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Soil Mechanics

Q7. Discuss the Shrinkage Limit in detail for cohesive soil?

Ans. Shrinkage Limit Set is used in Shrinkage Limit Tests to determine shrinkage
properties of cohesive soils, defined as the water content at which further loss of
moisture will not cause a decrease in volume. The test is one of the Atterberg Limits
methods of defining characteristics of cohesive soils.
This ASTM D4943 method has been the recommended alternative to the original
D427 test method, which was withdrawn in 2008 due to its use of mercury for volume
determinations. The D4943 recommended alternative uses similar apparatus for
preparation of a soil pat, but requires immersion of the pat in melted wax. This step
prevents absorption during a subsequent immersion in water for mass determination.
A soil specimen with moisture content above the liquid limit is placed in the shrinkage
dish and struck off with the straightedge. The soil pat is then oven dried. After coating
in melted wax, volume of the soil pat is computed by weighing in water and noting the
difference from its weight in air.
Features:
 Determines Atterberg shrinkage limits of cohesive soils
 Requires immersion of soil pat in melted wax
 Aligns with ASTM D4943
Included Items:
 Shrinkage Limit Set
 15ml Monel Shrinkage Dish
 Spatula with 4x0.75in Blade
 Glass Calibration Plate
 Fine Thread to suspend the soil pat
 Tube of Petroleum Jelly for coating the shrinkage dish
Accessories:
 SA-19 Wax Melting Pot for Shrinkage Limit Tests for melting microcrystalline
wax needed in shrinkage limit determinations
 SAA-15 Microcrystalline Wax for Shrinkage Limit Tests is melted for coating soil
pats before water immersion in soil Shrinkage Limit Tests
 SA-55A Monel Shrinkage Dish used to form soil pats for shrinkage limit
determinations
 SC-74 1.3qt Stainless Steel Pan used as water bath for immersion weighing of soil
pats
 Additional HMA-10 Spatula with 4x0.75in Blade for mixing of soils in Atterberg
Limit test
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Q10. Explain the Causes of Settlement of soils in detail?

The causes of foundation settlement. Earth's crust is made of different layer of soil,
the soil at the banks of the river is never the same as that found in desert nor did
similar to the one find in mountains. It changes it stiffness on the basis of water
content and sometimes it also ruptures (Present above a fault line).

Now here are few causes of foundation settlement:

1. Weak bearing soil

The example is the one you just saw. Leaning tower of Pisa. When you overestimate
the strength of soil and its modulus this generally happens one side goes down and the
column and the strong side of soil remains in the same position. And then you have a
failure.

2. Poor compaction
When you do not compact the soil at optimum water content then there are chances
that soil has pores in it, now when this trapped air experience pressure it finds a way
out and leaves a void over there. This void should be replaced by a soil particle and
slowly soil settles down creating a trouble for us. And if the complete base of structure
is not compacted uniformly we might experience differential settlement. And this can
be visible in your house if you see cracks in walls.

3. Rigorous changes in moisture content

Extreme changes in moisture content within foundation soils can result in damaging
settlement. Excess moisture can saturate foundation soils, which often leads to
softening or weakening of clays and silts. The reduced ability of the soil to support the
load results in foundation settlement. Increased moisture within foundation soils is
often a consequence of poor surface drainage around the structure, leaks in water lines
or plumbing, or a raised groundwater table.
Soils with high clay contents also have a tendency to shrink with loss of moisture. As
clay soils dry out, they shrink or contract, resulting in a general decrease in soil
volume.
Therefore, settlement damage is often observed in a structure supported on dried-out
soil. Drying of foundation soils is commonly caused by extensive drought-like
conditions, maturing trees and vegetation (see next section), and leaking sub-floor
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

4. Soil Consolidation
Yeah this guy is tough. Consolidation occurs when the weight of a structure or newly-
placed fill soils compress lower, weak clayey soils. The applied load forces water out
 Preston University North Nazimabad Campus
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of the clay soils, allowing the individual soil particles to become more densely spaced.
Consolidation results in downward movement or settlement of overlying structures.

Settlement caused by consolidation of foundation soils may take weeks, months, or

years to be considered "complete."
As this occurs, the foundation will experience downward movement -- sometimes at
an uneven rate. This leads to cracks and structural damage.

So in short there may be a soil failure going in your foundation but for almost all types
of failure you might be seeing some wall cracks. So if those cracks are significant
immediately call a building inspector and get you house checked.

The limitations are Nature is unpredictable, the place which is in desert today might
have a nearby river flowing tomorrow and so we cannot accurately predict how soil
will behave in that case. But today technology has improved quite a lot and for a
single building age we can predict the exact strength of soil unless someone makes a
blunder like the one in the building that just toppled or leaning tower of Pisa.
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Q11. Describe the lateral Earth Pressure in detail?

ANS.
3 MOST COMMON TYPES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
On earth retaining structures such as retaining wall, sheet piles, etc, the back fill
retained mass of soil, exerts lateral pressure known as earth pressure. If the positions
of the back fill lies above a horizontal plane at the elevation of the top of the structure,
it is called surcharge. The inclination of the surcharge to the horizontal is called
surcharge angle. The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon the
movement of the retaining wall relative to the back fill and also upon the type of the
soil.
TYPES OF EARTH PRESSURE
Lateral earth pressure may be one of the following 3 types.

1. Active earth pressure

2. Passive earth pressure
3. Earth pressure at rest

1. ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE

Due to excessive pressure of the retained soil, the retaining wall tends to move away
from the back fill. Consequently a certain portion of the back fill located immediately
behind the retaining wall, gets separated from the rest of the soil mass and hence the
earth pressure on the retaining wall decreases. The wedged shaped portion of the back
fill tending to move with the wall, is called the failure wedge. The retaining wall is
kept in equilibrium by resisting force developed due to shear strength of the soil along
the plane of the failure wedge in a direction away from the retaining wall. There is a
limit within which the retaining wall may move from the back fill, thereby limiting the
pressure. The minimum pressure exerted by the soil on the retaining wall, is
called Active Earth Pressure.
2. PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Whenever the retaining wall moves towards the back fill due to any natural cause, the
earth pressure increases because the retaining soil gets compressed and the resulting
shearing strength develops along the plane of the failure wedge in direction towards
the retaining wall. The pressure reaches a maximum limit when the shearing
resistance of the soil has been fully mobilized. The maximum earth pressure due to
maximum shear stress on the retaining wall is called Passive Earth Pressure.
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Active and passive earth pressure.

3. EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

We know that active earth pressure is accompanied by the movement of the retaining
wall away from the back fill and passive earth pressure is accompanied by the
movement of the retaining wall towards the back fill. Thus, there occurs an
intermediate situation when the retaining wall does not move due to earth pressure but
remains perfectly stationary. The pressure which develops due to back fill at zero
movement is called Earth Pressure at Rest. Its value is higher than limiting active
pressure but less than the passive pressure.
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Soil Mechanics

Q 12. Write a detail note on the Boussinesq’s stress distribution theory?

Ans.Soils that effect of external load are subjected to stress. The vertical stress
increase in soil due to various type of loading. At any point in soil the stress applied
from own weight of soil which called effective stress, and from external load which
called net stress, the net stress which applied must be determined.

Boussinesq’s Method:

When a point load Q acting on the surface of a semi infinite solid, a vertical stress
σz produces at any point in addition to lateral and shear stress.

Assumptions of Boussinesq theory:

a. For soil, the soil mass is elastic, isotropic, homogeneous and semi-infinite.

b. The soil is weightless.

c. For load, the load is vertical, concentrated acting on the surface.

d. Hook’s Low Applied, it is mean that the constant ratio between stress and strain.

Boussinesq’s Formula:

Boussinesq’s solved the problem of stresses

produced at any point (A) due to point load Q.

At point (A) …

σz = ×

σz
= ×
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R5 = (r2 +
= × 2 5/2
Z)

=
×

=
×

=
×

×
=

I I
σz
= × =
p p

Where:

σz : Vertical stress at point A as shown in fig.(5)

Z : Vertical dimension for point A at load

Ip : Influence factor depend on ( ) = F( )

Q : Point load
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Q 8. Write a Short Note on “AASHTO”, soil classification?

Ans.

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official (AASJITO)

Classification system is Soil CLASSIFICATION

Useful for classifying soils for highways. The particle size analysis and the plasticity
characteristics are required to classify a soil. The classification system is a complete
system which classifies both coarse-grained and fine-grained soils. In this system, the
soils are divided into 7 types, designated as A-I to A-7. The soils A-I and A-7 are
further subdivided into two categories, and the soil A-2, into [our categories, as shown
in Table 5.1. To classify a soil, its particle size analysis is done, and the plasticity
index and liquid limit are determined. With the values of these parameters known, and
ascertains whether the known parameters satisfy the limiting values in that column. If
these satisfy the requirements, the soil is classified as. A·I-a. If these do not satisfy,
one enters the second column (from the left) and determine whether these satisfy the
limiting values in that column. The procedure is repeated for the next chart column
until the column is reached when the known parameters satisfy the requirements. The
soil is classified as per nomenclature given at the top of that column. The soil with the
lowest number, A-I. Is the most suitable as a highway material or subgrade.In general,
the lower is the number of soil, the more suitable is the soil. For example, the soil A-4
is better than the soil A-5. The column for soil A-3 is to the left of the column for soil
A-2. This arrangement is only to determine the classification of the soil. This does not
indicate that soil A·3 is more suitable for highways thanA-2 soil. Fine-grained soils
are further rated for their suitability for highways by the group index (GI)".

Or
AASHTO stands for American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.AASHTO proposed soil classification in 1929 and had undergone several
revisions till now.
It is widely used to classify soil for construction of roads, highways, and airfield
(runways, taxiways) especially for subgrade material. Pre-requisites of AASHTO soil
classification system are:
1) Mechanical analysis
2) Liquid limit
3) Plasticity Index.
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Grain Size:
1) Gravel: Fraction passing 75mm sieve and retained on #10 (2mm) US sieve
2) Sand: Fraction passing #10 sieve and retained #200 sieve
3) Silt and Clay: Fraction passing #200 sieve

Plasticity:
1) Term silty is applied when fine fractions have a PI < 10
2) Term clayey is applied when fine fractions have PI > 11

Note: If cobbles and boulders (larger than 75mm) are encountered, they are excluded
from the portion of the soil sample on which classification is made. However, %age of
such material is recorded.

Groups:
Soils are classified into eight groups, A-1 through A-8.The major groups A-1, A-2,
and a-3 represent the coarse grained soils and the A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 represent
fine grained soils. A-8 are identified by visual inspection. The ranges of the LL and PI
for groups A-4, A-5 A-6 and A-7 are shown in Fig.1.
 Preston University North Nazimabad Campus
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gure 1: Ranges of liquid limit and plasticity index for A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7.

Group Index (GI)

For qualitative evaluation of a given soil, a number referred as the Group Index has
also been developed.
GI = ( F200-35 ) [ 0.2 + 0.005 ( LL-40) ] + 0.01 ( F200-15 ) ( PI–10)
Where;
F or F200 is %age passing #200 sieves expressed as whole number (also called as fine
fraction)
LL is liquid limit of soil
PI is Plasticity Index of soil

The higher the value of GI the weaker will be the soil and vice versa. Thus, quality of
performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely proportional to GI . A soil
having GI of zero is considered as the best. If equation gives negative value for GI,
consider it zero. Always round off the GI to nearest whole number.

GI = 0 for soils of groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3. For groups A-2-6 and
A-2-7 use partial GI for PI only.
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Q9. How can we calculate the permeability through stratified layers of soil?

Ans.
How to Determine the Permeability of Stratified Soil Deposits?
The soil mass, in the field, consists of several layers of soil deposited one above the
other. Each layer may have different coefficients of permeability. The average of
permeability of the entire soil deposit depends on the direction of flow with respect to
bedding planes. Transported soils usually exist in several layers, each layer with
different permeability. For a three-layered soil deposit, the average permeability
parallel to bedding planes lies closer to the intermediate permeability. The average
permeability normal to bedding planes lies closer to the least permeability.

Two common cases of flow direction have been considered as follows:

1. Case 1 – Flow Parallel to Bedding Planes:
Figure 9.7 shows a soil profile with four layers having different permeability’s with
flow parallel to bedding planes. Let z1, z2 z3 …, zn be the thickness of soil layers 1, 2,
3,…, n, respectively, and k1, k2, k3, …, kn be the permeability in the horizontal
direction of soil layers 1, 2, 3, …, n, respectively For flow parallel to bedding planes,
the hydraulic gradient will be the same for all layers.

However, since v = ki and since k is different for different soil layers, the velocity of
flow will be different in different layers. Let kx = average permeability of soil deposit
parallel to bedding planes and z = total thickness of the soil deposit (z1 + z2 + z3 + … +
zn). Total discharge through the soil deposit –
q = kiA = kxi (z × 1)
The sum of discharge through individual layers of soil deposit –
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2. Case 2 – Flow Perpendicular to Bedding Planes:

Figure 9.8 shows a soil profile with four layers having different permeabilities with
flow perpendicular to bedding planes. In this case, the velocity of flow (v 2) and hence
the discharge (qz) will be the same through all layers.

However, the hydraulic gradient and hence the head loss through each layer will be
different. Let h1, h2, h3,…,hn be the head loss through layers 1, 2, 3,…,n and H be the
total head loss. Then –
H = h1 + h2 + h3 + …. + hn …(9.16)
kz is the average permeability of soil deposit perpendicular to bedding planes. Now –

Therefore,

Substituting these values in Eq. (9.16), we get –

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 Preston University North Nazimabad Campus
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Q 6. Explain the standard proctor Test by the graph for the compaction of a
soil?
Ans.
Standard Proctor Compaction Test.
Standard Proctor Test is used to determine the compaction of different types of
soil and the properties of soil with a change in moisture content.

Standard Proctor Test Theory:

Compaction is a type of mechanical stabilization where the soil mass is densified with
the application of mechanical energy also known as compactive effort.
The mechanical energy may be produced by the dynamic load, static load, vibration,
or by tamping.
During compaction, the soil particles are relocated, and the air volume is reduced.
It may also involve a modification of the moisture content, and in the saturated coarse-
grained soil, moisture content may be pressed out during the process of compaction.
Compaction should not be confused with consolidation;
Where the density of saturated soils is increased due to a reduction in the volume of
voids brought about by the expulsion of water under the application of static load.

Fundamentals of Compaction:
The fundamentals of compaction were first time presented by RR. Proctor in 1933, in
his honor;
The standard laboratory compaction test which is developed is commonly called the
Standard Proctor Test.
According to Proctor, the compaction of a soil mass is dependent on the following four
major factors:

1. Soil type,
2. Moisture Content,
3. Compactive effort,
4. Dry density of the soil.
Factors Effecting Soil Density
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According to R. R. Proctor the compaction of soils depends on following factors:-

1. Type of Soil
As I have explained above that the method of compaction for gravely soil is
different than that of cohesive soils. In clayey soils, the strength of soil is mainly
because of adhesion of soil solids while in gravely soils the strength is due to
friction between soil solids. In composite well graded soils, both the factors affect
the compaction degree.

So it is without a doubt that the nature of soil including its grading, plasticity
would be dictating the degree of compaction.

2. Moisture Content
For a given type of soil and keeping compaction effort fixed, the density of soil
increases with moisture content until a limiting value. This limiting value of
moisture content is termed as optimum moisture content.

Water, when added to the soil matrix lubricates the soil solids thereby easing their
rearrangement and restructuring. So after addition of water, when soil is
compacted, the soil particles are easily re-arranged and a denser arrangement is
formed.

If the water is added beyond optimum water content, it starts replacing the soil
solids thereby reducing the density.

3. Compaction Effort
Compaction effort means the type of method used for soil compaction. It includes,
the number of passes, type of stresses i.e. static, vibratory or dynamic and weight
of the roller.
As stated in this research, the compaction and the average relative breakage of the
soil mixture has a non-liner relation with increase of compaction effort. However,
the compaction effort does not have any significant effect on the value of optimum
moisture content.
Now that I have explained the basics of soil compaction and background of the
standard proctor test, so let’s move on to the procedure.

Standard Proctor Test and Optimum Moisture Content

Standard proctor test is carried out to

1. Determine the relationship graph between moisture content and dry density
2. Determine the maximum dry density of soil that must be achieved in the field.
3. Determine the optimum moisture content of the soil
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4. Establish a moisture range that can ensure minimum compaction effort for
achieving the desired density.

The one-liner of the test is, that soil is mixed with increased moisture content and
with the help of proctor apparatus the weight of soil and thus density, in standard
cylinder of known volume, is determined.

Apparatus for Standard Proctor Test

1. Compaction Molds to hold Soil Sample
2. Trowel or Rubber Mallet
3. Rammer or Compactor
4. Straight Edge
5. A tray for soil mixing
6. Drying Oven
7. Sieve No. 4
8. Moisture Cans
9. Weighing balance that has 1 gram readability
The standard compaction mold used is a metal cylinder with detachable base plate and
a collar of 2 inches thickness. The height of mold is 4.585 inches. Two sizes of molds
are used either of 4 inches internal diameter or 6 inches.

Standard compacting rammer of 5.5 lbs weight is used such that having a height-of-
fall of about 12 inches.

Standard Proctor Test Procedure

1. Four to five representative samples of soils are obtained each about 2.3 kg to 5.9
kg. The sample must be obtained cautiously and the amount must be enough to
suffice the requirements of 4 to 5 repetition while filling the molds as well as the
containers for the moisture content determination.
2. The soil samples are pulverized and tilled with a pulverizing tool and a mallet.
The lumps are broken apart and is dried in air.
3. After preparatory works, sieve the soil sample from a U.S sieve No. 4 to obtain
fine particles and remove coarser proportion. The obtained finer fraction should be
more than 3 kg or more. Spread the sample in a flat pan uniformly.
4. Add water in the sample by sprinkling with a water bottle uniformly. For initial
trail 5% water is enough. Mix the soil sample thoroughly by rubbing it in your
hand palm portion by portion.
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5. Attach the base plate with the proctor mold and weigh it on the physical balance
and note the reading as W1. The diameter and height should be precisely noted for
calculating the volume of the mold.
6. Attach the extension collar on the top of the mold and start filling the soil sample
in the mold.
7. The soil must be poured in three equal layers with each layer compacted
uniformly by standard proctor hammer. The handle of the hammer is raised to
preset height of fall and is then allowed to fall freely for the blow. For 4 inches
diameter mold 25 blows are required while for 6 inches diameter mold 56 blows
are required.
8. Fill the gaps and voids on top of the sample by surcharge material and remove the
collar of the sample mold carefully.
9. Using the straight edge, remove the excess soil to have a sharp and flush soil
surface with that of the mold.
10. Weigh the compacted soil along with that of proctor mold and base plate and note
it as W2.
11. Extract and remove the sample after removing the base plate for the next trial. A
sample extruder might be used for this.
12. Fill the moisture cans from the same soil and determine the moisture content.
13. The weight of the soil sample is then divided by the standard volume of the mold
for determination of wet or bulk density.
14. By using the moisture content, the dry density can be calculated.
15. Repeat the procedure for 4-10 times depending on your experience and accurate
guessing till you find a decreased weight of the soil sample indicating a clear
reduction in density of the soil sample.
IMPORTANT
You can add 4% initial water content for the coarse-grained soil and for fine grained
soil you can take 10% moisture content as initial water content.
Calculation and Plotting
W1 = weight of the empty standard proctor mold + base plate

W2 = weight of the standard proctor mold + base plate filled with compacted soil
sample

W3 = weight of the compacted moist soil only = W2 – W1

Dm = diameter of the mold

Hm = height of the mold

Vm = volume of the mold= (πDm2/4 ) x Hm

ϒb = bulk density of soil sample = W3 / Vm
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m = moisture content of the soil sample

ϒd = (ϒb) / (1 + m)

Repeat the above calculation to determine the dry density for number of moisture
contents at least 3 to 4 times so that the graph can be plotted.

Take moisture content on abscissa and dry density on ordinate, plot the points on a
graph as a curvilinear relationship. Match the plotting points with a free hand curve
and determine the optimum moisture content corresponding with that of the maximum
dry density.

No. of Sample Nos. 1 2 3 4 5

Volume of Mold m3 0.00094 0.00094 0.00094 0.00094 0.00094

Weight of Hammer kg 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

No. of blows per

layer Nos. 25 25 25 25 25

No. of Layers Nos. 3 3 3 3 3

Dia of Cone cm

Weight of Empty
Mold + Base Plate
W1 kg 1.368 1.368 1.368 1.368 1.368

Weight of Soil
Sample + Mold = W2 kg 3.467 3.482 3.497 3.462 3.436

Weight of Soil
Sample only = W3 kg 2.099 2.114 2.129 2.094 2.068

Bulk Density of the

Soil Sample = ϒb kg/m3 2222.057 2237.936 2253.815 2216.764 2189.239

Weight of Tin gm 29.31 29.44 29.5 29.43 29.38

weight of tin + wet

soil gm 156.64 152.65 130.18 159.88 132.71

weight of tin + dry

soil gm 140.71 138.12 119.17 147.11 123.06

weight of water
content gm 15.93 14.53 11.01 12.77 9.65

moisture contet % 14% 13% 12% 11% 10%

Dry Density kg/m3 1944.060 1974.019 2007.346 1999.760 1984.786

 Preston University North Nazimabad Campus
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Results
Show the graph and write down the values of Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and
along with that note down the maximum dry density (MDD).

Q4. Derive the strokes Law for the sedimentation of suspended spherical soil
partical in the water at rest?
Ans.Strokes law,
Mathematical equation that expresses the settling velocities of small spherical
particles in a fluid medium. The law, first set forth by the British scientist Sir George
G. Stokes in 1851, is derived by consideration of the forces acting on a particular
particle as it sinks through a liquid column under the influence of gravity. The force
acting in resistance to the fall is equal to 6πrηv, in which r is the radius of
the sphere, η is the viscosity of the liquid, and v is the velocity of fall. The force acting
downward is equal to 4/3πr3 (d1 - d2)g, in which d1 is the density of the sphere, d2 is
the density of the liquid, and g is the gravitational constant. At a constant velocity of
fall the upward and downward forces are in balance. Equating the two expressions
given above and solving for v therefore yields the required velocity, expressed by
Strokes law as v = 2/9(d1 - d2)gr2/η.
Strokes law finds application in several areas, particularly with regard to the settling
of sediment in fresh water and in measurements of the viscosity of fluids. Because its
validity is limited to conditions in which the motion of the particle does not
produce turbulence in the fluid, however, various modifications have been set forth.

Sedimentation, in the geological sciences, process of deposition of a solid material

from a state of suspension or solution in a fluid (usually air or water). Broadly defined
it also includes deposits from glacial ice and those materials collected under
the impetus of gravity alone, as in talus deposits, or accumulations of rock debris at
the base of cliffs. The term is commonly used as a synonym for
sedimentary petrology and
sedimentology.

Rock Cycle: Formation of Sedimentary

Rock Sedimentary rock is created by the
bonding of sediment from broken down
minerals. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
The physics of the most common
sedimentation process, the settling of
solid particles from fluids, has long been
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known. The settling velocity equation formulated in 1851 by G.G. Stokes is the
classic starting point for any discussion of the sedimentation process. Stokes showed
that the terminal settling velocity of spheres in a fluid was inversely proportional to
the fluid’s viscosity and directly proportional to the density difference of fluid and
solid, the radius of the spheres involved, and the force of gravity. Stokes’ equation is
valid, however, only for very small spheres (under 0.04 millimetre [0.0015 inch] in
diameter) and hence various modifications of Stokes’ law have been proposed for
non-spherical particles and particles of larger size.
No settling velocity equation, however valid, provides a sufficient explanation of even
the basic physical properties of natural sediments. The grain size of the clastic
elements and their sorting, shape, roundness, fabric, and packing are the results of
complex processes related not only to the density and viscosity of the fluid medium
but also to the translational velocity of the depositing fluid, the turbulence resulting
from this motion, and the roughness of the beds over which it moves. These processes
also are related to various mechanical properties of the solid materials propelled, to
the duration of sediment transport, and to other little-understood factors.

Sedimentation is generally considered by geologists in terms of the textures,

structures, and fossil content of the deposits laid down in different geographic and
geomorphic environments. Great efforts have been made to differentiate between
continental, near-shore, marine, and other deposits in the geologic record. The
classification of environments and criteria for their recognition is still a subject of
lively debate. The analysis and interpretation of ancient deposits has been advanced
by the study of modern sedimentation. Oceanographic and limnologic expeditions
have shed much light on sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico, the Black Sea, and
the Baltic Sea, and in various estuaries, lakes, and fluvial basins in all parts of the
world.
Chemical sedimentation is understood in terms of chemical principles and laws.
Although the famous physical chemist J.H. van’t Hoff applied the principles of
phase equilibria to the problem of crystallizing brines and the origin of salt deposits as
early as 1905, little effort was made to apply physical chemistry to the problems of
chemical sedimentation. More recently, however, there has been investigation of the
role of the redox (mutual reduction and oxidation) potential and pH (acidity–
alkalinity) in the precipitation of many chemical sediments, and a renewed effort has
been made to apply known thermodynamic principles to the origin of anhydrite and
gypsum deposits, to the chemistry of dolomite formation, and to the problem of the
ironstones and related sediments.
The geochemist also considers the sedimentation process in terms of the chemical end
products. To him sedimentation is like a gigantic chemical analysis in which the
primary constituents of the Earth’s silicate crust are separated from one another in a
manner similar to that achieved in the course of a quantitative analysis of rock
material in the laboratory. The results of this chemical fractionation are not always
perfect, but by and large the results are remarkably good. Geochemical fractionation,
which began in Precambrian time, has resulted in an enormous accumulation of
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Soil Mechanics
sodium in the sea, calcium and magnesium in the limestone’s and dolomites, silicon in
the bedded charts and orthoquartzitic sandstones, carbon in the carbonates and
carbonaceous deposits, sulphur in the bedded sulphates, iron in the ironstones, and so
on. Although magmatic segregation has, in some instances, produced monomineralic
rocks such as dunite and pyroxenite, no igneous or metamorphic process can match
the sedimentation process in effective isolation and concentration of these and other
elements.

Q3. Write a detail note on the relationship of Porosity and Void Ratio.
Ans.
(1) Void Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. Thus
e = Vv
Vs
The,void ratio is expressed as a decimal. Such as 0.4, 0.5, etc. For coarse-grained
roils, the void ratio is generally smaller than that for fine-grained soils. For some soils,
it may have a value even greater than unity.

(2) Porosity
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. Thus
n = Vv
V
Porosity is generally expressed as percentage. However, in equations, it is used as a
ratio. For example, a porosity of 50% will be used as 0.5 in equations. The porosity of
a soil cannot exceed 100% as it would mean Vv is greater than V, which is absurd. In
fact, it will have a much smaller value. Porosity is also known as percentage voids.
Both porosity and void ratio are measures of the denseness (or looseness) of soils. As
the soil becomes more and more dense, their values decrease. The term porosity is
more commonly used in other disciplines such as agricultural engineering. In soil
engineering, the term void ratio is more popular. It is more convenient to use void
ratio than porosity. When the volume of a soil mass changes. Only the numerator (i.e.
Vv) in the void ratio changes and the denominator (i.e. Vs) remains constant.
However, if the term porosity is used, both the numerator and the denominator change
and it becomes inconvenient.
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An inter-relationship can be found between the void ratio and the porosity as
under.
1 𝑉 𝑉𝑣+𝑉𝑠
From Eq. = +
𝑛 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣
1 1 1+𝑒
Or =1+ + … (a)
𝑛 𝑒 𝑒
𝑒
Or 𝑛= … (2.3)
1+𝑒

1 1 1−𝑛
Also, from Eq. (a), = −1=
𝑒 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
Or 𝑒= … (2.4)
1−𝑛

In Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), the porosity should be expressed as a ratio (and not
percentage).
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Soil Mechanics

Q2. Distinguished between Glacial and Alluvial soils?

Ans.
Alluvial Soil
ALLUVIAL soil is formed when a soil-carrying stream gradually loses its carrying
capacity with decreasing velocity. In slowing down, a river does not have sufficient
power to keep the large particles of soil suspended; these particles settle to the riverbed.
Further decrease in velocity causes smaller particles to settle. As the river becomes
slow and sluggish (as in the lowlands where its gradient becomes small), it holds
only the extremely fine particles in suspension. These particles are deposited, finally, at
the mouth of the river, where they form DELTAS of fine-grained soil.

Glacial Soil
GLACIAL soil is often called DRIFT. It consists of material carried along with or upon
an advancing ice sheet or of material pushed ahead of it. As glaciers melt, deposits of
various forms occur, such as MORAINES, KAMETERRACES, ESKERS, and
OUTWASHPLANES. Moraines consist of mixtures of un-stratified boulders, gravels,
sands, and clays. The other forms (kame terraces, eskers, and out-wash planes)
mentioned consist of somewhat stratified and partly sorted stream gravels, sand, and
fines transported outward from the glacier by streams during the melting period.
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Soil Mechanics

Table of Contents

Explain the problem of properties of soil and founction are very difficult & complex
Q1
as compared with super structure?

Q2 Distinguished between Glacial and Alluvial soils?

Q3 Write a detail note on the relationship of Porosity and Void Ratio.

Derive the strokes Law for the sedimentation of suspended spherical soil partical in
Q4
the water at rest?

Derive the dry weight eqquation for ay constant degree of saturation as a function of
Q5
misture content, specific gravity of soil and unit weight at water

Q6 Explain the standard proctor Test by the graph for the compaction of a soil?

Q7 Discuss the Shrinkage Limit in detail for cohesive soil?

Q8 Write a Short Note on “AASHTO”, soil classification?

Q9 How can we calculate the permeability through stratified layers of soil?

Q10 Explain the Causes of Settlement of soils in detail?

Q11 Describe the lateral Earth Pressure in detail?

Q12 Write a detail note on the Boussinesq’s stress distribution theory?