OCCURRENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL

DEPOSITS

2.1 ORIGIN OF COAL

Coal derives its name from the Anglo Saxon word 'COL' and is a combustible sedimentary rock
formed from accumulation of plant remains modified by chemical, biological and physical processes during
and after burial.
The nature and origin of coal is not clearly known. Different researchers have advanced different
theories. However, it is universally accepted that coal originated from vegetable matter and its evolution
followed a continuous change normally designated by the 'peat-anthracite series'. From the vegetable matter,
peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracites were formed in that order. Chemically, the members of the
series are predominantly composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, together with lesser amounts of
sulphur, nitrogen and ash-forming constituents. Table 2.1 gives the approximate composition of different
types of coal.
2.1.1 Coalification
Coalification is the transformation of plant debris under reducing conditions into a continuous series
of products having increasing percentages of carbon and diminishing percentage of oxygen and hydrogen,
e.g., peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite. In the first stage of Coalification process, peat is formed
and in the last stage anthracite.
Table 2.1: Average composition of wood, peat and coals [Figures are expressed on ash-free basis of
the dry material]

Substance Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Calorific value

cals per gramme

Wood 50.0 6.0 43.5 0.5 5000

Peat 57.0 5.7 35.3 2.0 5500
Lignite 67.0 5.0 26.5 1.5 6500
Bituminous coal 83.0 5.0 10.0 1.0 8500
Anthracite 93.0 3.0 3.0 07 8500
Source: "Indian Coal: Their Nature and Classification", F.R.I., C.S.I.R., 1949, p. 7.

The vegetable matter is converted into coal in a two-step process:

1. A biological step converts the plants into peat, and
2. A physico-chemical step converts the peat into other forms of coal.

Coalification starts with the bio-chemical alteration of the vegetable matter to form peat. It is
generally considered that the bio-chemical process of coalification terminates at the formation of peat. But
some others suggest that the bacteria may play a significant role throughout coalification and even
determine the actual rank attained (Francis, 1961). In the later stages of coalification physico-chemical
processes play a major role. These changes require more intense sources of energy, which are provided by
both thermal and mechanical (shear) energies.
Geochemically described coalification comprises three processes:
i) the microbiological degradation of the cellulose of the initial plant material;
ii) the conversion of the lignin into humic substances, and
iii) the condensation of these substances into large coal molecules.
As the coal molecules increase in size, they assume the properties of a thermoplastic resin. At this
stage they melt and decompose when heated, i.e., they assume coking properties. With further coalification,
the coal molecules become so large that they no longer melt before decomposition.
The coalification reactions broadly involve 'carbonification', i.e., enrichment of carbon in the course
of which "the gel consists of crystallites of aromatic character and aliphatic and alicyclic side chains, the
carbon/hydrogen ratio corresponding to CH rising to C2H with increase in the rank of coals."* The process
is accompanied by concurrent removal of the major heteroatom, i.e., oxygen. There is simultaneous loss of
hydrogen from the system as a whole, principally as methane and water and it is the status of hydrogen
content which ultimately determines the geochemical phase of metamorphism.
It is now accepted that irrespective of the nature of land plants from which coal was evolved,
microbial attack under given conditions brings about a predetermined evolution of certain end-products. The
waxes and the resins, which are extremely resistant to microbial attacks, are almost "fossilified" with little
change. The rest appears to end up as two major constituents—a jelly like mass, generally called 'humic
substance' and inert carbonaceous matter, often distinguishable from others macroscopically, under the
microscope. Some plant remains, spores, cuticles, etc., may or may not merge in the humic substance in
which they are embedded and preserved.
 "Coalification, however, occurs in Nature under conditions which are not very favourable to micro-
organisms. With submergence and time, the supply of oxygen decreases and then, as long as life exists, it is
the oxygen-containing compounds which supply the necessary ferment. Depending on the pH, availability
of oxygen, microbial species, rate of subsidence, humidity and temperature, the extent of microbial
decomposition and end product composition may vary in degrees and character". (Lahiri, 1969).

2.1.2 Theories of Origin of Coal

Two alternative theories of origin of coal from decaying plant matter to 'bituminous' range are
suggested.
They are, (i) evolution of bituminous coals through geochemical metamorphism from peat and (ii)
decarboxylation and dehydroxylation largely taking place in the diagenetic phase resulting in an assemblage
of components having varying functional groups, but resulting in a similar nuclear structure of the 'coal
molecule', the progressive removal of functional groups being a matter of depositional characteristic under
which microbial decay and chemical degradation and reconstitution of plant material take place in the
diagenetic phase followed by mild geometamorphic conditions as in regional metamorphism involving only
static and dynamic pressures but little rise in temperature.
* Rideal, Erick., (1959). The Eighth 'Coal Science' Lecture, 1959 quoted by Lahiri, 1969.

The first theory suffers from the defect as there is no rational explanation for the observed removal
of oxygen and along with it the elimination of the highly reactive and abundant COOH and OH functional
groups, especially the latter, without any corresponding structural change in the nuclear composition of the
coal as indicated by the constant H/C atomic ratio level of coals between 65 and 85 per cent C.
The second theory of parallel evolution, instead of serial evolution of bituminous coals, also
provides a compromise between the other two extreme theories, viz., concept of entirely biochemical origin
of coals of various ranks and the concept of evolution of peat to anthracite series through geometamorphic
influence. Karavaev (1966) has put the theory that, although the evolution of peat, brown coals and hard
coals are generically related, they were not products of transformation in an evolutionary series. Karavaev's
findings tend to support the second alternative concept, i.e., 'parallel tracks' of evolution of low rank coals.

2.1.3 Factors Affecting Coalification

The factors which affect coalification are:
(1) Climatic conditions
(2) Time
(3) Depth of burial
(4) Orogenic effects
(5) Contact metamorphism.
1. Climatic conditions: Presently peat is being formed in a variety of conditions ranging from
Tundral to Tropical regions. The essential climatic condition for the formation of peat is high humidity. Coal
deposits have been formed in climatic condition without seasonal variation or in climates with seasonal
variation as is exhibited by Gondwana flora. It would appear that there are no botanical restrictions on the
formation of coal. Any kind of plant residue that can be geologically conserved may form coal. This
suggests that two climatic conditions control the formation of coal: i) the climate must produce plant
residues (or algae in case of algal coals) and ii) the climate must conserve the plant (or algae) residue. Based
on the above, coals could have been formed in any geographical area of the earth that could have produced
plant (or algae).
2. Time: Generally, the older coals are of higher rank than the younger ones. But instances exist of
younger coals having attained higher rank under intense orogenic activity.
3. Effect of depth of burial: It has been observed that there is general decrease in the oxygen content
of coal seam with the increase in the depth of burial and also the ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter
increases with depth. These observations are the basis of Hilt's rule which is stated as below:
"In a vertical sequence at any one locality in a coalfield the rank of the coal seam rises with
increasing depth."
Increase in the depth of burial results in the increase of carbon content of coal and calorific value of
coal and decrease in moisture content and volatile matter of coal. But the rate of increase of carbon or
decrease of moisture with depth is not linear, it slows down at lower depths.
The increase in the overburden pressure with the increase in depth of burial may not be the causative
factor for the increase in rank. It is suggested that the depth-rank relationship is most probably related to the
geothermal gradient.
4. Effect of orogenic activity: Rank of coal increases under the influence of orogenic forces causing
folding and faulting. Anthracites are found to be associated with reverse faulting and over thrusting. The
effect of orogenic activity over coalification may be described by Roberts-White Law which states:
"The rank of coal is determined by, and increases with the intensity of the orogenic or tectonic
forces, and the matural heat treatment, to which the coal has been subjected."
5. Contact metamorphism: In some cases there has been increase in the rank of coals adjacent to
dykes and sills but such effects are localised.
It would appear that coalification beyond the stage of peat is a result of metamorphism due to heat or
pressure, but the exact nature of the processes involved is not clearly understood.
 In summary, it is seen that the coalification processes have resulted in the increase of rank of coal,
the effect of which may be summarised as below:
1. Increase in the content of carbon
2. Decrease in the content of hydrogen
3. Decrease in the proportion of volatile matter evolved by distillation
4. Increase in the calorific value
5. Increase in the depth of colour, lusture and reflectivity of the coal constituents

2.1.4 Rank of Coal

The rank of coal is defined by its position in the coalification series, i.e., peat-anthracite-series; the
peat being of the lowest rank followed by lignites, bituminous coals and anthracites in increasing order of
the rank. Each coal type has distinct physical and chemical characteristics.
Peat: Peat was formed in Pleistocene age and even these days its formation continues in some
regions. It occurs as a soft unconsolidated deposit near the surface, in beds which are seldom more than 9.14
m thick. It has a very high moisture content which in undrained deposits is 90-95% which is reduced to
about 35% in air-dried peats. The colour of the peat varies from brown to black, the darker varieties occur in
the lower part of the deposit. The upper layers are fibrous and plant leaves, stem and roots are easily
recognisable in them. But the lower parts are more compact and homogeneous. The calorific value of peat is
about 5278 k cal/kg on dry basis but for air-dried peat it is about 3,333 k cal/kg. Its bulk density is low in
comparison to bituminous coal.
Lignite: Most lignites are of Cretaceous or Tertiary age excepting those of Moscow basin which
belong to Lower Carboniferous era. Lignites occur at shallow depths from the surface, in relatively
unconsolidated sands and clays. The thickness of the seam may be several meters. The world's thickest seam
230.73 m thick occurs at Loy Yang in Victoria, Australia at a depth of 21.3 m from the surface. Lignites may
be brown or black and in some countries brown coal and lignite mean one and the same type of coal.
Brown lignites are yellowish to dark brown in colour and have dull or earthy lustre. Many brown
lignites are banded. Some varieties are very soft and can be powdered in the palm, those of higher rank are
harder and more consolidated. Light colour lignites are of fibrous structures. In the darker varieties more
uniform texture is developed.
Black lignites are dark brown or black coloured; have silky lustre and are laminated with dull and
bright bands. On weathering, they separate along the beddings into thin friable slabs. Jet is a hard variety of
lignite and is found in lenticular masses. Lignites are highly susceptible to spontaneous heating.

Bituminous coal
Bituminous coals form the major percentage of world's coal resources. They are mostly of
Palaeozoic age. They are harder than lignites and are coherent and banded.
The banded constituents of bituminous coals are: vitrain, clarain, fusain and durain. The vast
majority of Gondwana coals are rich in durain which often forms 60 to 90% of the coal; fusain 3 to 4% and
the bright coals (vitrain and clarain) 10 to 30%.
Vitrain appears to be an exudation or solid diffusion product and is rich in vitrinite. It occurs as a
rule in layers less than 13 mm in thickness and is developed along bedding planes, vertical planes and also
at various intermediate angles. It is brilliant black, clean to touch and has conchoidal fracture.
Clarain is also a bright coal. It possesses a silky but less brilliant lusture than vitrain and is
composed of alternating bright and dull laminae commonly less than 1 mm in thickness. Bright layers
contain vitrinite and in the duller layers exinite and inertinite predominate.
Fusain is a common constituent of bright coal. It is the dull soft charcoal like podwery layer, a few
millimetre thick and dirty to touch. It is often silky in apperance. Occasionally it forms lenses which are up
to about 20 cm thick. A hard variety of fusain occurs in the proximity of igneous intrusions.
Coal often breaks along fusain layers. It has dull lustre. Its physical and chemical properties are
similar to wood charcoal,
Durain is dull-looking hard, splintery part of coal. It is essentially coal impregnated with clay or
similar fine-grained material. It occurs as grey or black hard bands, sometimes up to 30 cm thick. It has
granular fracture, the surfaces of which have dull or earthy lustre. It contains more non-carbonaceous
mineral matter and in it cleats are fully developed.
Bituminous coals have wide range of properties and are, therefore, suitable for almost all
technological purposes. They are used for steam raising, for electric generation, for coke making, for
domestic fuel, for conversion into gas and oil and for deriving a number of chemical products, and for
fertilizers, etc.
Anthracite: Anthracites occupy the highest rank in the coalification series. They are black and
possess a brilliant or sub-metallic lustre. They have conchoidal fracture. They are hard and brittle and break
into knife sharp fragments and are absolutely clean to the touch. In the highest rank anthracites laminae are
rarely apparent; but on weathering slight traces of layering may be developed and also on abraded
specimens by selective erosion. They have high carbon, low ash, low moisture and volatiles and their
calorific value is high.

2.1.5 Modes of Accumulation of Coal

 As stated earlier, all varieties of coal owe their origin to vegetal matter or plant debris, but there is
wide divergence of opinion regarding the mode of accumulation of these plant remains in the water basins
to give rise to coal seams (Sharma and Ram, 1966; Williamson, 1967). Two theories, i.e. In situ or
autochthonous theory and Drift or allochthomous theory have been forwarded to explain the origin of coal
seams. According to the in situ theory, the vegetable matter grew at the site of coal seam whereas the drift
theory postulates that the vegetable matter was transported to the present site of coal seam from their
original place of growth. Evidences exist to support both the theories.

In situ theory
The evidences which support the in situ or autochthonous theory are:
1. It is seen that a large amount of vegetable matter has been accumulating in the swamps of the
present day and peat is forming in some localities even today.
2. Numerous fossilised tree trunks are found in the vertical position in the coal seams with their
roots firmly fixed in the underclay or seat earths that lie beneath the coal seams. These underclays are
supposed to represent the original soils on which the vegetable grew. The underclays are found deficient in
alkalies, lime and oxides. It is, therefore, inferred that the plants grew over them and it were these plants
which extracted the above material.
3. The coal seams are relativley pure which would suggest that the plant materials had grown at the
site of coal seams; they accumulated there without mixing with the foreign material and had not been
transported along with the sediments.
4. The consistency in composition and quality of coal seams over wide regions seems to suggest
the deposits of the vegetal matter in still waters and from nearly the same source material under similar
condition. This is not possible if the material deposited after transportation or drift.
5. Lenses of cannel coal are found in bituminous coal seams. This indicates that conditions were
favourable for the collection of large amount of spores. This would require large patches of open water
which are easily obtainable in swampy region.
6. It is hard to believe that the vast amount of plant material that has given rise to the large coal
deposits could be transported to open seas and estuaries without being mixed with considerable amount of
inorganic sediments.

Drift theory
The evidences, which support the accumulation of coal deposits by 'drift' or allochthomous theory,
arc summarised below:
1. It is observed that large quantities of timber and tree trunks are transported downstream by
present day rivers especially in the regions of forests.
2. Beds of peat and brown coal have been found in the process of formation at the deltas of some
rivers even present day, e.g., the deltas of Mississippi and Ganga.
3. Some coal measures are associated with marine fossils which are found in the beds immediately
above or below the coal seams, suggesting their transport and subsequent deposition.
4. The rocks associated with the coal seams are sedimentary and the coal seams themselves are
sedimentary beds. Many of the seams are stratified and are made up of layers of coal with partings of shale,
clay or sandstone of varying thicknesses. Carbonaceous shale beds often pass laterally into beds of pure
coal.
5. Seat earths or underclays are very often absent and coal seams lie directly on sandstones, shales
or conglomerates.
6. Fireclays or seat earths have been found in marine and non-coal bearing formation^ and are not
necessarily the sites of former forests.
7. Large proportion of tree trunks are found in inclined or prostate position and a small proportion
in vertical position. The inclined or prostate position of tree trunks suggests that they were carried over from
other areas.
8. It is estimated that at least 3.04 m of peat is necessary for the formation of 30.48 cm of coal, so
that enormous thickness of vegetal matter is required to give rise to thick coal seams of the present day. It is
difficult to believe how the large trees could get rooted in such enormous depths of vegetal matter.
According to the drift theory, it is believed that the vegetal matter was transported more or less in
transformed state, so that it was possible to have thick coal seams.
9. In the case of numerous closely spaced contiguous thick seams as in the case of Jharia coalfield,
separated by sediments, the growth-in-situ-theory would demand rapid and frequent oscillatory earth
movements — first a land surface with formation of peat, then its depression and burial, these being
repeated many times. This is supposed to be rather an abnormal phenomenon.
A study of the mode of occurrence of coal seams of different parts of the world indicates that some
of these owe their origin to drift theory and some to in-situ theory. Coal seams of Europe support the in-situ
theory of formation of coal seams whereas coal seams of India distinctly give support to drift theory. The
repetition of a regular sequence of sandstones, shales, carbonaceous shales and coal seams in the coal-
bearing strata suggesting continuous deposition in a sedimentary basin, the great thickness of coal seams,
the general absence of seat earths or underclays, the high proportion of impregnated mineral matter in coals,
the absence of any tree trunk found in the beds beneath the coal seams and the presence of terrestrial fossils
suggest a 'drift' origin of Indian coal seams.

2.1.6 Distribution Pattern of Coal Deposits

Coal occurs interbedded with ordinary sedimentary rocks. The common rocks associated with coal
seams are sandstones and shales or their variants, e.g., sandy shale, shaly sandstones, coaly shales, etc. In
many places, these strata are arranged into cyclic forms called cyclotherms. In other places, the coal overlies
a speical clay known as underclay or seat earth. Some 'of these clays constitute fire-clay as they are very
much depleted in iron and alkalies. Although widely distributed, coal is relatively rare compared to other
rocks. Coal is rarely, if ever found among igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Coal deposits occur in all systems above the Devonian, though some anthracitic coal (roughly 80%
fixed carbon and high in ash) are found in the pre-Devonian era. Some coal like substances have been
discovered in the pre-Cambrian and lower Palaeozoic system but they are of extremely localised
occurrence.
The earliest known extensive deposits of coal are of carboniferous age but important deposits of coal
occur in all systems above the Devonian. For example, peat deposits in most areas are less than 1 million
years old whereas coals in the Bear island, Canada (Arctic Isles) are more than 350 million years old. Some
coals in Canada (Arctic Isles), Great Britain (Northumberland), Spitzbergen, USA (Pennsylvania), the
former U.S.S.R. (Moscow and Ural Basins) were formed 330-350 million years ago. The age of lignite
deposits in different countries of the world ranges from about 1 million years to about 70 million years
(Williamson, 1967).
Coal deposits occur within lagoonal, marshy, small channel and other low lying vestiges of
seismotectono magmatic activity. Ancient and modem rivers have formed on structural laws such as deep
seated rifts, anlacogens, geofracture systems and other vestiges of seismo tectono magmatic belt activity.
This association is of interest in connection with the origin, evolution and present characteristic of different
coal deposits. Major coal deposits are commonly associated with both large and small rivers. Indian major
coalfields are associated with river valleys.
Deposits of coal occur in all geographical latitudes. As for the climate, a relatively high rainfall is
conductive to the formation of coal but what should be the exact temperature is not known, Coal comprises
climate sensiuve sedimentary rocks but no one exactly knows the nature and extent of this sensitivity.
Figure 1.3 shows the georgraphical distribution of world's coal deposits. It will be seen that most of
the coal deposits occur in the Northern Hamisphere. Table 1.2 gives the coal resources of the different
countries of the world. The USA, the former USSR, and China account for nearly 80.7% of the worlds coal
resources.

Figure 2.1: An example of faulting Saunda Colliery, Kampura Coalfield.

Figure 2.2: An example of faulting Amlabad Colliery, Jharia Coalfield.

2.2 COAL SEAM STRUCTURES AND ABNORMALITIES

Coal seams when initially deposited were flat sedimentary deposits but subsequently got tilted,
faulted and folded. Many abnormalities also occurred in coal seams which were due to predepositional,
contemporaneous or post-depositional causes, e.g., splitting, thinning and thickening of coal seams,
washouts, rolls, swilleys, etc. They have also been disturbed by igneous intrusions, dykes and sills. Coal
seam abnormalities and structures are major factors influencing the choice of mining methods.
 2.2.1 Faults
Almost all the coal seams have suffered break into continuity and displacements due to faulting.
Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show some interesting examples of faulting at Saunda Colliery, Karanpura coalfield and
at Amlabad Colliery, Jharia coalfield respectively. Faults weaken the coal seam roofs, induce stresses and
may be the locales of heavy water inrushes or gas flows. Faults may throw the coal seams vertically
up/down or displace it horizontally. The former category of faults are of two types: (i) normal faults, and (ii)
reverse faults.
Normal faults: They are the most common types of faults. They are defined as dislocations in which
the hanging wall is displaced downwards relative to the footwall [Figure 2.3.(a)]. These faults usually hade
at an angle of 30 to 50°, and in majority of cases the hades are 30°. Commonly breccia or gouge is
developed and a clearcut fracture is rare. In most cases the occurrence of barren ground is a characteristic
feature, though repetition of strata can occur when the beds are steeply inclined towards the fault. Throw of
the faults may vary from a few centimeters to several hundred metres. Some faults of relatively small throw
cannot be traced throughout a vertical sequence. Small faults with a throw of only a few centimetres may
"run out" along the stratification surface of roof strata and within the underlying seat earth. Such structure
may account for the intensely slickensided zones of gouge which are noticeable in some inter seam
sequence. Even some faults of larger throws are not noticeable in seams above if the partings are
considerable. Large faults are sometimes crossed by secondary faults which diminish"" the effect of the
earlier large fault. In certain localities a series of small parallel faults called "step faults" occur [Figure 2.3
(b)]. They make machine mining problematical. Normal faults are formed by the effects of gravity and
tension in the earth's crust. The effects of large faults are noticeable over a large area on either side of the
fault plane. Within the actual faults zone drag effects, strata dips become irregular, sometimes overturning is
also noticed. On the downthrow side considerable flexuring occurs. Bedding surface in shales are polished
and in the close proximity of the fault there may be marked increase in cleat and joint frequencies which
make the working conditons difficult.

(d) (e)
Figure 2.3: Different types of faults (a) Normal fault (b) Step fault (c) Reverse fault (d) Fault trough
(e) Horst
Reverse fault: A reverse fault is the opposite of normal fault. In it the hanging wall is displaced
upwards relative to the footwall [Figure 2.3 (c)]. They hade at 40-60°. Where the hade is greater than 45°,
the fracture is termed thrust and it is possible that many reverse faults flatten out at depth into such faults.
Along some larger reverse faults and thrusts, metamorphism may take place due to the intense crushing of
the country rock and the heat generated in the process. Reverse faults are formed by compression and may
be extreme results of folding originating through the failure of steeper limb of an asymmetrical fold. They,
therefore, commonly occur in, heavily-folded areas. Reverse faults cause repetition of strata but in steeply
dipping beds non-repetition of beds may occur and a horizontal road may completely miss the coal seam;
and also a vertical borehole may miss the coal seems.
Fault troughs, rift valleys and horsts: A fault trough is flanked by normal faults hading towards one
another and enclosing a wedge-shaped block [Figure 2.3 (d)]. A rift valley is of large dimensions and is
bordered by much higher ground. A horst is opposite of trough faults [Figure 2.3 (e)].
Wrench fault: They are essentially compressional features and possibility of their occurrence should
always be considered in highly folded or reverse faulted areas. Major displacement along wrench or
transcurrent faults is horizontal. When viewed in plan, the direction of movement may be clockwise or anti-
clockwise, the former are called dextral wrench fault, and the latter are sinistral fault. Their occurrence is
rare. During the formation of wrench faults, the principal and least stresses lie in the horizontal plane, and
the movements along wrench faults may cause parallel compression or drag folds forming a small angle
with the fault.

2.2.2 Joints
Most of the sedimentary rocks exhibit joints which are rock fractures along which there has been
little or no displacement. They occur as systems, formed by two or more sets of joints, each set having
constant strike or dip. The major joint types are classified into four types according to their origin: (i)
dehydration joints, (ii| expansion joints, (iii) igneous joints, and (iv) tectonic joints. The major joints in
sedimentary strata are chiefly formed by the compression and tension during earth movements particularly
during folding. Such joints form systems of constant orientation and are classified as shear or tension joints
depending on their origin.

2.2.3 Cleats, Slips and Riders

Coal seams usually exhibit fractures like cleats, slips or riders which are of great importance in
mining operations, in the production of round coal or in the stability of roof.
Cleat fractures or slynes are mostly formed in bituminous coals and to a lesser degree in lignites and
anthracites. They occur normal to the bedding planes, although in rare cases they are inclined at a small
angle to the seam. The cleat may be lined with the films of 'spar' (mainly calcite or ankerite) or with pyrite.
There are usually two sets of cleats approximately at right angles to each other; though there may be a third
set of cleats parallel to the bedding plane. Coal parts easily along cleats which are taken advantage of in coal
getting. The frequency of cleats varies according to the type of coal, being more in clean bright coals. The
Indian coal seams are generally poorly cleated.
It is believed that the cleats are caused by shearing but their exact origin is yet unknown. Generally,
the direction of cleats is common in a coalfield but exceptions to the rule occur even in the same colliery
between upper and lower seams.
Slips are surfaces of parting diagonal to the seam and hade between 25° and 60°. They are clearcut
fractures, sometimes slickensided, and may be covered with thin layers of carbonate minerals, and are
commonly spread at some 60 cm intervals and have usually uniform strike over an area.

Figure 2.4: An example of folding in Cinera-Matallana Coalfield, Spain, (After Wagner, R.H.,
'The Stratigraphy and Structure of the Cinera-Matallana Coalfield'', Trabajo de Geologia, 4, Fac,
Ci, Univ. Oviedo "The Carboniferous of Northwest Spain" Part II, Oviedo, 1971, p. 425).

Riders or backs are commonly found in anthracites. They are crush fractures frequently inclined at
about 45° to the bedding of the seam. They occur in two sets at right angles forming an acute angle with the
slips. They are most marked in thicker seams where they mask the slip almost completely. Backs are
accompanied by a layer of powdery coal sometimes containing shale intrusions.
2.2.4 Folds
Folding is another common phenomenon to which coal seams have been subjected. Figure 2.4 shows
an example of folding in the Icon coalfield, Spain, and Figure 2.5 shows the folding of the Pastora seam. It
will be seen that the Pastora seam is folded in such a way that a horizontal roadway driven to access the
seam may have at some places in its back the roof of the seam and at some other places the floor of the
seam.
There are numerous forms of fold structures. They may vary from broad open folds with gentle
strata dips to narrow closed structures characterised by steeply dipping beds which may sometimes be
overturned. Some folds may have amplitudes of kilometers and some may be developed on very small
scales.

Figure 2.5: An example of folding of Pastora Seam, Santa Lucia Coal mine, Leon, Spain
 The folds exhibit two features: (1) an anticline, and (2) a syncline. An anticline is an upwardly
convex flexure and a syncline is a downwardly convex flexure in which a given bed intersects a horizontal
plane in both limbs (Figure 2.6). Many coalfields have a general synclinal nature, the structure being
responsible for the preservation of the coals and associated strata which have been removed by erosion from
the flanking anticlines.
ANTICLINE-I SYNCLINE ANTICLINE

Figure 2.6: Anticline and Syncline Figure 2.7: Diagrammatic sketch illustrating the
outcrop pattern around a dome
A fold may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. In symmetrical folds the opposite limbs dip at the same
angle and, therefore, the axis is vertical. In asymmetrical folds the dips of both limbs are different and,
therefore, the axis is inclined. If the axial inclination is considerable the fold may be overturned; in which
case the strata forming part of one limb are inverted; and when the axial plane is horizontal or nearly
horizontal, the fold is termed recumbent. Sometimes the overturned beds are greatly compressed so that
opposite limbs may be parallel. Such structures are called isoclinal folds.

2.2.5 Basins and Domes

A basin is a structure in which the dip is inclined towards a central point and a horizontal section
across a basin in any direction will indicate a synclinal arrangement of the beds. A dome is an opposite type
of structure to a basin, which is characterised by a radial arrangement of directions away from a central area
or point. The outcrop pattern around a dome may be circular or avoid (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.8: A section showing the general

structure of Jharia Coalfield Figure 2.9: A washout, (After Rai, 1967)

Basins are formed by a 180° rotation of plunge direction of a plunging syncline and the domes are
formed from a reversal of plunge direction in a plunging anticline. Dome structure is found at Amlabad
Colliery, Jharia Coalfield, and the whole Jharia coalfield forms a basin (Figure 2.8).
A monocline presents a local increase of dip in otherwise horizontal or gently dipping strata. A good
example of monocline is seen at Digwadih Colliery, Jharia Coalfield where at one end the XIV seam is
highly inclined (> 45°) and towards the other end the seam gradually flattens to 1 in 7.

2.2.6 Washouts
Washouts (Figure 2.9) are those areas where the coal has been partly or totally replaced by non-
carboniferous and often fairly coarse-grained clastic sediments. They were formed during or soon after the
formation of the concerned coal seams.
In washouts, the coal may be totally absent. They are narrow as compared to their length. In plan,
they resemble a lowland river system possessing a sinous course and tributary offshoots, and generally taper
towards their source. Usually the junctions between a washout and coal are highly irregular. Consequently,
some indication as to the approach of coal face towards a washout may be given by the occurrence of
discontinuous wedge-like and often arenaceous dirt partings. They become progressively persistent until
they replace the whole or most of the seam at the washout proper.
The rocks associated with washouts are predominantly sandstones, conglomerates and siltstones.
The conglomerates comprise quartz, ironstones and shale pebble as common phenoclasts, and also
sometimes large rafts of coal. Occasionally, fossil branches and trunks of large coal forming trees are
encountered.
Multi-seam washouts occur where the seams are in close proximity of each other.
Some of the washouts are attributed to glaciation and are termed as glacial washouts. The glacial
washouts are unconsolidated, and the infillings are composed of till and fluvio-glacial sands and gravels
although some alluvium may occur in the basal parts. All these materials are potentially mobile sediments
which on penetration may form rapid influxes and further more may release large quantities of water.

Figure 2.10: Roof Rolls,

(Source: Coal Mining Geology, Figure 2.11 : Floor Rolls, (After Rai, 1967)
Oxford University Press, London, 1967)

2.2.7 Roof Rolls

Roof Rolls are common where a seam is overlain by sandstone or conglomerate roof. They consist
of projections formed by the under surface of the roof strata replacing the upper layers of the coal (Figure
2.10). Normally the basal surfaces of the rolls are irregular so that the coal cannot be broken cleanly from
them. Sometimes the contacts are slickensided and associated with minor compaction faults and in such
cases the coal separates easily from the roof. In ramble rolls, thin intercalations of other inter seam strata
occur and this makes the roof conditions difficult. Similar to roof rolls, irregularities occur in the floor of the
seam which are called floor rolls, saddles or horse backs (Figure 2.11).

2.2.8 Swilleys or Swalleys

Swilleys or Swalleys are elongated hollows in the topography of the base of a coal seam. Many are
in effect coal filled river channels which were abandoned during the depositional phase of the seam
affected.
As a result of seismic activity some seams have been affected on regional scale. Clastic or sandstone
dykes, stone intrusions are the result of seismic activity. They consist of irregular and frequently thin
sandstone masses which in most cases penetrate the whole seam and are joined with an overlying sandstone.
They may also get connected with the lower bed. Other seismic discontinuities attributed to the seismic
disturbances are formation of small scale reverse faults confined to one coal seam only, known as lurching,
with a consequence of slight duplication of strata. These stone dykes are sometimes accompanied by weak
and fragmetary roof strata.

2.2.9 Seam Splits

There are numerous cases of a seam being split into two or more layers separated by wedge-like or
circular masses of interseam strata. The parting in the same colliery may range from zero to several metres
in thickness. Splits may be classified as local splits or regional splits. Local splits are of limited extent both
horizontally and vertically. In the sandstone deposits between the split, coal lenticles and wisps of cannel
type of coal often occur. These local splits have little effect on the general level or gradient of the main
seam. The splits often exhibit flow features, split and splayed coal layers, and the whole structure may be
further complicated by distortion, creasing and lurching of the masses. The sandstone intrusion often
contains wisps and veins of coal, branching out in a sinuous pattern (Figure 2.12) (Nelson, 1958).

Figure 2.12: An example illustrating branching Figure 2.13 : An example illustrating multiple
out of a seam in a sinuous pattern. (After Nelson, splitting of Ghorawari searn, Kanhan Valley
1958). Coalfield (After Rai, 1967)

The regional splits cover a large area, and the leaves retain their identity, sometimes, the upper and
the lower layers may have different characteristics of the coal seams.
 Sometimes a seam may exhibit multiple splitting. For example, in Kolhia area, Kanhan Valley
Coalfield, M.P., Ghorawari seam has been splitted into several seams (Figure 2.13) (Rai, 1967). The thick
seam in Manuguru area, Godavari Valley coalfield, A.P. exhibits multiple splitting, thickening, etc., (Figure
2.14). In Singrauli coalfield, Purewa seam shows another good example of splitting and merging (Figure
2.15)*

Exploration in some Major Coalfields of India, G.S.I., 1977, Miscellaneous Publication No. 35.

Figure 2.15: An example illustrating splitting of a seam and merging of splits, Singrauli Coalfield. (Source:
G.S.I., Miscellaneous Publication No. 35, 1977}
A good example of multiple splitting is provided by the so-called "Ten Yards Coal" in Staffordshire,
(UK.). This well known seam has a thickness of 9.14 m of clean coal in South Staffordshire with only thin
partings. Within a distance of only about 8.04 km, it splits into more than a dozen thin seams, the partings
between which having thickened to 152.40 m of shale and sandstone. This extensive multiple splitting is
attributable to a folding movement that continued intermittently over a long period. Another good example
of widespread splitting is afforded by the Barnsley seam of Yorkshire. In South Yorkshire, the seam is fairly
stable and averages about 1.8 m in thickness with three well-defined subdivisions, namely the Top Softs, the
Hard and the Bottom Softs. To the north of Barnsley, the seam undergoes a fairly rapid change and separates
into two beds by the thickening of the dirt bands. The presence of faults in this splitting region is again
significant and suggests that these fractures were active during the formation and compaction of the main
Barnsley seam (Nelson, 1958).
Linear splits: This penomenon affects relatively narrow,
elongated and frequently sinuous areas of seams which occur over
most of their development as a single bed. The natures of the
intervening measures between the split seams are similar to those
encountered in more normal washouts and prior warning of their
occurrence may be indicated by gradual development of stone
intrusions and dirt bands. The upper members of a linear split
frequently rises into the roof at the channel margin and occur some
distance above the level of the normal seam. The lower member may
continue at the normal gradient or be inclined from both margins
towards the axial area of the split (Williamson, 1967).

2.2.10 Dirt Bands or Partings

Dirt bands are common features of thick coal seams (Figure
2.16). Their thickness may range from a few centimetres to a metre or
so. When the thickness is less, they are mined along with the seam but
with thicker dirt bands mining technique has to be suitably adjusted to
exclude them. The dirt bands generally contain mudstones or shales or fireclay. Dirt bands make very poor
roof and present the danger of roof falls if left in the roof.

2.2.11 Igneous Intrusions

Most of the coal seams have been affected by igneous intrusions. These intrusions are of two types:
(i) dykes, and (ii) sills,
Dykes
Dykes are wall like intrusions which break the contunuily of strata without displacement (Figure
2.17). These are generally composed of dolerites and/or mica peridotites and are most common in
coalfields. They are of a discordent nature and in an otherwise sedimentary sequence normally transgress
the stratification at considerable angles. On the geological map, they possess a noticeably straight trace.
Many dykes average 0.91-6.09 m in
thickness. In some coal seams a series of
dykes occur, for example, in Poniati seam at
Bhanora colliery, Raniganj coalifield.
Mechanised mining of coal in such conditions
is rendered difficult. Dykes also cause strata
control problems. In deep seams prone to
bumps, working in the vicinity of dykes may
trigger bumps.
As a dyke is approached the following
changes are noticed (Williamson, 1967).
1. Coal becomes brighter and its lusture
becomes anthracitic. Also the coal becomes
more friable. Figure 2,17; Diagrammatic sketch of a Dyke

2. As the road comes closer to the dyke, traces of cindering may be seen and the lusture of coal is
reduced. The coal converts into 'Jhama' in the vicinity of the dyke. The zone, in which total cindering has
resulted, may range from a few metres to over 30 m or so. As a result of cindering coal, the laminae of coal
are destroyed, the coal becomes vesicular towards the intrusion and the vesicles are filled by secondary
minerals. Coal is rendered plastic as can be seen by its slight intrusion in the dyke itself. Finally, the cinder
coal develops a columnar structure; the column axes are generally at right angles to the dyke surface.
3. At the contact of the dyke surface, the coal is rendered very tough and highly mieralised.
4. Within the intrusion xenoliths of coal are incorporated and altered to graphite.
5. In some cases the thickness of the seam gets reduced on cindering due to the distillation of
volatiles present in the coal. But nearer the dyke there may be slight increase in thickness of the seam due to
the extensive deposition of the secondary minerals. Roof deteriorates due to the changes in the seam
thickness.
The width of the area of contact alteration may be up to the thickness of the intrusion, but no exact
relationship has been established.
6. As a result of alteration due to the dyke, the volatile matter of coal (d.m.m.f.) is decreased and
percentage of ash is increased. The specific gravity of the altered coal also undergoes change. With the
decrease in volatile matter and the increase of ash percentage, the specific gravity is increased.
Sills
Sills are tabular intrusions which intrude in the coal seam, or along the bedding planes of the
interseam strata (Figure 2.18). The sills need not be horizontal, they can be inclined and also they cut across
the strata (transgress) to follow the bedding plane at upper horizons. The vertical range may be large
especially if it is through the fault plane which existed before the intrusion. Sills comprise mostly dolerites.
They have widely varying thickness and may cover large areas. In Indian coalfields many coal seams have
been completely rendered worthless at some localities, e.g., Koithee seam at West Jamuria Colliery. At some
locations, only the lower or upper part of the seam has been converted into 'Jhama'. At Victoria West
Colliery, Raniganj coalfield, the bottom portion of Laikdih seam has been coverted into Jhama. When the
sill invades the seam itself, the whole seam gets burnt. When in the roof the dolerite sills form very strong
roof, difficult-to-cave and which could lend to sudden collapse when mining has been done over a large area
and cause disasters as occurred at North Brook Colliery,
South Africa (Bryan, Bryan and Fouche, 1964).

2.3 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF INDIAN

COALFIELDS
India's major workable coal deposits occur in two
distinct stratigraphic horizons — the palaeozoic commonly
called as 'Gondwana coals' and the Tertiary. The Gondwana
coals which comprise nearly 99% of coal resources were
formed in the latter part of Palaeozoic era or later. Talchirs,
the oldest coal bearing scries of India belong to upper
carboniferous system and are some 270 million years old. Tertiary coals constitute balance nearly
Figure 2.18: Diagrammatic sketch of a sill
99% of India's total coal respurces and were formed in Eocene to Pleistocene age. The distribution of coal
and lignite deposits of India in the various stratigraphic horizons is given in Table 2.2 (Chandra and
Mukherjee, 1984).

Table 2.2 Distribution of Coal and lignite deposits in India (After Chandra and Mukherjee, 1984)
Geological Age Geological Formation Localities
TERTIARY Karewas Kashmir lignite
Pleistoncene Cuddalore bed South Arcot lignite of Neyveli, Tamilnadu.
Upper Miocene to Tikak Parbat Formation of Barail Coal deposits of Upper Assam, Arunachal
Pliocene Oligocene Group Pradesh and Nagaland
Eocene Laki & Jaintia Group Lignites of Raj'asthan and Gujarat. Coals of
Jammu, Lower Assam and Meghalaya
GONDWANA
Mesozoic
Lower Cretaceous Umia stage, Jabalpur Thin coal seams of Gujarat.
Lower Jurassic Kola and Chikiala Formation Thin coal seams of Satpura and Godavari
Palaeozoic
Upper Permian Raniganj Formation and the Lower Gondwana coalfields of peninsular
equivalents {Upper Coal India and foothill regions of the Eastern
Measures ) Himalayas

Middle Permian Iron stone stales (Barren

Measures) (non-coal bearing)
Lower Permian Barakar Formation (Lower Coal
Measures)
Basal Permian Karharbari Formation (Basal Coal
Measures)

Figure 2.19: Major Coalfields of India

There are over 70 coalfields in India ranging in areal extent from a few square kilometres to several
hundred square kilometres. Figure 2.19 shows the major coalfields of India. It will be seen that India's major
coal resources are located in the south-eastern quadrant bounded by 78°E longitude and 24°N latitude
leaving three-fourths of the country practically devoid of any important coal deposits. The major coalfields
occur along prominent present-day river valleys, viz, Damodar, Koel, Sone-Mahanadi, Pench-Kanhan and
Pranhita-Godavari.
Tertiary coalfields are located in the outer Himalayas, viz., in the Naga, Mikir, Khasi-Jaintia and
Garo Hills in the states of Meghalaya, Assam and'Arunachal Pradesh in the north east and Jammu region of
Jammu & Kashmir State in the north-west.
Lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary rocks of Tamil Nadu (Miocene period), Gujarat and Rajasthan
(Eocene period) and Kashmir (Karewas of Pleistocene period). Of these the Ney-eli lignite belt of Tamil
Nadu is the most important one.
The main coalfields of India belong to the lower Gondwana period which is subdivided in ascending
order into three series, i.e.. Talchir, Damodar and Panchet (Table 2.3). The Talchirs lie uncomformably on
Archaean rocks of Precmbrian age. Barakara are the main storehouse of Indian coals including that of prime
coking coal.
Table 2.3 Subdivisions of lower Gondwana
Series and Stage Maximum thickness of strata, Age according to
standard scale
(m)
Panchet Panchet 610 Lower Triassic
Raniganj 915 (914-1219)* Upper Permian
Barren measures 610 (305-610)* Middle Permian
Damuda Barakar 860 (61 0)- Lower Permian
Karharbari 120
Rikba plant bed
Talchir 275 (305)* Upper
Boulder bed 60 Carboniferous
Unconformity - - - -
Basement of Archaean rocks
Source: N.L. Sharma and K.S.V. Ram, Introduction to the Geology of Coal and Indian
Coalfields, Second Edition (1966), Oriental, Jaipur, p. 42. 'Indian Coals: Their Nature and Classification,
F.R.I., C.S.I.R., 1949, p. 1.

Thick seams abound Indian coalfields; some seams attain thickness of up to 44 m; an exceptionally
thick seam 162 m thick is found in Singrauli coalfield. The aggregate thickness of coal seams in various
coalfields is generally high. Table 2.4 gives the reserves of coal per km2 in some important coalfields.
The seams often occur in quick succession, the parting at places being very thin; all are generally
banded, the bands being from a few millimetres to several centimetres in thickness. The thicker seams, as a
rule, have more bands. Balls or nodules and rounded fragments of coal are not uncommon. Most Gondwana
coals from any field are unusually rich in durain, often up to 60-70% of the coal. Fusain may be 3-4% of the
seams. Bright coal constituents are usually 10-30% but occasionally they form the bulk of the seam—
especially in the Raniganj measures. All the coal seams give a comparatively high percentage of ash. There
is, however, seldom any appreciable portion of a seam which yields an ash content of less than 10%, normal
values lying between 15-30%. Pyrite intrusions are also very common and all these seams are prone to
spontaneous heating—especially the coals of the Raniganj measures.
Table 2.4 Reserves of coal per square kilometre for some Indian coalfields
Total Reserves to Reserves,
2
Coalfield Area, km 609-m depth, million
million tonnes tonnes/km2
Raniganj 1087.8 18,550 17.05
Jharia 453.2 12,610 27.8
Ramgarh 103.6 1,100 10.61
North Karanpura and 1424.4 9,200 6.5
South Karanpura
East Bokaro and West 725.2 7,300 10.07
Bokaro
The Tertiary coals are, however, better in quality compared to Gondwana coals. These coals are
characterised, in general, by high moisture, low ash and high sulphur content. These coals have ash content
in the range of 8-10% on air-dried basis. The bulk of the sulphur content in the coals is in the form of
organic sulphur. The total sulphur content generally varies from 2-7 % of which 40-90% is organic sulphur.
On account of high sulphur content the coals from some of the areas (Makum coalfield) exhibit dual
properties of high and low rank coals and have strongly coking properties. Such coals are a hybrid between
coal and oil and are eminently suited for liquefaction to oil by hydrogenation (Chandra and Mukerjee,
1984).
Indian coalfields present a variety of structures—synclines, anticlines, domes, horst, etc., and have
many types of both large and small faults-dip and strike faults, crossed faults, step faults, reversed faults,
etc. The coalfields particularly that of Jharia, have been widely affected by igneous intrusions, delerites,
usually occurring as dykes, and periodotites, frequently occurring as sills and often as dykes.
 Gradients of coal seams vary from a few degrees to almost vertical. Cleats are not well defined in
Indian coal seams; they occur from 5-7 cm. apart to 38-50 cm apart. They are generally hard coal seams :
the impact strength index may be over 60 and as high as 84, the Protodyakonov index is about 1-4 and their
uniaxial compressive strength of 2 in. (5.08 cm) cubes lies between 139 and 333 kg/cm2 (at right angles to
the bedding planes) and between 97 and 238 kg/cm2 (parallel to the bedding planes) (Singh, 1965). Their
friability lies between 10 and 27.5% on + 2 in. (5.03 cm) and -3 in. (7.62 cm) specimens and the overall
friability lies between 15 and 40% (Roy and Mitra, 1960).
The roof and floor of the seams are sandstone and hard shale. Fireclay as a rule, is absent; if present,
it is overclay. The strata consist mainly of sandstones and shales, there being various types of gradation into
one another, e.g., sandy shale, shaly sandstone, etc. The percentage of sandstone in the strata is usually high
and may reach 88% in certain localities. Sandstones form massive deposits and are at times difficult-to-
cave. They have a comprehensive strength of 212-933 kg/cm2 (at right angles to the bedding planes) and
159-501 kg/cm3 (parallel to the bedding planes). The modal compositions of some sandstones are given in
Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 : Modal composition of some Gondwana sandstones
Formation Quartz Feldspar Mica Matrix/ Cement Heavy minerals
including opaques
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Raniganj 45.92-81 .63 28.03-42.96 -- 10.68-16.50

Barakar 60.8-64.8 7.6-12.9 2.2-3.1 21.2-23.6 1.5-2.9
Talchir 58.2-61 .8 19.8-21.6 2.6-3.6 14.2-15.7 1.5-2.3
In their general features and in the Glassopteris flora found, the Indian coals and associated strata
resemble the contemporary strata of South Africa and Australia.
India's total coal resources (proved, indicated and inferred) in seams 0.5 m thick and more and up to
a depth of 1200 m are estimated at 120 billion tonnes. Of these about 30% are in the proved category and
the rest in the indicated and/or inferred categories. The coals occuring between 600 m and 1200 m depths
are grouped as resource and the rest as reserves. Of this potential about 84% are in the reserve category
comprising 28% amenable for surface mining, and the balance 72% to underground mining. Seam thickness
wise the reserves are as below: 0.5 to 1.5m — 15%; 1.5 to 3.5m — 15%, 3.5 to 5 m — 12%; 5 to 10 m—
20%, 10 to 20m— 19%; and the rest above 20 m.
Jharia. Raniganj, Singrauli, and Godavari Valley coalfields are the most important coalfields of India
and produce more than 50% of India's total coal production. A brief description of these coalfields is given
below :

2.3.1 Jharia Coalfield

The Jharia coalfield (Figure 2.20) (Mehta and Murthy, 1957) occupies an area of 453.24 km2. In this
coalfield Gondwanas occur as an outlier amidst the granitoid rock and gneisses of the Pre-Cambrian. The
oldest Gondwanas strata crop out along the northern margin and the younger strata in the southern part. The
oldest Talchir series 243.84 m thick comprises boulder bed 15.24m thick ai the base and fine khaki-coloured
sandstone and needle shaped green shale approximately 258.6 m thick. Next follows Damuda series
comprising Barakar series, 609.6 m thick, Barren measures 609.6 m and Raniganj series 560.8 m thick. The
Barakar series contain over twentyfive workable coal seams of more than 1.2 m thickness with a total
thickness of 76.2 m and comprises the major coal producing horizons of the coalfield. Based on lithological
features and heavy mineral contents of the sandstones, four stages are recognised in the Barakar stage. They
are Muraidih (Golkdih) 152.4-182.8 m thick; Gareria (Nadkarki) 91.4-106.68 m thick; Jealgora (Barari)
76.2-91.4 m thick; and Bhagaband (Phularitand) 213.36-274.32 m thick. The coal seams in the Barakar
stage of the Jharia coalfield range in thickness from 0.91 to 22.44 m (Sharma and Ram 1966).
In the Raniganj stage which occupies an oval area in the South Western part of the coalfield, eight
workable seams are found.

Figure 2.20: Geological map of Jharia Coalfield, (After Mehta and Murthy, Memoirs G.S.I.,
LXXXIV, 1957)
 The strata comprise mainly sandstones and shales or their gradations into one another, e.g., Sandy
shale or shaly sandstones. Sandstones are white or buff-coloured and medium to coarse grained. The
Raniganj stage sandstones are fine-grained. The modal composition of Barakar sandstone is given in Table
2.5.
The Jharia coalfield present a variety of structure. The general dip of the strata is 15° in a southerly
direction but there are considerable local variations. In the vicinity of Bhulanbarari thrust the dip of the coal
seams has steepened to 1 in 1 to 1 in 0.5. The coalfield is much affected by faulting. At the southern
boundary there is a 1524 m throw fault which has brought Pre-Camhrian basement rocks against the
Raniganj stage and Barren measures. At Amlabad coal scams have a dome structure.
This coalficd has numerous igneous intrusions in the form of dykes and sills. The dykes comprise
dolerites or mica peridotites and the sills comprise ultra basic peridotites.
Jharia coalfield is the only prime coking coal producer. The coals have low moisture and \olatiles are
not high. The quality of coal in the upper seams is better than in the lower seams.
2.3.2 Raniganj Coalfield
The Raniganj coalfield (Figure 2.21) (Mehta, 1957) is another important coalfield of India. It is in
this coalfield that coal mining started first in India. This coalfield occupies an area of 1553.99 km2. On the
three sides, north, west and south this coalfield is surrounded by gneisses and granitic rocks of precambrian
age : On the eastern side the coal bearing horizons extend below a cover of laterite and alluvium and the
eastern boundary of the coalfield remains unexplored.

Figure 2.21: Geological map of Raniganj Coalfield. (After Mehta, Memoris G.S.I., LXXXIV, 1956)

Raniganj coalfield comprises Talchir series about 274.3m thick, followed by Damuda series
consisting of Barakar stage 609.6 m thick, Ironstone shales 365.76 m thick and the Raniganj stage 1036.3 m
thick. In the central part the Damuda series is concealed by Panchet series 609.6m thick and capped by
Supra Panchet series. The Damuda series forms the actual coalfield. The Barakar stage is composed of
coarse-sratified felspathic sandstones and conglomerates together with occassional shales and some
workable coal. Many of,the coal seams are 6.09m thick, and the thickest Kalimati seam attains a thickness
of 30.48m in some parts. In some horizons fireclay also occurs.
In the Raniganj stage, nine horizons of workable seams are recognised. The interseam strata
comprise fine grained greyish standstone with some shales. Fireclay as a rule is absent; where it occurs it
occurs as overclay.
Ironstone shales are devoid of coa) and consist carbonaceous shale with clay ironstone nodules. The
Panchet series consist of cross-stratified micaceous sandstone and red and greenish shales and the Supra
Panchet has sandstones and conglomerates. The lowest Talchir series consists of fluvio-glacial boulder bed
overlain by sandstone and shales which break up into prismatic fragments.
The general dip of this coalfield is in a southerly direction, on an average 10° except in the vicinity
of faults. At the southern boundary fault, a series of sharp inclined folds occur. This coalfield is faulted at
the southern and western boundaries. The northern boundary which appears to be an unconformity is
crossed by a series of faults and the coal horizons are locally folded.
There are extensive intrusions in the coalfield as dolerite, dykes and mica pcridotite sills or dykes.
These affect the coal seams adversely and make machine mining a very difficult operation.
Raniganj coals are high volatile and high moisture bituminous coals and form excellent steam coals.
Some coal seams are highly gassy, prone to bumps and liable to spontaneous heating.
2.3.3 Singrauli Coalfield
The Singrauli coalfield (Figure 2.22) occurs between the latitudes 24° 12° and 23° 47° and is spread
over a large area, nearly 2200 km2, largely in the districts of Sidhi and Sahdol of Madhya Pradesh and partly
in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. But, only a small part of the coalfield, some 220 km2, has been
found to be promising by the Geological Survey of India.
 Figure 2.22: Geological map of Singrauli Coalfield (Source : G.S.I. Miscellaneous Publication No. 35,
1977)
The north-eastern part of the Singrauli coalfield stands out as a plateau with an altitude of 500 m
above mean sea level from the lower plains of 280 m altitude. It mostly lies over Talchirs with Barakar
projecting towards south, east and west. Coarse-grained sandstones form the major lithology.
The geological succession met with in this coalfield is as follows (Sharma and Ram, 1966):

Mahadeva series
Unconformity...........................
Raniganj series 61 m
Barakar coal measures 305-366 m
Talchir series 30 m
Unconformity...........................
Bijawar Shales and Quartzites
Unconfirmity...........................
Dharwar Gneisses and Schists

The boundary between the Barakars and Raniganj series is not clear but based on fossil evidence the
upper part of the coal bearing strata is inferred to be of Raniganj age. The dips of the strata are low varying
from 2°-5° and faulting is rare even along the boundary. Dykes and sills of doletrite are common in the
south and west of the basin. The reserve in this coalfield as estimated by Coulson is of the order of 5.87
million tonnes per km2.
The coal reserves in the north-eastern part of the Singrauli coalfield, 220 km2 in areal extent, is of
the order of 9121 million tonnes comprising 2,724 million tonnes proved, 2,710 million tonnes indicated
and 4227 million tonnes inferred. Of these, 2,786 million tonnes is the mineable reserve by opencast mining
method with a stripping ratio of 4 m1 of overburden to 1 tonne of coal (Singh and Diddee. 1982). The
improtant coal seams are as given below:
(1) Jhmgurda top seam (130 to 135 m thick). This seam at one place attains a thickness of 162 m and
is the second thickest seam in the world.
Jhingurda Bottom seam 10-15 m thick. These seams occur in the Raniganj measures.
(2) Purewa Top seam 8-12 m thick; Purewa Bottom seam 10-14 m thick. In the western part, this
seam has attained a thickness of 20-25 m.
(3) Turra seam, 12-22 m thick is the most attractive seam in this coalfield.
There are some other seams, 1 -3 m thick, which are locally known as Panipahari, Khadia, etc.
The coals of these seams are generally high moisture (6-9%) and high ash (17-40%) coals
and the volatile matter ranges from 25-30%. The calorific value of the coal varies from
4,200-5.900 Kcal/kg. The coal from this coalfield is primarily used for power generation. A small
quantity is used for brick burning and for other small consumers.

2.3.4 Godavari Valley Coalfield

The Godavari Valley coalfield 16000 km2 in areal extent extends over a length of 320 km with an
average width of 55 km and covers parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangaf, Khammam, Krishna, and
West & East Godavari districts in Andhra Pradesh. This is the only bituminous coal bearing coalfield in the
Indian peninsula.
Table 2.6 shows the geological succession of Godavari Valley coalfield. The entire succession
of Gondwana rocks are present in this coalfield from Talchirs of Upper Carboniferous age to Gangapur/
Chikiala formation of upper Jurrasic age. Figure 2.23 shows the extent and distribution of different
formations.

Table 2.6: Geological succession of the Godavari Valley coalfield (After Venkatappaiah, 1982)
Age Pranhita-Godavari Revised classification in some part

Cretaceous Lower
Upper Gangapur/ Chikiala
Jurassic Middle Formation Formattn
Lower Kota Formation
Upper Dharmaram Formation
Maleri Formation Maler Formation
Upper Member
Triassic Middle Bheemaram Formation Middle Member
Yerrapalli Formation Lower Member
Lower Mangali beds Upper member
Kampthi Formation Karhpthi Formation Middle Member
Permian Upper Motur like Formation Barren measures Lower member
Barakar Formation Barakar Formation
Lower Talchir Formation Talchir Formation

Figure 2.23: Geological map of Godavari Valley Coalfield (Source: Introduction to the Geology of
Coal and Indian Coalfields, Oriental, Jaipur, 1966)

The Gondwana sediments attain a thickness of more than 3000 m with 200 m of Talchir formation at
the base succeeded by coal bearing Barakars of 300 to 350 m which are overlain by 400 m of Barren
measures and 1,600 m of Kamptees and 600 m of Maleri formations. The thickness of the younger
formations is 200-250 m. The coal-bearing Barakars are exposed over an area of 500 km2 in the western part
of the Godavari basin in detached, linear patches in the form of outliers.
The Gondwana basin in general, is aligned along the prominent tectonic troughs of the Pre-
Cambrian rocks delineated by boundary faults on either side or on one side along the linear /ones. The south
eastern side of Godavari Valley coalfield has normal deposition of sediments though faulted at places while
the north eastern side shows faulted contact throughout. The .oalficld has a number of faults, strike, oblique
or dip faults, which have affected the coal seams. l~he general trend of the coal measures in the Godavari
Valley basin is nroth-west-south-east with Jips varying from 10 to 25° towards north-east, except at
Manuguru where the strike is north-east-south-west with a dip towards north-west.
In the Gondwana succession of the Godavari Valley coalfield the Barakars are coal bearing. In recent
years a thick coal seam was discovered in the Kamptee formation also. The middle 150 m of Barakar strata
normally contain 3 to 10 seams of which 2 to 4 seams are persistent in thickness. The thickness of the coal
seams varies from a few centimetres to as much as 30 m. All the coals of this coalfields are non-cooking,
high moisture, high ash and high volatile type. The basal seams are generally of superior quality, the ash
content in them being 19 to 25% whereas the ash content in the upper seams varies from 28 to 40% with the
exception in parts of Manuguru and Gautam Khani area where in selected blocks the ash content may be
only 10 to 15%. The total reserves of all categories (proved, indicated and inferred) in this coalfield are
estimated at 8,504 million tonnes in seams 0,5m and above up to a depth of 1,200 m. Of this the proved
reserve is 2,129 million tonnes, indicated 2,433 million tonnes and iferred 3,942 million tonnes.

2.4 INDIAN COAL CLASSIFICATION

Inidian Standards Institution has classified Anthracites, Bituminous coals and Lignites into groups
(Table 2.7). The grouping is based on volatiles and calorific value, both assessed on unit coal basis, that is,
on dry, mineral matter-free basis together with the moisture content and coking nature of the coal. Thus
Aanthracites are divided into group 'A| and 'A2' and the Bituminous coals into groups BrB6 and Lignites into
group Lj and L2. Group B6 is closer to lignite coal and is rare. For commerical purpose Indian coals are
classified into different grades based on ash content in respect of coking coals and on useful heat value
(UHV) in respect of non-coking coals (Table 2.8); where UHV=8900-138 (ash-moisture %) kcal/kg.

2.5 SOME SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF COAL SEAMS

Coal seams exhibit some characteristics peculiar to themselves which affect mining operations and
end use of coal when mined. Some such important properties are: (i) proneness to spontaneous heating; (ii)
proneness to bumps; (iii) gas bearing capacity of coal seams; (iv) strength of coal; (v) flammability or
explosibility index of coal, and (vi) caking properties, etc. Besides some coals have coking properties and
some are caking but not coking. Some other properties of importance are friability, stability, grindability,
washability, etc., a knowledge of which is necessary to design coal handling and coal preparation
techniques. Properties like strength indices, abrasivity, drillability and cuttability influence the choice of
mining systems and mechanisation of coal getting operations.

2.5.1 Proneness to Spontaneous Heating

Coals of lower rank are more susceptible to self heating. In the rank of bituminous coal, generally
the inferior coals with high percentage of moisture and a sulphur content are more susceptible to self
heating. Anthracites are not prone to self heating.
A simple test has been designed to determine the crossing point temperature, that is the temperature
at which the temperature of a specially prepared mass of coal kept in a vessel in a bath exceeds the
temperature of the bath, and it has been found to be useful indication of the proneness of coal to autogenous
heating. In this method, 20 grammes of coal (-72 B.S. mesh) is taken in a double walled glass U-tubc and is
heated in a glycerine bath at the rate of 0.5° C/min. A steady flow of saturated air through the coal bed is
maintained. Continual record of bath temperature and corresponding coal bed temperature is made, and their
time-temperature graphs are plotted. The point of intersection of the two curves gives the crossing point
temperature of the coal sample. It has been suggested that coals with a crossing point temperature of 120 to
140°C may be considered to be highly susceptible to self-heating, whereas samples having a crossing point
temperature between 140 and 155°C arc moderately susceptible and the poorly susceptible coals are likely
to show rather high values (160 to!90°C or more).
Indexing of coals using crossing point temperature determination method has been found suitable for
almost all coals having low moisture content.
The other methods of classifying coals with regard to their susceptibility to spontaneous heating are:
(i) Differential thermal analysis; (ii) Rate studies of coal oxidation reactions, and (iii) The peroxy—
complex analysis.
All the four methods should be used for coals with very high moisture content particularly for coals
having 10% moisture or more, in order to ascertain their proneness to spontaneous heating (Banerjee,
Nandi, Banerjee and Chakraborty, 1972).

Table 2.7- I S I General Classification of Indian coals (IS; 770-1964)

Type Sub-division or Range of Range of Range of moisture Chief
group volatiles group percentage (mineral free uses
percentage at calorific coal basis)
900°+ 15o va/ue.
Name Group Near Airdried
(unit coat kcat/kg
symbo saturation at 60%
basis) (unit coal
l at 96% RH RH at
basis)
at 40°C 40°C
Anthracites Anthracite A1 3 to 10 8330 to 2 to 4 1 to 3
8670
Semi- A2 10 to 15 8440 to 1.5 to 3 1 to 2
Anthracite 8780
Bituminus
coals (caking )
strength
increasing
from B 5 to B 2
Low volatile Bi 15 to 20 8670 to 8890 1.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 1.5-|
(caking)
I

Medium volatile Bz 20 to 32 8440 to 8780 1.5 to 2.5 0.5

to 2 J
(caking)
High volatile 63 Over 32 8280 to 8610 2 to 5 1 to 3
I (caking)
High volatile (semi B4 Over 32 8060 to 8440 5 to 10 3 to 7
caking)

High volatile (non- B5 Over 32 7500 to 8060 10 to 20 7

to 14
caking)
Sub-bituminus Non-caking; sfak B6 Over 32 6940 to 7500 20 to 30 10
to 20 I
coals ingin on
Lignite or Normal Lignite Li 45 to 55 6110106940 30 to 70 10 to 25-i
brown coats Canne/otd Lignite L2 55 to 65 6940 to 7500 30 to 70 10
to 25 -^
Gasification, producers domestic stoves and where intense local heat and no smoke are required
Carbonization for metallurgical coke: Typical coking coals.
Coking coals, gas coals, gasification
Gas coals, gasification long flame heating
Steam raising, gasification, long flame heathing
Steam raising and gasification Steam raising, briquetting,
gasification, distillation______ 58
Principles and Practices of Modem Coat Mining
j Sub-division or group Range of Flange of Range of moisture percentage
volat-iles group (mineral
Type percentage at calorific va/ue. free coal basis)
Name Grou 900°+ 15o kcat/kg (unit Near saturation Airdried at
p (unit coat coal basis) at 96% RH at 60% RH at
symbo basis) 40°C 40°C
l
Al
) Anthracites Anthracite 3 to 10 8330 to 8670 2 to 4 1 to 3 -i

' Semi-
A2 ^0 to 15 8440 to 8780 1.5 to 3 1 to 2 -I
Anthracite
Bituminus Low volatile Bi 15 to 20 8670 to 8890 1.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 1.5-|
coals
(caking ) (caking)
strength
increasing I
from
B 5 to B 2
Medium Bz 20 to 32 8440 to 8780 1.5 to 2.5 0.5 to 2 J
volatile
(caking)
High volatile 63 Over 32 8280 to 8610 2 to 5 1 to 3
I (caking)
High volatile (semi B4 Over 32 8060 to 8440 5 to 10 3 to 7
caking)

High volatile B5 Over 32 7500 to 8060 10 to 20 7 to 14

(non-
caking)
Sub-bituminus Non- B6 Over 32 6940 to 7500 20 to 30 10 to 20 I
caking; sfak
coals ingin on
Lignite or Normal Li 45 to 55 6110106940 30 to 70 10 to 25-i
Lignite
brown coats Canne/otd L2 55 to 65 6940 to 7500 30 to 70 10 to 25 -^
Lignite

2.5.2 Proneness to Bumps

A bump or rockburst is the sudden release of energy from the coal seam which is manifested by the
bursting of pillars expelling large quantities of dust and gas and is accompanied by loud noise. If the energy
released is small, the miners call it a 'thud', which doesn't cause devastations. The propensity of a coal seam
to bumps can be assessed in many ways. Some indices developed in Poland and described by Kindybinski
(1981) are: (i) Strain energy storage index, WCT; (ii) Schmidt rebound number; (iii) Bursting efficiency
ratio; and (iv) Rheologic ratio (energy release rate).
Table 2.8 : Grading of Indian coats
Type Nomenclatu Ash Quality Useful heat
of coal re of grade ranges, % value Kcal/kg
Cokin Steel grade Not -
g 1 exceeding 15
Steel grade " 18 -
II
Washery " 21 -
grade 1
II " 24 -
III " 28 -
IV " 35 -
N on- Grade A - Exceeding 6200
co king
" B - 5600
" C . - 4940
" D - 4200
" E _ 3360
" F - 2400
" G - 1300
Source: Deb, T.K., (1984) "Coal Grading and Pricing" in Coal Mining in India, CMPDI, Ranchi, p.
190.
Strain energy storage index, Wet : In this method 50 cm x 50 cmx 50 cm cubes are compressed with
a force acting normally to the bedding plane at a stress rate of 0.04 M Pa/sec, (a force rate of 100 N/sec)
until the stress reaches 80-90% of the ultimate strength when it is Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal
Deposits 59
released at the same stress rate to zero. Longitudinal strain of the specimen is measured continuously
with deformation gauges and the stress-strain relationship is presented in graphical form and the ratios of
elastic strain energy to dissipated strain energy is determined. If the ratio is equal to or more than 5, the
seam is highly liable to bumps; if the ratio is equal to or more than 2 and less than 5, the seam is weakly
prone lo bumps and if the ratio is less than 2, the seam is not liable to bumps.
If the coal seam being investigated is not uniform in structure, a geological log is made, and for each
layer of significance a sample is taken and 'Wel- values determined in the laboratory. An average 'Wtt' value
for the whole seam's vertical section is determined by the following formula:
.We, (av) n. mn
m\+m2 ........ mn
(i) Where, Wet (av) 1, Wet (av) 2 are average Wet values for particular coal layers and
mi, m2, etc, are thicknesses of respective layers.
(ii) A much quiker in situ test using light type (L type) Schmidt's rebound hammer is done to find out
the average rebound number of the seam which has been correlated with the Energy Storage Index and thus
the proneness of the seam to bumps can be quickly ascertained. The relationship of rebound number rL to
the energy storage index Wet is as given in the following formula: Wet = exp (0.0606 rL- 1.75 75)
Hie other indices which are used for assessing the propensity of coal to bumps are bursting
efficiency ratio, rheological ratio (energy release rate).
(iii) The bursting efficiency has been defined as the ratio between the throw energy of chips (when
the specimen fails under uniaxial compressive tests) and the maximum strain energy at about the failure of
the specimen. A cylindrical specimen is used for these tests and the rate of loading is 0.97 M Pa per sec. If
the bursting efficiency is less than 3.5, there will be no bursting liability, if the ratio is 3.5 to 4.2, there is
low bursting liability; for ratios of 4.2-4.7, the bursting liability is medium and for ratios greater than 4.7 the
liability of the seam to bumps is high.
(iv) In the rheological method, average fragmentation rate, Vf, the stress relaxation rate, Vr, the
critical relaxation rate, Vrc and the critical fragmentation rate, Vfc are measured. The liability of a seam to
burst is categoried as below:
(1) High bursting liability Vf > Vfc and Vr < Vrc
 (2) Medium bursting liability Vf > VfC and Vr > VK
(3) Low bursting liability Vf < Vfc and Vr £ Vrc
(4) No bursting liability Vf < Vfc and Vr > VK
2.5.3 Gas Bearing Capacity of Coal Seams
Coalification was accompanied by evolution of fire-damp and although 250-300 million years have
elapsed since the formation of coal, coal seams still contain gas. Some coal seams have retained more gas
and some very little; but all coal seams can contain some gas. In India, the coal seams are categorised in
three categories with regard to their gassiness (Table 2.9). At Amlabad Colliery, the XIV seam is found to
contain maximum gas; some other highly gassy seams are: Dishergarh seam at Chinakuri 1 & 2 pits,
Dhadka seam at New Ghusic Colliery; and Ghusic seam 60
Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining
at Damra Colliery. The gas content of some of the coal seams has been found to be more than 50
nv'/tonne of coal mined and in the case of XIV seam at Amlabad colliery (Jharia coalfield) it was 340 m-V
tonne of coal mined.
Total make of the gas comes from three sources (i) working seam; (ii) contiguous or splinter seam,
and (iii) from the enclosing rock. The gas comes out by slow exudation; through blowers and by sudden
outbursts of gas.
The sudden outburst of gas is the most dangerous mode of evolution of gas. It is accompanied by the
ejection of a few to hundred and even thousands of tonnes of coal with sounds of varying intensities
forming a cavity of peculiar shape in the coal seam (Shevyakov, 1958).
Table 2.9 : Classification of coal seams according to their gassiness
Category _________________Definitions____________________
Percentage of inflammable Rate of emission
gas in the general body of inflammable gas
of air per tonne of coal produced
Degree Not more than 0.1% Not more than 1 m3
1
Degree More than 0.1% 1-10 m3
II
Degree - More than 10m3
III
The sudden outbrust generally occurs at great depths (depths > 200-300 m), in coal seams with soft
coal where gas in retained under high pressure. In India, gas outbrust was reported to have occurred at
Chinakuri 1 & 2 pits. The origin of the outbrust was stated to be a splinter seam which occurred some 60-70
cm below the Dishergarh seam. The depth of the working was about 600 m. Generally, sudden outbrusts
occur in geologically disturbed areas, where coal was presumably subjected to high tectonic processes and
subsequently to crushing and fracturing. Special mining techniques must be adopted in seams prone to
outbrust of gas-and coal.
2.5.4 Strengh of Coal
Uniaxial compressive strength of coal shows wide variations even if the sample has been cut from
the same block. It is normally higher when load is applied at right angles to the bedding plane than that
when load is applied parallel to the bedding plane.
The uniaxial compresive strength of coal is a function of the rank of coal : anthracites are the
strongest coals and the lignite the weakest. In addition, the strength of coal varies with the volatile matter
(d.m.m.f i.e., dry, mineral matter-free) of coal and the relationship can be approximately presented by a U-
curvc. At one end of the U-curve the anthracites are placed and at the other end low rank coals. The coals
with volatile matter {d.m.m.f.) of about 20% have the lowest uniaxial compressive strength (Evans and
Pomeroy, 1966). Similar relationship has been reported for Indian coals (Singh, 1960). Table 2.10gives the
uniaxial compressive strength of some Indian Coals.
Strengh indices
Many strength indices of coal have been evolved which give a.measure of the strengh ot coal, its
workability (cuttability), and drillabilily, etc. Of these (i) Protodayaknov index and (ii) Impact strength
index (ISI) are of wide use. Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal Deposits
61
Table 2.10 : Uniaxial compressive strength of Indian coals (After Singh, 1965; Mazumdar, Barat
and Singh, 1974)
Sea Colliery Compressive strenQth Remar
m kg/cm2 ks
At right Parall
angles to the el to the
bedding beddi
planes nq planes
XVI Bhutgeria 228 98 5. 08
A cm x 5.08
cm x
5.08 cm
 speci
mens*
XVI Bhutgoria 141 109 do —
do
IX Sendra 167 184 do —
Bansjora do
Koi A&B 267 241 do —
thcs Pits Jamuria do
Pon A&B Pit 271 194 do —
tata Jamuria do
Talt West 260 125 do —
ore Jamuria do
Jam West 202 161 do —
uria Jamuria do
Dis Methani 227 149 do —
hergarh do
Kin No. 5 338 159 do —
g incline do
Kothagud
em
V, Victory 265 - 2.5 cm
VI & VII x 2.5 cm
CO x 2.5
NBINED cm
speci
men"
IX Tickmani 239 - do —
Gararia do
X Ena 312 - do —
do
XI/ Khas 212 - do —
XII Benedih do
XII Bagdigi 257 - do —
do
XIII Pootkee 206 - do —
do
XIV Jeetpur 187 — do —
Noonidih do
XV South 240 _ do —
A Baiihary do
VIII Bhagaba 260 - do —
nd do
Sha Khas 402 - do —
mpur-5 Nirsa do
sea
m
Go do — do 348 - do —
pinathpur do
San Jamuria 302 - do —
atoria do
Ran Rana 380 - do —
a do
Nra Nimcha 490 - do —
inkuri do
Das Krishna 358 - do —
ut-chin- Nagar do
chu
ria
Bor Methani 295 _ do —
achuck do
Gh Kuardi 384 - do —
usick do
Jam Sitalpur 362 - do —
bad do
Sal Ramnaga 354 - do —
 anpur D r do
sea
m
Lo Lachhipu 439 - do —
wer r do
kaj
ora
Lai Victory 211 - do —
kdih do
Sam Victory 414 do —
/a do
62
Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining
Lower work-! 556 - do —
Pathakhera do
abl
e seam
Gh Korba 379 - do —
ordewa do
III
Seam
Pas Bishramp 350 - do —
sang ur do
Sirk Gidi 368 .- do —
a do
Kar Chalkari 276 - do —
gali do
Tal Dulbera 554 _ do —
cher do
Mai
n seam
Source : * Singh. R.D. (1965). "Compressive strength of some Indian Coals", Trans., Min.,
Geol., Met. Inst. of India, Vol. 62 No. 1, pp. 43-66.
" Mazumdar S., Barat, D, and Singh, B., (1974). "Studies on strength of some Indian coals", Trans.
Min Geol. Met Inst. of India, Vol 71, No.1, pp. 49-76.
(i) Protodyakonov index
It is a simple empirical test for determining the strength of coal. The test consists basically of the
crushing of a sample of 25-75 gms. of fragments of coal larger than 10 mm. contained in a hollow cylinder,
by five successive drop-hammer blows. The percentage of coal that is broken down to pass a 0.5 mm sieve
is used to calculate the Protodyakonov index, which gives an indication of the strength of coal within
practical limits, This index is used for assessing cuttability, drillability, amenability to hydraulic mining of
coal seams or even for the design of pillars. The Protodyakonov index of Indian coals varies from 1 to about
4.
(ii) Impact strength index
100 grammes of coal in the 3-10 mm. size range containing both larger and smaller fragments is
carefully poured into a vertical steel cylinder of 44 mm internal diametre and the upper surface of the coal is
roughly levelled. The assembly is stood vertically on a solid floor. A 1.81 kg. weight of 4,3 mm. diameter is
dropped freely twenty times on to the coal, the initial distance between the base of the weight and the lower
surface of coal being 305 mm. The percentage of coal remaining in the initial sieve range 3-10 mm. is called
the impact strength index. At least five specimens should be tested for each coal and mean taken.
ISI values are shown to have linear relationship with the compressive strength of coal at right angles
to the bedding planes (Pomeroy, 1957). It has its utility in assessing the cuttability of coal seams.
Other useful indices of coal strength are : NCB cone Indentation Number, Shatter Index, Friability
and Stability of coal, etc. which find application in the selection of coal getting machines, designing blasting
round and coal preparation, etc.
2.5.5 Flammability or Explosibility Index of Coal
A unit weight of coal is dispersed in an environment of air or oxygen and ignited to cause explosion
of the dust. The amount of inert dust which when mixed with the above coal dust, renders it non-flammable
gives the measure of the explosibility of the coal seam. It can also be calculated by the formula S - 100 -
1250/V where 5 = least proportion of incombustible matter required to be mixed with coal dust to suppress
inflammation, and V- Volatile content of the coal on ash free dry basis. Table 2.11 (Sen, Dasgupta and
Lahiri, 1957) gives the relative inflamm- Occurrence and Characteristics of Coal Deposits
63
ability of some Indian coal seams. It has been found that higher the rank of the coal, the lower is its
inflammability. Thus the inflammability increases with the volatile matter, oxygen and hydrogen contents in
coal and decreases with the increases in the calorific value of the volatile matter and the carbon content of
the coal. Both the quantity and the quality of the volatile matter and the nature of the coal surface are factors
which materially affect the inflammability of coal.
Table 2.11 : Relative Inflammability of some Indian coals(After Sen, Das Gupta and Lahiri, 1957)
Seam Colliery
Relative-Inflammability
In Practic Calculate
Oxygen al i.e., d values from
equivalent in the formula
air
V
Jambad Jambad 92. 72.1 71.7
-Bowlah Bowlah 7
Disher Parbelia 90. 70.1 71.5
garh 2
Disher Methani 91. 70.8 69.5
garh 1
Poniati Girmint 89. 69.3 68.4
1
!
Deo// 89. 69.4 68.2
Sanctoria 3
; Muralidih 87. 68.4 67.8
Mohuda 9
Ramna West 86. 67.4 62.9
gar Victoria 7
Laikdi Laikdih 84. 65.6 60.4
h 3
XIV A Bararee 85. 66.1 60.2
0
XVI Bhulanbar 87. 68.1 63.3
aree 6
XI Bhalgora 82. 64.4 56.3
8
Karrid Gonsadih 85. 66.2 51.9
ge X 1
XI & Madhuban 82. 64.4 50.6
XII 7
XII Ashakhuti 77. 60.2 47.3
3
X Madhuban 79. 61.6 47.5
1
XI Sendra 79. 61.7 43.9
Bansjora 4
VII Khas 77. 60.2 35.2
Kusunda 4
Kargali Kargali 87. 67.9 59.5
2
Kargali Kargali 83. 65.0 57.0
Bottom 5
Gaimar Jhilimili 87. 67.9 65.4
a 3
Lower Karharbare 90. 70.3 56.7
Karhar e 4
baree
Lower Seerampur 89. 69.3 57.2
Karhar 0
baree
Talcher Talcher 91. 71.0 68.9
3
Numdu Margherita 91. 71.4 71.0
ng (Assam) 9
64 Principles and Practices of Modern Coal Mining
2.5.6 Caking Properties
The caking property of a coal is determined by its power in a powdered from to swell and
agglutinate on heating. All caking coals are not 'coking coals'; a coal may be caking but not coking. Several
tests have been proposed to determine the caking index of coal.
 A coking coal belongs to the caking variety or class, that is. on heating in the absence of air it shall
between 300°C and 400°C become plastic of pasty or even fluid, and if the heating is continued, shall leave
a porous, rigid residue of coke, the porosity being caused by the escape of volatile gases and vapours. There
is no such property as 'good coking power' but the term is serviceable in indicating a coking coal which
leaves behind a sound, strong, metallurgical coke. This property is measured to some extent by means of the
caking index, which indicates what weight of sand may be added to unit weight of coal (before coking)
before destroying entirely the coherence of the coke button or residue. A caking index of 15 of over (using a
modifed test developed by TISCO) is found to be satisfactry to put the coal in coking category. The Tata
Coking Index is equal to 1.5 BSS caking index.
The swelling of coal is determined by the crucible swelling or alternatively by Arnu Audiberts
dilatometer test, and the agglutinating power by the Roga or Gray-King assays.
Crucible swelling number
For measuring the swelling properties of a coal on heating, the crucible swelling number, also called
the swelling index, is determined (British Standard 1016, Part 12, 1959. Coking and Swelling Properties of
Coat}. The coal sample is first ground to pass a 72 mesh B.S. test sieve. It is then heated rapidly in a silica
crucible of specific size for one-and-a-half minutes to 800°C, In the next minute the temperature is raised to
820QC and maintained at this level until the volatile matter is burnt off or for 2- minutes, whichever is the
greater period of time. The crucible is
cooled and if the residue is coherent, the coke button is removed and compared with a standard
series of number profiles to determine the curcible swelling number. If the residue is non-coherent, the
swelling number is zero.
Gray-King coke type
The gray-king coke type is used as a parameter in the NCB classification of British coals. After
grinding the sample to pass a 72 mesh BS test sieve, 20 grammes of coal are heated under standard
conditions in a hard glass or transparent silica tube, at a uniform rate of increase in temprcture from 300 to
600°C for a period of 1 hour. The carbonised residue is compared with a series of illustrations and
descriptions and designated A to G and G\ to Gq. With coke type G\, 62, G}, etc., the subscript figures
denote the number of grammes of electrode carbon in a 20 gm. mixture of electrode carbon and coal to form
a hard strong coke of type G. The general relationship between the Gray King coke type and the rank of coal
(i.e.. Carbon%—d.m.m.f.) shows that wide variations in coking power exist in coals of the same rank below
about 8K per cent carbon (d.m.m.f.) due to the variations in the chemical compositions. In high rank coals
the variations in cakig power are less as the macerals are less differentiated. The Gray-King coke types are
also approximately related to crucible swelling number. Good prime coking coals give Gray-King coke
types of 05-67 and roughly 6^ -8 crucible swelling number.