Lecture 6

Pre-treatment & Physical treatment: Coagulation and

flocculation – Part 2
 COAGULATION REAGENTS
Numerous chemicals are used in coagulation and flocculation processes. There are
advantages and disadvantages associated with each chemical. Following factors should be
considered in selecting these chemicals:
 Effectiveness.
 Cost.
 Reliability of supply.
 Sludge considerations.
 Compatibility with other treatment processes.
 Secondary pollution.
 Capital and operational costs for storage, feeding, and handling.
Coagulants and coagulant aids commonly used are generally classified as inorganic
coagulants and polyelectrolytes. Polyelectrolytes are further classified as either synthetic-organic
polymers or natural-organic polymers. The best choice is usually determined only after jar test is
done in the laboratory.
Following table lists several common inorganic coagulants along with associated
advantages and disadvantages.
Table 3.6.1: Advantages and disadvantages of alternative inorganic coagulants
Name Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminum Sulphate Easy to handle and apply; most Adds dissolved solids (salts) to
(Alum) commonly used; produces less water; effective over a limited
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O sludge than lime; most pH range.
effective between pH 6.5 and
7.5
Sodium Aluminate Effective in hard waters; small Often used with alum; high
Na2Al2O4 dosages usually needed cost; ineffective in soft waters
Polyaluminum In some applications, floc Not commonly used; little full
Chloride (PAC) formed is more dense and scale data compared to other
Al13(OH)20(SO4)2.Cl15 faster settling than alum aluminum derivatives
Ferric Sulphate Effective between pH 4–6 and Adds dissolved solids (salts) to
 Fe2(SO4)3 8.8–9.2 water; usually need to add
alkalinity
Ferric Chloride Effective between pH 4 and 11 Adds dissolved solids (salts) to
FeCl3.6H2O water; consumes twice as
much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous Sulphate Not as pH sensitive as lime Adds dissolved solids (salts) to
(Copperas) water; usually need to add
FeSO4.7H2O alkalinity
Lime Commonly used; very Very pH dependent; produces
Ca(OH)2 effective; large quantities of sludge;
may not add salts to effluent overdose can result in poor
effluent quality

Polyelectrolytes
Polyelectrolytes are water-soluble polymers carrying ionic charge along the polymer
chain and may be divided into natural and synthetic polyelectrolytes. Important natural
polyelectrolytes include polymers of biological origin and those derived from starch products,
cellulose derivatives and alginates. Depending on the type of charge, when placed in water, the
polyelectrolytes are classified as anionic, cationic or nonionic.
 Anionic—ionize in solution to form negative sites along the polymer molecule.
 Cationic—ionize to form positive sites.
 Non-ionic—very slight ionization.
Common organic polyelectrolytes are shown in following table.

Table 3.6.2 : Common organic polyelectrolytes [1]

Polymer Available
Name Mol.wt. Typical use
Type form
Nonioni Polyacrylamide 1106 to Powder, As flocculent with
c 2106 emulsion, inorganic or organic
solution polymers
 Anionic Hydrolyse 1106 to Powder, As flocculent with
Polyacrylamide 2107 emulsion, inorganic or organic
solution polymers
Cationic Poly(DADMAC) 200 to Solution Primary coagulant
or 500103 alone or in combination
Poly(DADMAC) with inorganics.
polymers
Cationic Quaternized 10 to 500104 Solution Primary coagulant
Polyamines alone or in combination
with inorganics.
Cationic Polyamines 104 to 106 Solution Primary coagulant
alone or in combination
with inorganics.

Polyelectrolytes versus Inorganic Coagulants

Although they cannot be used exclusively, polyelectrolytes do possess several advantages
over inorganic coagulants. These are as follows.
 During clarification, the volume of sludge produced can be reduced by 50 to 90%.
 The resulting sludge is more easily dewatered and contains less water.
 Polymeric coagulants do not affect pH. Therefore, the need for an alkaline chemical such
as lime, caustic, or soda ash is reduced or eliminated.
 Polymeric coagulants do not add to the total dissolved solids concentration.
 Soluble iron or aluminum carryover in the clarifier effluent can result from inorganic
coagulant use. By using polymeric coagulants, this problem can be reduced or eliminated
[1].
Coagulant Aids [2]
 In some waters, an even large dose of primary coagulant does not produce a satisfactory
floc size and hence good settling rate. In these cases, a polymeric coagulant aid is added
after the coagulant, to hasten reactions, to produce a denser floc, and thereby reducing the
amount of primary coagulant required.
  Because of polymer bridging, small floc particles agglomerate rapidly into larger more
cohesive floc, which settles rapidly.
 Coagulant aids also help to create satisfactory coagulation over a broader pH range.
 Generally, the most effective types of coagulant aids are slightly anionic polyacrylamides
with very high-molecular weights.
 In some clarification systems, non-ionic or cationic types have proven effective.

REFERENCES
[1] Robinson, J. "Water, Industrial Water Treatment" in ‘Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical Technology’. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001.
[2] Harendra, S., Oryshchyn, D., Ochs, T., Gerdemann, S., Clark, J., Summers, C.
Coagulation/flocculation treatments for flue-gas-derived water from oxyfuel power
production with CO2 capture. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2011,
50(17), 10335–10343.