J Am Oil Chem Soc (2011) 88:1361–1366
DOI 10.1007/s11746-011-1788-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Changes in Total Polar Compounds, Peroxide Value, Total
Phenols and Antioxidant Activity of Various Oils Used
in Deep Fat Frying
Sibel Karakaya • Şebnem Şimşek
Received: 2 September 2010 / Revised: 14 February 2011 / Accepted: 18 February 2011 / Published online: 11 March 2011
Ó AOCS 2011
Abstract In this study, the effect of deep fat frying on oil
degradation, total phenols (TP) and total antioxidant
activity (TAA) of hazelnut, corn, soybean and olive oils
were investigated. Oil degradation and oxidation were
monitored by measuring the total polar compounds (TPC)
and the peroxide value (PV). The amount of TPC in corn,
soybean and olive oils increased significantly with the time
increment (p \ 0.05). The PV of the oils did not exceed the
maximum acceptable limit of 10 mequiv O2/kg after
125 min frying except for hazelnut oil (10.64 mequiv O2/
kg). Deep-fat frying did not cause any significant change in
the TP of corn oil, soybean oil and olive oil (p \ 0.05). A
significant decrease in the antioxidant activity was
observed after 50 min frying using hazelnut oil and corn oil
(p \ 0.05). However, the antioxidant activity of soybean
oil and olive oil significantly decreased after 75 and 25 min
frying, respectively.
Keywords Deep fat frying  Peroxide value 
Total antioxidant activity  Total phenols 
Total polar compounds
Introduction
Frying of foods has become the most common food prep-
aration technology during the last six decades. Deep fat
frying is the most common frying method used in the food
service industry [1]. Deep fat frying can be defined as the
cooking process in which foods are immersed in an edible
S. Karakaya (&)  Ş. Şimşek
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
e-mail: sibel.karakaya@ege.edu.tr
oil or fat maintained at a temperature of about 150–200 °C
[2]. In deep fat frying, the layer of the frying oil is about
20–200 mm or greater and frying oil is reused several
times [3, 4]. The quality of the products cooked by deep fat
frying depends not only on the frying conditions such as
temperature of the heated oil, frying time, food weight and
frying oil volume, but also on the types of oil and the kind
of food used [5].
Tocopherols and phenolic compounds are of great
importance as natural antioxidants of vegetable oils and are
also added to oils for improving their stability against
oxidation. Crude vegetable oils also contain different
components such as sterols, carotenoids, phospholipids,
which increase their stability during the frying process [6].
During the frying process via a series of complex physical
and chemical reactions, oils are subjected to thermal oxi-
dation, polymerization, and hydrolysis. These reactions
lead to a decrease in tocopherols and total phenols (TP), an
increase in the peroxide value (PV) and formation of
decomposition products with high molecular weights such
as polar compounds and polymeric triacylglycerides [3–7].
Formation of polar compounds is strongly related with the
primary and secondary oxidation that takes place during
frying and it comprise an established quality index for
frying oils with 20–25% limits for rejection or replenish-
ment of the cooking oil due to negative effects on the
quality of frying oil and the flavor and nutritional value of
the fried food [8, 9]. Some of these compounds may also be
harmful to human health [4].
Different types of oils such as corn oil, soybean oil,
sunflower oil, palm oil and canola oil can be used for
frying. The chemical composition of the frying oil and its
physical and physicochemical properties has an influence
both on the frying process and on the stability characteristic
of oil against oxidation and decomposition. Therefore, the
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importance of the correct selection of the oil for frying is
one of the most considerable issues [6]. Effects of domestic
deep-frying of potatoes on the oxidation process of dif-
ferent types of oils including soybean oil [10], virgin olive
oil [11], sunflower oil [12] and corn oil [13] have been
studied. In the study of Andrikopoulos et al. [11] potatoes
were deep-fried in virgin olive oil at 170 °C. The oil was
used ten times for a total frying time of 120 min. At the end
of the deep-frying process, it was found that total polar
compounds did not exceed the 25–27% limit. In general the
oil must be able to withstand high temperatures and have
high enough stability to be reusable. Furthermore, the oil
needs to maintain a high oxidative stability during the life
of the product and it should be originated a low emission of
potentially toxic volatile organic compounds [14].
The aim of this study was to determine the changes in
total polar compounds (TPC), peroxide values (PV), total
phenols (TP) and total antioxidant activities (TAA) of
hazelnut oil, corn oil, soybean oil and olive oil used under
domestic household frying conditions.
Materials and Methods
In the present study, four oils were used to fry potato chips
over two replicates of 125 min trials. The oils were
hazelnut oil, corn oil, soybean oil and Riviera type olive oil
(mixture of virgin plus refined olive oil). Potato chips were
prepared by slicing fresh potatoes into 8 mm 9 8 mm
dimensions using a potato slicer. Oils (3 l) were placed in
the fryer (SEB de Luxe 8225 T). The oil was heated to
190 ± 2 °C. Potato chips (75 g) were fried in each oil for
8 min. After each frying process, the oils were allowed to
cool for 7 min and then frying and cooling steps were
repeated 15 times. To minimize other effects on oil quality,
the oils were not filtered and only those floating objects on
the top of the oil were removed during the frying process.
Samples were taken every 25 min (25, 50, 75, 100 and 125
minutes) and analyzed or stored at -40 °C until being
analyzed.
Chemicals
Folin–Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent (F 9252) and DPPH (2,2
diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl, D 9132) were purchased from
Sigma-Aldrich (Germany), Gallic acid (48630) was
obtained from Fluka. All other chemicals used were of
analytical grade.
Spectrophotometric Measurements
Oil samples were placed in a standard disposable cuvette
and were scanned from 470 to 500 nm wavelength using a
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J Am Oil Chem Soc (2011) 88:1361–1366
UV–visible spectrophotometer (Cary 50 Scan UV–visible
Spectrophotometer, Victoria, Australia). The spectropho-
tometer absorbance was zeroed against air. At first the oils
were scanned from 350 to 650 nm wavelengths and then
individual absorbance values of each frying oils were
obtained at 470, 480, 490, and 500 nm where systematic
changes were most evident.
Total Polar Compounds
Total Polar Compounds (TPC) of the oils were evaluated
using spectrophotometric method proposed by Xu [3]. This
method is simply based on the correlation between total
polar compound contents (mainly resulting from the free
fatty acids, dimers, polymers and other decomposition
products) in oils and spectrophotometric absorbances of the
oils. The equation used for conversion of the spectropho-
tometric absorbance to TPC content was y = -2.7865x2 ?
23.782x ? 1.039, where y is the TPC of oil samples and
x is the absorbance of oil samples at 490 nm after each
frying period [3].
Peroxide Value
The Peroxide Value (PV) of the oils was determined by
AOCS Official Method Cd 8b-90 [15] except that 0.01 N
Na2S2O3, instead of 0.1 N Na2S2O3, was used as the titrant.
Total Phenol
Total Phenol (TP) of the oils were determined according
to Folin–Ciocalteu’s method [16]. Gallic acid was used as
the standard and the results were given as gallic acid
equivalents (GAE). Although Folin–Ciocalteau reagent
can react with reducing substances in the extract, it
detects all phenolic groups found in the extracts, includ-
ing phenolics in extractable proteins; however, this assay
has been commonly used to determine total phenolics
[17]. Briefly for the extraction of phenolic compounds,
10 g of oil was mixed with hexane (50 ml). This mixture
was placed into a separation funnel and 20 ml of meth-
anol:water (60:40, w:w) was added. The mixture was
shaken for 2 min and the separated water phase was
removed. This procedure was applied three times and all
the water phases were combined and used for TP analysis.
For TP analysis, the mixture of the sample solution
(50 ll), distilled water (3 ml), 250 ll Folin–Ciocalteu’s
reagent solution, and 7% Na2CO3 (750 ll) was vortexed
and incubated for 8 min at room temperature. Then
950 ll of distilled water was added. The mixture was
allowed to stand for 2 h at room temperature. The
absorbance was measured at 765 nm against distilled
water as blank [18].
J Am Oil Chem Soc (2011) 88:1361–1366 1363

DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity A 0,21

0,18

Absorbance
The total antioxidant activity (TAA) of the oils were 0,15 470 nm
determined by the free radical scavenging activity using 0,12 480 nm
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) according to 0,09 490 nm
500 nm
the method proposed by Brand-Williams et al. [19]. 0,06
Briefly, 50 ll of oil was added to 950 ll of 0.030 mg/ml 0,03
methanol solution of DPPH. Then, the mixture was shaken 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
vigorously and left in darkness for 5 min. Finally, the
Frying time (min)
absorbance of the mixture was measured against methanol
(blank) at 515 nm by a spectrophotometer (Cary 50 Scan B 0,25
UV–visible Spectrophotometer). The DPPH scavenging 0,2

Absorbance
activity was expressed as the inhibition of free radical 470 nm
0,15
DPPH. 480 nm
  0,1
490 nm
Asample 500 nm
Inhibition ð% ) ¼ 1   100
ABlank 0,05

Where, Asample:absorbance of the sample, Ablank:absor- 0

0 25 50 75 100 125 150
bance of the DPPH.
Frying time (min)
C 0,18

Statistical Analysis 0,15

Absorbance

0,12 470 nm

The data were statistically analyzed using one-way 480 nm

0,09
490 nm
ANOVA and correlation test using the statistical software 0,06 500 nm
SPSS 13.0.
0,03
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Results and Discussion Frying time (min)
D 0,25
The absorbance values of each oil measured at 470, 480,
490 and 500 nm, respectively, all increased significantly 0,2
Absorbance

470 nm
during frying (Fig. 1) and were all significantly correlated 0,15 480 nm
with frying time (p \ 0.05). Xu [3] reported that system- 490 nm
0,1
atic changes in spectrophotometric absorbance for each 500 nm

frying oil (high oleic-canola oils, palm olein and two 0,05
blends of palm olein and canola oil) were obtained most 0
evidently between the wavelengths of 470–500 nm. The 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
correlation values (r2) between frying time and absorbance Frying time (min)
changes at 470, 480, 490 and 500 nm for the oils analyzed Fig. 1 Changes in absorbances during frying. Hazelnut oil (a), corn
were given in Table 1. oil (b), soybean oil (c), olive oil (d)
The r2 values obtained for absorbance changes at
470 nm were greater than those obtained from other
wavelengths (Table 1). Xu [3], indicating that absorbance
Table 1 r2 values obtained for frying time versus absorbance chan-
values obtained at 490 nm had the highest r2 value ges measured at 470, 480, 490 and 500 nm
(C0.992) for most of the oils tested. In the present study,
Frying oils r2 values (nm)
r2 values decreased in the order of 470 [ 480 [
490 [ 500 nm for the oils tested except for hazelnut oil. 470 480 490 500
The lowest r2 value was obtained at 490 nm for hazelnut
Hazelnut oil 0.987 0.965 0.926 0.961
oil. However, the absorbance readings at 490 nm were
Corn oil 0.980 0.926 0.852 0.852
chosen for the TPCs determinations because, Xu [3]
Soybean oil 0.991 0.987 0.971 0.934
determined a strong correlation between absorbance read-
Olive oil 0.926 0.824 0.844 0.840
ings at 490 nm and TPCs. In our study we used the

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equation that Xu [3] found for absorbance readings at Table 2 Total polar compounds and peroxide values of frying oils
490 nm and TPCs. Frying oils Frying Total polar Peroxide value
Formation of polar compounds, which indicates oil time (min) compounds (%)a (mequiv/kg)a
deterioration, is strongly related with the primary and
Hazelnut 0 2.77 ± 0.00a 10.17 ± 0.83a
secondary oxidation that takes place during frying. When a
the amounts of TPCs reach 24% levels, oil is considered to 25 3.10 ± 0.47 11.96 ± 0.06ab
a
be thermally degraded and should be replaced with fresh 50 3.32 ± 0.47 14.32 ± 1.09c
a
oil [3, 10]. TPCs formed during deep fat frying process are 75 3.54 ± 0.47 11.34 ± 1.07ab
a
given in Table 2. The amount of TPCs in corn oil, soybean 100 3.76 ± 0.77 12.38 ± 0.33b
a
oil and olive oil increased with the time increment 125 3.98 ± 0.77 10.64 ± 0.96ab
(p \ 0.05). Although the amount of TPCs in hazelnut oil Corn 0 2.99 ± 0.00a 3.02 ± 0.08a
increased during frying, this increase was not found to be 25 3.43 ± 0.00b 3.05 ± 0.20a
statistically significant. At the end of 125 min frying time, 50 3.65 ± 0.00b 3.92 ± 1.04a
bc
TPCs in all oils analyzed were found to be lower than 5% 75 3.76 ± 0.16 4.23 ± 0.64a
c
level. This result indicated that all of the oils analyzed 100 4.10 ± 0.00 4.29 ± 0.42ab
could be used for frying of potato chips up to 125 min 125 4.20 ± 0.15cd 5.58 ± 0.63b
a
frying period. Gil et al. [20] reported that the amount of Soybean 0 2.72 ± 0.00 8.15 ± 1.69a
b
polar compounds in fresh oils namely palm oil, soybean 25 2.77 ± 0.00 7.91 ± 2.03ab
c
oil, shortening and beef tallow were 8% or less and reached 50 2.95 ± 0.00 6.12 ± 2.22ab
d
30% after 80 h frying except soybean oil. At the end of 75 3.11 ± 0.00 4.41 ± 1.37ab
80 h frying, TPCs in soybean oil reached about the 15% 100 3.23 ± 0.00e 4.30 ± 1.26ab
level. Benedito et al. [21] applied frying with extra virgin 125 3.48 ± 0.00f
4.07 ± 1.55b
olive oil for 16 h at 200 °C. At the end of the incubation Olive 0 3.98 ± 0.15ac
8.85 ± 0.50a
period, they observed that the TPC content of virgin olive 25 3.54 ± 0.15b
5.65 ± 0.01b
oil had reached about 45.7%, whereas in fresh oil it was 50 3.76 ± 0.16ab
6.53 ± 0.33b
6.2%. Sanchez-Gimeno et al. [5] also studied the deterio- 75 4.09 ± 0.00ac
5.74 ± 0.91b
ration of extra virgin olive oil and high oleic sunflower oil 100 4.10 ± 0.00ac 4.80 ± 0.14b
during different frying cycles. The amount of polar com- 125 4.31 ± 0.00c 5.85 ± 0.00b
pounds increased linearly with the frying cycle, however,
Different letters in the same column indicate significant differences
the increase was faster in high oleic sunflower oil. After 60 among frying times in the same oil (p \ 0.05)
frying cycles, the amount of polar compounds for both oils a
Means ± standard deviation
reached approximately 20–23%.
The PV is useful in monitoring the initial stage of oxi- O2/kg. Naz et al. [24] reported that deep frying of
dation, where the primary oxidation products are measured. French fries at 180 °C caused an increase in PVs of
According to Turkish Codex Standards, the the PVs of the oils. The PVs with respect to the oils, increased as
Riviera type olive oil and vegetable oils should not exceed soybean [ corn [ olive.
15 and 10 mequiv O2/kg, respectively [22]. The PVs of The TP contents of 1,280, 1,240, 1,030, and 1,190 mg
frying oils obtained at 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125 min frying GAE/kg oil in hazelnut, corn, soybean, and olive oils,
are shown in Table 2. PVs of frying oils analyzed respectively, were not significantly (p [ 0.05) different
decreased after 125 min frying except corn oil. This (Table 3). Frying did not cause significant change in the TP
decrease can be explained by the formation of secondary content of corn oil, soybean oil and olive oil. The TP
oxidation products such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones content was expected to decrease with frying time due to
and aldehydes from very unstable primary oxidation the thermal degradation of phenolic compounds; however,
products, i.e., hydroperoxides. As reported elsewhere, the none of the oils had significant reductions in TP content.
PV decreases as oxidation proceeds due to rapid decom- The frying times may not have been long enough to pro-
position of hydroperoxides [23]. The PV of corn oil mote degradation of phenols and thus producing the non-
increased following 125 min frying (p \ 0.05). This result significant reduction in TP content. It is well known that
can be explained as that primary oxidation continues dur- potatoes and other plant foods accumulate different kinds
ing 125 min frying. However, in general, according to the of secondary metabolites including phenolic compounds.
results of the study, PVs of the oils analyzed did not exceed The major phenol in potato has been reported as chloro-
the maximum acceptable level of 10 mequiv O2/kg at the genic acid [25]. Quiles et al. [26], reported that frying time,
end of the 125-min frying period except hazelnut oil. The type of oils and interaction between time and oil had
PV of hazelnut oil after 125 min frying was 10.64 mequiv effects on the TP content of the oils. In the study of

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Table 3 Changes in total phenol content of the oils during frying

Frying time (min) Total phenols (GAE)c (ppm)
Hazelnut oil Corn oil Soybean oil Olive oil

0 1,280 ± 220a 1,240 ± 115a 1,030 ± 2a 1,190 ± 80a

ab a a
25 1,130 ± 210 1,180 ± 220 1,040 ± 25 1,040 ± 85a
50 990 ± 5b 1,415 ± 205a 1,050 ± 40a 1,140 ± 85a
ab a a
75 1,000 ± 30 1,235 ± 115 1,055 ± 1 1,095 ± 40a
b a a
100 980 ± 35 1,120 ± 50 1,110 ± 60 1,095 ± 2a
ab a a
125 1,145 ± 70 1,155 ± 65 1,115 ± 60 1,095 ± 1a
Different letters in the same column indicate statistically significance (p \ 0.05)
c
Gallic acid equivalent (means ± standard deviation)

Gómez-Alanzo et al. [27], the concentration of the di- Table 4 Changes in total antioxidant activity of the oils during
hydroxyphenol components of virgin olive oil was found to frying
be reduced to 50–60% of the original value at the end of Frying time (min) Total antioxidant activityc (inhibition %)
the first frying and after six frying process only about 10%
Hazelnut oil Corn oil Soybean oil Olive oil
of the initial components remained. However, tyrosol and
its derivatives were reported to be much more stable during 0 67 ± 1a 87 ± 4a 86 ± 2a 22 ± 4a
a a a
12 frying operations. Kalogeropoulos et al. [25], reported 25 60 ± 6 87 ± 1 80 ± 2 18 ± 2b
that shallow frying of potatoes, zucchinis, green peppers 50 47 ± 4 b
75 ± 2 b
82 ± 3 a
15 ± 2b
and eggplant resulted in partial loss of all the antioxidants 75 41 ± 2b 73 ± 6b 75 ± 4b 16 ± 1b
namely a-tocopherol, polyphenols and hydroxyl pentacy- 100 35 ± 2b 68 ± 2b 72 ± 3b 15 ± 2b
clic triterpene acids and enrichment of fried vegetables 125 36 ± 2b 68 ± 1b 64 ± 3b 12 ± 1b
with olive oil antioxidants.
Different letters in the same column indicate statistically significance
Changes in TAA during the frying process are shown in (p \ 0.05)
Table 4. A significant decrease in TAA was observed after c
Means ± standard deviation
50 min of frying with hazelnut oil (from 67 to 47%) and
corn oil (from 87 to 75%) (p \ 0.05). However, the TAA
Table 5 Correlation coefficient for the TPC and AA, TP and AA,
of soybean oil (from 86 to 75%) and olive oil (from 22 to TPC and TP
18%) significantly decreased after 75 min frying and
25 min frying, respectively (p \ 0.05). Olive oil had the Oils Correlation coefficients (r)
weakest TAA, which was likely due to the type of olive oil, TPC 9 AA TP 9 AA TPC 9 TP
i.e., the Riviera type that contains refined oil. It is well
Hazelnut -0.897a 0.267 -0.506b
known that the refining process can cause a decrease or loss a
Corn -0.903 0.287 -0.282
in tocopherols, which were not analyzed in this study.
Soybean -0.908a -0.443 0.674a
Quiles et al. [26], reported that virgin olive oil and sun-
Olive -0.483b 0.559b -0.091
flower oil had approximately two times more TAA than
a
olive oil before and after different frying times. They also Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (p \ 0.01)
b
indicated that the determination of same antioxidant Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (p \ 0.05)
response for virgin olive oil and sunflower oil with a dif-
ferent fatty acid compositions. Quiles et al. [26] postulated with the increase in TP content (p \ 0.05). A correlation
that the tocopherols were being consumed in the sunflower between TPC and TP was obtained for hazelnut oil and
oil resulting in constant antioxidant activity as measure by soybean oil. Although there was a negative relationship
electron spin resonance. There was a significant correlation between TPC and TP of hazelnut oil, a positive relationship
between TPC and TAA for all of the oils analyzed was determined between TPC and TP of soybean oil.
(Table 5). Similarly, Quiles et al. [26] reported that anti-
oxidant capacity of the edible oils was mainly correlated
with the amount of antioxidants present in the oils, with Conclusion
polar compounds and ultraviolet indices. A correlation was
found between TP and TAA (r = 0.559) only for olive oil TPCs are accepted as being good markers to determine
which represents an increase in TAA positively related changes in oil composition after short time frying. The

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TPCs in all oils analyzed were found to be lower than 5%,
indicating that the oils were suitable for frying up to 125
min of use. Only hazelnut oil had a PV (10.64 mequiv O2/
kg) above the acceptable limit after 125 min of frying. No
significant loss of phenolic compounds was detected.
However, significant reductions in TAA were observed
indicating that phenolics may not have be the active
compounds and that tocopherols may be responsible for
slowing oxidation of the oils. Based on the results, all oils
except hazelnut can be used to fry potato chips up to
125 min before being discarded.
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