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Data:
The values of the observations recorded for variables or a bunch of values for one or more variables.
Types of Data:
Quantitative or Qualitative
Ordinal Data
Categories can be ranked or meaningfully ordered.
Ratio Data
Ratios between values have meaning.
Can add/subtract/multiply/divide.
Summary of Data Classification
D a ta
Q u a lit a t iv e Q u a n t it a t iv e
N o m in a l O r d in a l In te rv a l R a t io
Increasing Complexity
Presentation of Data
Statistical data are generally presented by:
Tables
- Frequency table:
- Cross tabulation
Graphs
- For Qualitative data
- For Quantitative data
Frequency table and cross tabulation
What is a Frequency table?
Note: In qualitative data, class is one of the category of the variable and in
quantitative data it is the range of values established to divide the data into
categories.
It is the tabular summary of a set of data when two or more variables are
observed at the same time.
Central Tendency & its
types
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Mean (or Arithmetic Mean)
Sum of the values of all the observations
in a data set divided by the total number
of observations. Mathematically:
n k
x f jxj
The Sample Mean X( ) =i 1
i
j 1 =
n n
k
=f
N
13
Median
The middle point of the set of data, i.e.
exactly half of the data points are above the
median and exactly half are below.
If the number of observations are odd, it is
the middle point of the ordered set of data.
n 1
Median = 2 th observation
If the number of observations are even, it is
the average (mean) of the two middle points
of the ordered set of data.
Median = th 1th
n n
observations
2
2
2
14
Mode
15
Decision about data symmetry
using mean and median
xi 2
2
Note: Deviations are squared to N
remove effects of negative
differences.
Standard Deviation
• While variance does not provide a useful metric (i.e. “units
squared”), taking the positive square root of the variance
provides a metric which is the same as the data itself (i.e.
“units”).
– Sample Standard Deviation - s
– Population Standard Deviation -
x x
2
i
s s
2
n 1
x
2
i
2
N
Application of mean & standard
deviation to observe the behavior of
the data
• Data can be standardized using mean &
standard deviation. Thus, for a single data set,
variability can be discussed in terms of how
many members of the data set fall within one,
two, three, or more standard deviations of the
mean.
Standard Score
It uses a common scale to indicate how an individual
compare to other individual in group. These scores
are particularly helpful in comparing an individual’s
relative position. The two standards score are the
most frequently used in educational research,
1. 1 Z – Score
2. T- Score
1. Z – Score
The simplest form of standard score is the 1. Z –
Score. It expresses how far a raw score is from the
mean in standard deviation units. A big advantage of
Z – Score is that they allow raw scores on different
tests to be compared Z – Score
Example
a student received raw scores of 60 on a biology test and 80
on a chemistry test. A naïve observer might be inclined to
infer that the student was doing better in chemistry than in
biology. But this might be unwise, for how well the student is
comparatively cannot be determined until we know the
mean and standard deviation for each distribution of score.
Let us suppose the mean is 50 in biology and 90 in
chemistry. Also assume the standard deviation on biology
deviation is 5 on chemistry is 10. What does this tell us?
Comparison of raw scores and Z scores on two tests.
Test Score Raw Score Mean SD Z. Score Percentile Rank
Bio 60 50 5 2 98
Che 80 90 10 -1 16
Probability and z score
.
Probability:
It refers to the likely hood of an event occurring and
a percentage stated in decimal form. For example if
there is a probability that an event will occur 25
percent of the time, this event can be said to have a
probability of .25.
Hypothesis
There are two kinds of hypothesis; one is the
predictive outcome of the study called research
hypothesis where as the null hypothesis is the
assumption that there is no relationship between the
variables or in the population..
Co relational analysis
It shows the existing relationship between the
variables, with no manipulation of variables. It is also
used to analyze data containing two variables as well
as examine the reliability and validity of the data
collection procedure.
Types
Highly positive (when the variables are directly
proportional to each other)
Low correlation (when there is no correlation
between the variables)
Negative correlation (when the variables are
inversely proportional to each other)
When the researcher wants to make inferences
to the population, he will have to examine their
statistical significance.
Statistical significance can be determined if
correlation have been obtained from the
randomly selected samples.
Allah Hafiz
Thank You