturing costs.
Dyes, as the photoactive material, strongly influence the light absorption and
light-to-electrical conversion of DSSCs. Though a considerable amount of
work has been dedicated to developing panchromatic dye sensitizers for the
past 20 years, further break throughs in cost and efficiency of synthetic
ruthenium-based dyes are increasingly less likely. Compared to conventional
N719 dye, inorganic-organic hybrid halogen perovskite has a higher
absorption coefficient which favors its use as a sensitizer in DSSCs. As
sensitizer, perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3) nanocrystals were first introduced into
DSSC in 2009 [123]. Although the efficiency is not high (~4%) due to the
instant dissolution of the perovskite in a liquid electrolyte, it has become
apparent that the perovskites can function as both hole and electron
conductors and that the bulk solid perovskite film can even sustain charge
generation and transport. Subsequently, Etgar et al. [124] demonstrated a

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 CH3NH3PbI3/TiO2 heterojunction device where CH3NH3PbI3 can act both
as light harvester and hole transport materials [125]. In the recent six years,
solid-state perovskite solar cell's efficiency has peaked from 3% to 22% [126], P
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certified by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), G
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which opens a new era of solar cell. \*
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 Besides increasing the efficiency, how to improve cell stability over a long E
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service time is yet another important issue that needs to be addressed in G
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the future work. F
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In DSSCs, the instability mainly results from the leakage of liquid electrolyte R
and degraded Pt catalyst. It is favorable to replace liquid electrolyte with M
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solid state hole transport material (HTM) to prevent leakage. Similarly, Pt T
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catalyst can be replaced with graphene materials which have high
electrochemical stability under prolonged potential cycling [127]. By solving
these problems, a lifetime of 20 years for DSSC modules has been estimated
by Grätzel. In contrast, perovskite solar cells can only be stable for a few
hundred hours with no encapsulation. One of the possible reasons for rapid
degradation could be the interaction between ambient moisture and
perovskite materials under sunlight, causing decomposition of perovskite
crystals. Therefore, it is critical to identify appropriate sealing of perovskite
solar cells to prevent environmental aging,especially when exposed to
elevated temperature and humidity conditions.
 Apart from improving the device performance, it is also essential to reduce
the material and manufacturing costs. One of the most expansive
components in DSSC is the synthetic dye which uses toxic raw materials and
requires complicated processing. Natural sensitizers that can easily be
extracted from natural plants such as fruits, flowers, and leaves can be
employed as the sensitizer for DSSC [128]. Unlike synthetic dyes, the natural
dyes are widely available, easy to prepare, cost effective, non-toxic,
environmentally friendly and fully biodegradable. There exists a variety of
natural dyes and stabilizers; the efficiency can be further improved by
making an appropriate choice of natural dyes and co-sensitizing it with a
stabilizer.

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  Today, the conductive substrate such as FTO and ITO is the second most
expensive component of a DSSC [129]. Graphene-based transparent
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conductors (TCs) are an appealing alternative to ITO as well as FTO, because A
they are proven to have a low sheet resistance (30 Ω/sq) and high G
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transmittance ( > 90%) via doping [130]. They can play a dual role as \*
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substrate and catalyst. The replacement of platinum, which is routinely used E
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as an electrocatalyst in DSSCs, may result in almost four orders of magnitude G
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cost reduction [131]. Benefited from the significant material cost reduction, F
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that DSSC technology can be used to address the three future energy needs A
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9.Future Scope
 DSSC is the latest technology which increase the area of the utilization of
solar energy. DSSC are compact in size , light in weight and are flexible which
makes them able to use on the different portable and small devices. If we
say that the all the DSSC will replace the all other poor sources in electronic
and electrical devices in the future.
 By using the DSSC on the clothes we will be the walking power sources who
can fulfill all the need of the power of our devices and perhaps there will no
time in which our smart phones are out of power.
 Transparent solar cell can be the major power suppliers for skyscrapers
because they are covered with the glass and the window.
 Thus in our future DSSC is the key technology that can make all of the devices
plug free and self dependant for the power needs

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CONCLUSION \*
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Dye sensitized solar cell, based on the concept of photo sensitization of wide band R
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gap mesporous oxide semiconductors, are now in a state of advanced development. E
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DSSC have many advantages over their silicon based counterparts. They offer O
transparency, low cost and high power conversion efficiencies under cloudy and R
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artificial light condition. However , till now their over all efficiency is quite low in A
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comparison with their rival technologies. On the basis of the efficiency their primal #

competitor is the SI based solar cell. The low efficiency is due to the inherent
voltage loss at the time of the re generation of the sensitizing dyel at the present
time in a nature publication , EPFL scientists have developed a state solid version
of the DSSC that is fabricated by a new two step process raising their efficiency up
to record 155 without sacrificing their stability. If we talk in short about the DSSC
then in it a perovskite material to place directly onto a metal oxide film. The tough
task is to put all of these material together causes the decrease in the efficiency
and the performance which can more difficult in daily use. But after developing
above written technology we are very close to the final result. Due the research on
the many DSSC technologies the efficiency of the many DSSC has reached to record
15% which is somewhat high to it’s rival solar cells.the authers and researchers
believe that the new era has started of DSSC development .

REFERENCES
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10. Kevin Gould, K.D., Winefield, C.: Anthocyanins Biosynthesis, G
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