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Kinds of variable:

 The independent variable:


It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or
selected by the experimenter to determine its
relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is a
stimulus variable or input operates within a
person or within his environment to effect
behavior. Independent variable may be called
factor and its variation is called levels.
 The dependent variable:

The dependent variable is a response variable or


output. The dependent variable is the factor that
is observed and measured to determine the
effect of the independent variable; it is the factor
that appears, disappears, or varies as the
researcher introduces, removes, or varies the
 Moderate variable:
 It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the
experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the
independent variable to an observed phenomenon. The term
moderate variable describes a special type of independent variable,
a secondary independent variable selected to determine if it affects
the relationship between the study’s primary independent variable
and its dependent variable.
 Control variable:
 Control variables are factors controlled by the experimenter to
cancel out or neutralized any effect they might otherwise on the
observed phenomena. A single study can not examine all of the
variables in a situation (situational variable) or in a person
(dispositional variable); some must be neutralized to guarantee that
they will not exert differential or moderating effects on the
relationship between the independent variables and dependent
variables.
 Intervening variable:
 An intervening variable is the factor that theoretically effects
observed phenomena but can not be seen, measured, or
manipulated; its effects must be inferred from the effects of the
independent and moderate variable on the observed phenomena.
Consider the hypothesis
 Among students of the same age and intelligence,
skill performance is directly related to the number
of practice trials, the relationship being
particularly strong among boys, but also holding,
though less directly, among girls’. this hypothesis
that indicates that practice increases learning,
involve several variables.
 Independent variable: number of practice
trail
 Dependent variable: skill performance
 Control variable: age, intelligence
 Moderate variable: gender
 Intervening variable: learning
Steps in data processing
Quantitative Analysis Strategies

There are two types of quantitative analysis:

Descriptive: Utilizes numerical and graphical methods to


find patterns in a data set, summarizes the information,
and present information in a convenient form.

Inferential: Utilizes a sample to make estimates,


decisions, or predictions about population. It consists of
Estimation technique and Hypothesis of testing.
Variable, Data & types of data
 Variable:
 Characteristic or property of an individual population unit
 The value of the characteristic may vary among units in a population.
Kinds of variable:
The independent variable:
The dependent variable:
Moderate variable:
Control variable:
Intervening variable:

 Data:
 The values of the observations recorded for variables or a bunch of values for one or more variables.

 Types of Data:
 Quantitative or Qualitative

 Quantitative Data (Measurement):


 Data that are measured on a naturally occurring numerical scale.

 Qualitative Data (Categorical):


 Data that cannot be measured on a naturally occurring numerical scale.
 Can only be classified into a group of categories (classes).
Examples of qualitative and quantitative data
 Examples of quantitative data: Temperature, Height, Weight,
Age, Student score, Total students in the school etc.

 Examples of qualitative data: Sex, Grades (A, B, C, D or E),


Competency in English (Full, moderate, little, not at all) etc.

 Identify qualitative or quantitative from the following:


Type of institution (public or private), System of education
(Pakistani, British or American), Medium of instruction
(English, Urdu, Other), Importance of communication skills
(not at all, a little, quite, very, most), number of teachers in the
institution, Years of schooling
More on Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative data may be:
 Nominal Data
 Categories cannot be ranked.

 Ordinal Data
 Categories can be ranked or meaningfully ordered.

Quantitative data may be:


 Interval Data
 Differences between values have meaning, but ratios between values have
none.
 Zero is arbitrary.

 Can add/subtract but cannot multiply/divide.

 Ratio Data
 Ratios between values have meaning.

 Zero is the absence of the characteristic being measured.

 Can add/subtract/multiply/divide.
Summary of Data Classification

D a ta

Q u a lit a t iv e Q u a n t it a t iv e

N o m in a l O r d in a l In te rv a l R a t io

Increasing Complexity
Presentation of Data
Statistical data are generally presented by:

 Tables
- Frequency table:
- Cross tabulation

 Graphs
- For Qualitative data
- For Quantitative data
Frequency table and cross tabulation
What is a Frequency table?

It is a tabular summary of a set of data showing the frequency (or number)


of items in each of several non-overlapping (with each data value
belonging to one and only one group or class) groups or classes.

Note: In qualitative data, class is one of the category of the variable and in
quantitative data it is the range of values established to divide the data into
categories.

What is Cross tabulation?

It is the tabular summary of a set of data when two or more variables are
observed at the same time.
Central Tendency & its
types

 Value(s) that define the tendency of


the data to cluster around or center
about certain numerical values.
 Main types of central tendency are:
 Mean (arithmetic mean),
 Median, and
 Mode

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Mean (or Arithmetic Mean)
 Sum of the values of all the observations
in a data set divided by the total number
of observations. Mathematically:
n k

 x  f jxj
 The Sample Mean X( ) =i 1
i
j 1 =
n n
k

=f
N

The Population Mean  ) = x


xj
( =
j
 i
j 1
i 1
N N

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Median
 The middle point of the set of data, i.e.
exactly half of the data points are above the
median and exactly half are below.
 If the number of observations are odd, it is
the middle point of the ordered set of data.
 n 1
Median =  2 th observation
 If the number of observations are even, it is
the average (mean) of the two middle points
of the ordered set of data.
Median =  th    1th
n n
observations
2
   2

2

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Mode

 The measurement(s) which occurs with


the greatest frequency in the sample,
i.e. the most common point(s):
 A uni-modal data set contains only one
mode.
 A bimodal data set contains two modes.
 And so on….

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Decision about data symmetry
using mean and median

 If the median is less than the mean, the


data set is skewed right (extreme data
in right tail which increases the mean).
 If the median is greater than the mean,
the data set is skewed left (extreme
data in the left tail which decreases the
mean).
 If median equals the mean, the data set
is said to be symmetrical.
Measures of Data Variability
• Knowing central tendencies (mean, median, mode)
isn’t enough. Also need a method for determining
how close the data is clustered around its center
point(s).
• The most typical measures of data variability:
– Range,
– Variance, and
– Standard Deviation.
Range
• Simplest measure of variability.
• Calculated by subtracting the smallest
measurement from the largest measurement.
• It is not a good measure of variability. i.e. if
two ranges are same, it does not mean that
the spread is same.
Variance
• It is the sum of the square of the deviation from the mean
divided by (n-1) for a sample and is denoted by s2.
x x
2
i 
s2 
n 1
• Similarly, the sum of the square of the deviation from the
mean divided by N for the population and is denoted by 2.

  xi    2

2 
Note: Deviations are squared to N
remove effects of negative
differences.
Standard Deviation
• While variance does not provide a useful metric (i.e. “units
squared”), taking the positive square root of the variance
provides a metric which is the same as the data itself (i.e.
“units”).
– Sample Standard Deviation - s
– Population Standard Deviation - 

x x
2
i 
s s 
2

n 1

 x 
2
i
  2 
N
Application of mean & standard
deviation to observe the behavior of
the data
• Data can be standardized using mean &
standard deviation. Thus, for a single data set,
variability can be discussed in terms of how
many members of the data set fall within one,
two, three, or more standard deviations of the
mean.
Standard Score
 It uses a common scale to indicate how an individual
compare to other individual in group. These scores
are particularly helpful in comparing an individual’s
relative position. The two standards score are the
most frequently used in educational research,
 1. 1 Z – Score
 2. T- Score
 1. Z – Score
 The simplest form of standard score is the 1. Z –
Score. It expresses how far a raw score is from the
mean in standard deviation units. A big advantage of
Z – Score is that they allow raw scores on different
tests to be compared Z – Score
Example
 a student received raw scores of 60 on a biology test and 80
on a chemistry test. A naïve observer might be inclined to
infer that the student was doing better in chemistry than in
biology. But this might be unwise, for how well the student is
comparatively cannot be determined until we know the
mean and standard deviation for each distribution of score.
Let us suppose the mean is 50 in biology and 90 in
chemistry. Also assume the standard deviation on biology
deviation is 5 on chemistry is 10. What does this tell us?
 Comparison of raw scores and Z scores on two tests.
 Test Score Raw Score Mean SD Z. Score Percentile Rank
 Bio 60 50 5 2 98
 Che 80 90 10 -1 16
Probability and z score
.
 Probability:
It refers to the likely hood of an event occurring and
a percentage stated in decimal form. For example if
there is a probability that an event will occur 25
percent of the time, this event can be said to have a
probability of .25.
 Hypothesis
There are two kinds of hypothesis; one is the
predictive outcome of the study called research
hypothesis where as the null hypothesis is the
assumption that there is no relationship between the
variables or in the population..
Co relational analysis
 It shows the existing relationship between the
variables, with no manipulation of variables. It is also
used to analyze data containing two variables as well
as examine the reliability and validity of the data
collection procedure.
 Types
 Highly positive (when the variables are directly
proportional to each other)
 Low correlation (when there is no correlation
between the variables)
 Negative correlation (when the variables are
inversely proportional to each other)
 When the researcher wants to make inferences
to the population, he will have to examine their
statistical significance.
 Statistical significance can be determined if
correlation have been obtained from the
randomly selected samples.

Depends on the size of the correlation


Significance of correlation

Size of the sample

 Level of significance is very important since it


relates directly to whether the null hypothesis is
rejected or not.
There are two ways
 Multiple regressions
 Factor analysis
 Multiple regressions
 Through multiple regressions it is possible to examine
the relationship and predictive power of one or more
independent variables with the dependent variables. it
shows which variables are significant in their
contribution explaining the variance in the dependent
variable and how much they contribute.
 Discriminate analysis
 Which contribution of variables distinguishes between
one or more categories of dependent variables?
Factor analysis
 In it independent variable is not related to dependent
variables as in regression, but rather operates within a
number of independent variables without a need to
have dependent variables. In factor analysis the
interrelationships between and among the variables of
the data are examined in an attempt to find out how
many independent dimensions can be identified in the
data. It thus provides information on the
characteristics of the variables. This type of analysis is
based on the assumption that variables measuring the
same factor will be highly related. Where as variables
measuring different factors will have low correlations
with one another.
 T-test
 It is used to compare the means of the two groups.
 Types
 T-test for independent means
 T-test for correlate means
 The result of t-test provides the researcher with a t-value.
 Example
 A researcher is comparing the performance of the two randomly
selected groups learning French by two different methods. The
experimental group learns with the aid of computer while the
control group is exposed to the teacher. The researcher
investigates the effects of the computer practice on students’
achievement on French. After three months both the groups
undergo an achievement test.
 The researcher uses t- test to examine whether there are
differences in the achievements of the two groups.
 To have a deep insight of the data through descriptive statistics,
first it have a mean X,S D and sample size N of the data .there
must be a mean of experimental or control group.
ANOVA (one way analysis of variance)

 One way analysis of variance is used to examine the differences


in more than two groups.
 The analysis is performed on the variances of the groups,
focusing on whether the variability between the groups is greater
that the variability within the groups value is the ratio between
variances over the within the variances.
 F= between group variance
 Within group variance
 If the difference between the groups is greater than the
difference within the groups, than F value is significant and the
researcher can reject the null hypothesis. if the situation is
inverse than F value is significant.
Chi-square
 The chi test allows analysis of one, two or more nominal
variables. it is based on the comparison between expected
frequencies and actual, obtained frequencies.
 Example
 A researcher might want to compare how many male and female
teachers favor a new curriculum, to be instituted in a particular
school district. he asks a sample of 50 teachers ,if they favor or
oppose new curriculum. if they do not differ significantly in their
responses, then we would expect hat about the same proportion
of males and females would be in favor(or opposed to)instituting
the curriculum.
 Degree of freedom
 Number of scores in a distribution that are free to vary-that is,
that are not fixed.
Use SPSS Programme
 For Calculation
 For Analysis
The End

Allah Hafiz
Thank You

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