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Environmental factors in intelligent transport

systems
M.C. Bell

Abstract: Increased car use has highlighted the problem of congestion, not only as a threat to
economic growth but also as a substantial contributor to poor air quality, noise, health risk
and global warming. This paper draws on the literature to try to heighten the awareness of
the issues regarding the environment and health impacts of traffic related pollution. It shows
how vehicle technologies and intelligent transport systems can play an important role in
addressing environmental problems in urban areas. This review aims to stimulate interest
that will hopefully result in a change in perspective so that intelligent transport system
implementation is considered, not simply as a tool to reduce delays and lower the risk of
accident, but also, through integration of technologies, to deliver good air quality and quieter
soundscapes, and thus better quality of life and long-term sustainability of towns and cities.

1 Introduction measure recognises the need for less intensive traffic


noise for evening leisure activity and to avoid sleep
Over the past few decades, increased car use within disturbance overnight.
urban centres has brought the problem of congestion to There is strong evidence that exposure to air pollu-
the forefront of the political agenda, not only because of tion, including particulate matter, has a deleterious
its threat to economic growth, but also as a substantial effect on human health [13]. While traffic noise is not
contributor to poor air quality, noise and global necessarily responsible for hearing damage, it can affect
warming. The earliest air quality problems were caused the ability to concentrate, reducing performance,
by the burning of fossil fuel for domestic heating and increasing the risk of industrial accidents, especially
industrial processes, and gave rise to excessive levels of when noise causes sleep deprivation. Research shows
sulphur dioxide and smoke. Since the 1950s, at the same links between noise and cardiovascular risk factors.
time as such emissions have been reduced substantially, This review aims to qualitatively and, where feasible,
the number of vehicles on our roads has systematically to quantitatively demonstrate how vehicle technologies
increased and air quality problems experienced today are and intelligent transport systems have a role to play in
caused mainly by emissions from road transport [1]. reducing the impact of traffic on the environment and
With the exception of sulphur dioxide, traffic is a major health, as well as in the development of long-term
contributor to the current levels of most pollutants [2, 3]. sustainability of our towns and cities.
In urban areas within the UK, the contribution of Given the wide range of technologies that can be
road transport to roadside pollution is such that hot embraced by the term Intelligent Transport Systems
spots occur. Typically, traffic produces between 60% (ITS), this review cannot possibly deal with them all.
and 80% of nitrogen oxides in large towns [1]. Over The omission of a technology does not imply that it is
recent years, local authorities in the UK have carried out less important. This review makes no attempt to
rigorous assessments of air quality, and are delivering establish the relative importance of the technologies.
solutions to solve the problems of excessive levels of Firstly, this paper reviews the effect on health of the
pollution that they have identified and declared as Air different pollutants emitted from transport, and the
Quality Management Areas [4–8]. ways in which these emissions can be reduced at source
Noise problems, historically caused by free flowing through engine and exhaust gas treatments and the use
traffic on trunk roads and motorways [9], now manifest of cleaner fuels. This is followed by a discussion of how
themselves in urban areas with continuously varying intelligent transport systems could manage the location
noise throughout the day due to congestion and and intensity of pollution emissions across a network
intrusive noise problems in the early hours of the over time. These are presented as short-term methods to
morning and late at night. Recent European Directives alleviate specific pollution hot spots. Thirdly, we present
[10, 11] and associated methodologies [12] have resulted more strategic technologies that require investment in
in a control measure (LDEN) that is a weighted sum of infrastructure to provide environmental benefits in the
noise levels measured for four hours in each of three longer-term. Finally, those technologies that promote
periods of the day; namely, day, evening and night. This the use of public transport systems and supply
information to persuade people to change their attitudes
ª Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO; published with permission, 2006 and lifestyles in order to achieve sustainability of our
IEE Proceedings online no. 20060017 city transport networks in the longer-term are discussed.
doi:10.1049/ip-its:20060017
Paper received 20th March 2006 2 Pollution and health
The author is with the Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds,
Leeds, UK A state of art review by Colvile et al. summarises the
E-mail: m.c.bell@its.leeds.ac.uk health impacts of traffic related pollution and suggests

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 113
that in the early 1990s there was much evidence to disruptive traffic flows caused by signal control and
confirm particulate emissions were harmful to health congestion. Although the noise levels are lower on
[14]. Pope et al. [15, 16] Dockery et al. [17], Diaz- average, they are more variable, and therefore more
Sanchez [18] and expert groups such as the Quality of irritating. The noise from the different transport modes
Urban Air Review Group (QUARG) [19], all found also has widely different spectral content and frequency
evidence that particulate emissions might be responsible of occurrence. This necessitates modelling noise across
for measurable increases in cardiovascular and respira- the audible range and at least at one third octave band
tory diseases. resolution to capture the ‘noise annoyance’ of the
A recent report from AQEG states that ‘‘it is clear diverse mobile sources of noise from cars, vans, buses,
that, although road traffic emissions are a major source trucks, trains, boats, ships, aircraft, etc. This has created
of particulate matter near to roads, the regional academic challenges that are being addressed in projects
contribution to particulate matter is substantial. Con- funded by the European Union (EU).
trolling background particulate matter must, therefore, As reported by Willmink et al., the Road Traffic
be a central part of any UK strategy to control exposure Noise Model (ROTRANOMO) will derive traffic
to particulate matter’’ [3]. The report continues, ‘‘In emissions models that are sufficiently detailed in respect
addition, because there is no known safe level for to fleet composition, vehicle performance, diurnal
exposure to particulate matter, it is not appropriate to variations in traffic conditions and source contributions
rely solely on the use of air quality objectives. They [48], to enable suitable estimates of noise perception to
focus attention on hot spots – places where the pollutant deliver information that can be used to assess action
concentration is high, for example close to busy roads, plans designed to reduce road traffic noise [49].
but where relatively few people tend to live’’. Improved Methods for the Assessment of the Generic
Impact of Noise in the Environment (IMAGINE) [50]
2.1 Air will provide guidelines, examples and databases that
Public concern over air quality has resulted from allow for the quick and easy implementation and
evidence of its links with asthma, which has increased expansion of the noise calculation methods for road
substantially in recent decades [20–23], and its effect on and rail developed in the HARMONOISE project
children [24]. There is evidence that the pollution from (Harmonised, Accurate and Reliable Methods for the
traffic exacerbates symptoms in those who are already EU Directive on the Assessment and Management of
sufferers [25, 26], but little evidence that it causes Environmental Noise) [51–53].
asthma [20].
The evidence that traffic related air pollution is a risk 2.3 Role of ITS
to health has led to the development of tools to model In an attempt to ensure that air pollution is kept at levels
human exposure. This provides a way of assessing the below which there is a minimum or insignificant risk to a
benefits of traffic management designed to tackle hot- nation’s health, the EU has taken action [54, 55]. This
spot emissions [27, 28]. puts pressure on governments throughout Europe to
Specific hydrocarbon components of exhaust emis- ensure that air quality objectives are met. In addition,
sions, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the European Parliament set out the procedures for the
(PAH), bound to diesel exhaust particulates are feared assessment and management of environmental noise in
to cause cancer, while benzene and 1,3 butadiene are the European Noise Directive [56]. These directives have
known carcinogens [29–32]. Carbon monoxide (CO) resulted in the need to assess the effects of traffic flow
concentrations are high enough in developing countries, patterns, and to design measures to mitigate the
but not in the UK, to exacerbate cardiovascular disease environmental effects. Wilmink et al. acknowledge the
by impairing the oxygen (O2) carrying capacity of the need to find a balance between all the different
blood [14]. environmental effects of traffic, because reduction of
The introduction of catalytic converters has led more than one particular air pollutant and/or noise level
to a significant fall in most exhaust emissions in the cannot necessarily be achieved together [57]. Owing to
UK since the late 1990s [4]. Lead emissions were shown the high cost of monitoring, traffic models are usually
to cause neuro-toxicological damage and lower Intelli- employed to assess the effects on pollution of current
gence Quotient Scores in children [33–35]. Lead traffic flow patterns and of the measures designed to
levels have substantially dropped since the introduction mitigate those effects.
of lead-free petrol and catalytic converters [36–39]. These days, ITS technologies are often named as
Sulphur dioxide causes coughing on short-term expo- promising alternatives to the more traditional policy
sure, but levels of sulphur dioxide emitted into the measures, such as building new roads, improving public
atmosphere from traffic have been substantially reduced transport infrastructure, and providing acoustic
following the introduction of low sulphur fuels [40, 41]. screening [58]. However, the justification for the
implementation of ITS is usually to improve network
2.2 Noise safety and efficiency and to solve congestion rather than
Babisch et al. presented cardiovascular risk factors for to solve environmental and health problems, although
noise related to transport and work [42]. Meidema et al. the former often leads to the latter.
[43], Meidema and Vos [44] and Vos [45], present sleep Policy makers have demonstrated the possibilities
disturbance as a night measure of road traffic noise and of ITS measures–such as lowering of the speed limits
exposure–effect curves for the association between day, or adapting traffic signals – to improve air quality and/
evening and night, and weighted noise level for noise or reduce noise levels. However, the subtle changes
annoyance from different transport sources (air, road in the driving profiles and traffic flow conditions that
and rail) [46]. Much of the early research that derived bring about environmental benefits cannot adequately
noise parameters correlating with human response is be assessed with current models–the subject of
based on the assumption of freely flowing traffic [47]. research programmes such as those undertaken by the
Noise problems of today are mainly associated with Leeds health, Air Pollution, Noise, Traffic and

114 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
Emissions Research Network (LANTERN) [59], 4 Fuel technologies
Andrews et al. [60, 61], Boddy et al. [62, 63], Tate [64]
and Goodman et al. [65]. Although not addressing In recent years, emissions per vehicle of CO, HC,
traffic congestion, European legislation on vehicle NOx and PM from road transport has reduced in
emissions has been the main driver in pushing industry Europe [72–74]. The largest reductions have already
to advance in-vehicle technologies to realise substantial taken place, with substantial technical advances in
reductions in exhaust emissions and noise from new engine design and after-burn treatments such as
vehicles [66]. catalysts and particle traps. More recent reductions
Technologies are improving air quality in the short- in emissions have been achieved through the intro-
term, reducing harmful emissions by burning fuel more duction of computer controlled engine management,
efficiently, creating just carbon dioxide (CO2) and water which aims to improve efficiency and reduce fuel
in the process. However, these technologies do not consumption with a consequent decrease in pollutant
address the longer-term challenge of global warming. It emissions. Exhaust emissions from vehicles are sensitive
is only by reducing traffic and making it flow more to many factors, including the ambient temperature
efficiently that technology can have a more lasting [60, 61], the engine design and size, whether or not it is
impact on climate change. ITS technologies have an operating cold or hot, the type and quantity of fuel used,
important role to play here in controlling, managing and the control technologies applied, the age and state of
policing traffic restraint and demand management, thus repair of the engine and exhaust system technologies, its
reducing emissions and, given the political will, curbing speed, whether it is accelerating, decelerating or idling.
the use of private vehicles. Driver behaviour affects emissions, with elevated levels
of pollutants rising during harsh acceleration [75–77]
and whilst using gears instead of brakes to reduce
3 Mobile sources of emissions speed [78].
Emissions of pollutants from cars clearly depend on
Primary air pollutants include CO, CO2, water vapour the ambient temperature. At ambient temperatures of
and un-burnt fuel, hydrocarbons (HC), including 2 C, CO emissions are 20 times higher, with NO2
volatile and non-volatile organic compounds (VOC 10 times higher at 30 C [60]. Elevated pollution
and NVOC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide emissions at the beginning and end of a journey means
(SO2), and particulate matter (PM). Some pollutants are that care should be taken to locate park and ride sites
fairly stable, such as CO, whereas others rapidly oxidise, away from residential areas to minimise the impact of
for example nitrous oxide (NO), which is transformed cold starts and hot soaks on human exposure. In
into NO2, and react with other pollutants depending on Europe, the USA and Japan, passenger car emission
the prevailing meteorological conditions [67]. Particulate regulations are for a cold start. However, this is defined
matter with a diameter of less than or equal to at a summer’s day temperature of 25 C. Much lower
10 micrometres (PM10) and NO2 are the major causes temperatures prevail in winter in many areas of the
of breaches of the recommended air quality limits in UK world. The impact on air quality of these lower cold-
towns and cities. start temperatures has led to the introduction of a 7 C
In a review of transport as a source of air pollution, cold-start emissions test in Europe and the USA. Engine
Colvile et al. report [14] that the OECD considers technologies that seek to remove cold-start emissions by
regional and global impacts of transport emissions on heating catalysts, for example, play an important role in
air pollution, but is mostly concerned with the impact of achieving substantial reduction in source emissions. Any
emissions on local urban air quality and considers only ITS technologies that encourage the public to cycle or
road transport [68]. In their research, both Jourmard walk rather than use their cars for short trips should be
and Faiz re-affirm the problem of traffic related promoted.
pollution by highlighting the large contribution Environmental concerns over our dependence on
made by mobile sources in Africa and Latin America liquid petroleum and diesel fuels to power road
[69, 70]. transport has led to the consideration of alternative
Pollutants such as particulate matter originate not fuels. These include, for example, compressed natural
only from vehicle exhaust, but also from the road-tyre gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biofuels,
interface and in the form of metallic particles from the hybrid petrol/electric and fully electric vehicles. Rabi
brakes, engine, bodywork and catalysts, etc. In the UK, carried out a life-cycle assessment to compare the
PM10 emissions of particulate by road transport in performance of buses fuelled with diesel (standard
the year 2000 were 20% (15% combustion, 3% wear, EuroII) to the same bus equipped with natural gas
2% others), and for levels of CO were 69%; CO2 21%; engine for use in Paris and Toulouse [79]. The data for
NOx 48% (42% road, 6% non-road vehicles); NVOC the pollutant emissions were based on the European
24% (18% combustion, 6% evaporation); benzene 47% Commission (EC) Methodologies for Estimating Air
(45% combustion, 2% evaporation); 1,3-butadiene Pollutant Emissions from Transport project (MEET)
81%; and SO2 1%. [80], supplemented by measurement for diesel and gas
The particles from a modern diesel engine, after buses in Paris. The damage cost of a diesel bus is
modification by coagulation and other processes that significant, in the range of 0.4–1.3 Euro/km. Natural gas
occur in the first few seconds after emission, have a bi- allows an appreciable reduction in emissions, reducing
modal size spectrum with a large number of particles the damage cost by a factor of about 2.5 for Toulouse
below 20 nm in size and another mode between about 30 and 5.5 for Paris. A sensitivity analysis was carried
and 100 nm, with approximately equal total mass in out to evaluate the effect of uncertainties. Finally, a
each mode [71]. This reflects the differences in the EuroII diesel-fuelled bus with a particle filter and a gas-
origins of the particulates and the complex chemistry fuelled bus with IVECO’s multiple-point injection
and physical processes that govern the size distribution engine, a more advanced and cleaner technology, were
of particle matter [14]. compared. With this engine the damage costs of the

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 115
gas-fuelled bus were about 3 to 5 times below those of 4.2 Hydrogen and fuel cells
the diesel-fuelled bus with a particle filter, even though The only cleaner option, as far as local emissions are
the latter already had very low emissions. concerned, is for zero-emissions vehicles powered by
electricity or fuel cells to be introduced. However, it is
4.1 Climate change and biomass fuels important to consider the total environmental impact
Concerns about production of CO2 from the use of of such vehicles, as the air pollution emissions from
fossil fuels, and their role in climate change, have remotely generated electricity or production of hydro-
renewed interest in biomass as an alternative fuel source. gen fuel could be higher. Electric vehicle technology,
The Government of the UK and the EU are promoting although not reducing our dependence on fossil fuels
the use of fuels with low-CO2 emissions; namely, CNG nor addressing the global environment issues, does have
and fuels derived from biomass, such as ethanol and a role to play in reducing local emissions, and therefore
‘bio-diesel’, blended with conventional transport fuels. can address air quality management problems. Electric
The UK Government is strongly committed to increas- light rapid transit and small vehicles, exempt from road
ing renewable energy usage to help reduce emissions of user charging and low emissions zones, also have a
greenhouse gases, and thereby contribute to national role to play in encouraging a modal shift, promoting
and international targets for emissions reductions. The public transport and thus maintaining good air quality
increasing importance attached to this form of energy in urban environments. These modes will become
production was recently highlighted in the Energy White increasingly important in the future.
Paper [81]. Hydrogen is thought to be the answer to energy and
Biomass fuels are considered to be CO2 neutral, global warming problems in the long term. However, an
absorbing CO2 during growth and releasing CO2 on economy based on hydrogen may not be sustainable
burning [82]. Several studies have quantified the emis- in the longer-term. Whilst attention focuses on its
sions from biofuel mixtures containing 5% to 100% clean combustion products in air, much less considera-
blends of oils, such as rape seed and recycled chip oil, tion is being given to the environmental impacts of
with stock diesel. The results are highly inconsistent, the creation of the hydrogen, whether it be from the
with some evidence to suggest that NO2 is often higher dissociation of water or methane, the resources
than the diesel used in the biofuel mixture. needed for its manufacture, its distribution or the
CNG has lower CO2 emissions than liquid hydro- disposal of fuel cells. Notwithstanding these issues,
carbon fuels, but has the potential to produce inferior safe methods to store, distribute and use hydrogen
fuel consumption. It may also have higher methane onboard vehicles are not completely proven. The main
emissions, which are 10 times worse as a greenhouse gas advantage of zero-emissions vehicles is that the emis-
than CO2 [83, 84]. sions can be away from human receptors, although,
Typically, blending ethanol with petrol for legislated other environmental impacts, such as global warming,
test cycles [Note 1] reduces emissions of hydrocarbons may not be reduced.
but increases those of NOx and aldehydes [85]. Ethanol Karlstrom presents a quantitative assessment of the
is easily vaporised, hence the cold-start problems of local environmental benefits of fuel-cell buses in
Euro I and II [Note 2] vehicles may be reduced in city comparison with Euro V diesel buses and compressed
driving. Bio-diesel also tends to increase aldehyde natural gas buses along a central bus route in Goteburg,
emissions as the components are oxygenated hydro- Sweden [87]. The local benefits to the environment were
carbons [86]. presented in terms of monetary costs. If diesel bus
Alternative fuels have been shown to give lower technologies improve, and therefore comply with the
emissions over legislated test cycles when used in low- demands of Euro V for reduced emissions, then the
emission vehicles, but their emissions need to be assessed relative local environmental benefits for zero-emissions
more fully under the more severe conditions of con- fuel-cell buses will be EUR2001 0.06 (0.024–0.25)/km and
gested traffic common in most large cities in the UK and EURO2001 0.04 (0.001–0.011)/km for buses fuelled with
Europe. The stop/start, idling, and slow speed char- compressed natural gas. Local environment costs are
acteristics of traffic means that engines create high rather small compared to the annualised capital costs of
emissions. This is exacerbated by the large number of prototype fuel-cell buses. The allowed drive-train cost
people who live on or in the vicinity of busy roads and increment of a mass-produced fuel cell bus along the bus
drive from a cold-start into traffic jams, and return route considered in the paper would be EURO2001
home to release hot soak emissions. There is a need for 23,900 (best estimate) for local benefits, and EURO2001
second by second real world emissions data for 47,800 if including greenhouse gases and the hydrogen
alternative ‘clean’ fuels that can be used in models to produced from natural gas.
better predict the influence of driver behaviour, cold Even if the current environmental benefits are
starts, hot soaks, traffic control measures and opera- not considered large enough, investment in fuel cell
tional regimes for intelligent transport systems. buses could be worthwhile provided that they are seen as
the first step of a long-term transition strategy to a
hydrogen economy. This niche can be seen as important
for demonstrating fuel-cell technology as a way to
decrease costs and improve performance, which could
Note 1: In order to compare the exhaust emissions from new vehicles
in a standard way across all types and makes, vehicles are driven on a
encourage wide spread use of fuel cell technology in
rolling road with the same driving profile (rate of acceleration, speed other applications, such as the private car market, and
and gear changing sequence) this is known as the legislated test cycle. also for use in stationary or idling vehicles [87].
Note 2: European Policies have addressed mobile source emissions by
requiring vehicle manufacturers (from a specified date) to reduce 4.3 Vehicle noise
exhaust gas emissions to mandatory levels measured against a
standard driving test cycle. These are referred to as Euro I
While noise from the power units of modern vehicles
(1993–1994), Euro II (1996–1998), Euro III (2001–2002), Euro IV and electric motors is substantially less than from their
(2005) and Euro V (2008). predecessors, noise generated at the road/tyre and rail/

116 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
wheel interface remains a substantial and increasing prevent a particular air pollutant limit value being
problem [88, 89]. Also, the introduction of both mass- exceeded [96]. The latter strategies, while solving hot-
transit systems and low-noise road surfaces are funda- spot formation, do not reduce emissions per se but move
mentally changing the acoustic environment within city those emissions to where they will do less harm.
streets. Technologies such as variable message signs to inform
The impact assessment of noise by Karlstrom was a on speed limits to calm traffic, or car parking infor-
rough estimate [87]. The environmental cost of diesel mation systems to reduce search time for parking
buses relative to fuel-cell buses is EURO2001 0.02/bus spaces, are commonly implemented in towns and cities
km. Even if this estimation is uncertain, the noise and play an important role in reducing pollutant
reduction potential for fuel-cell buses seems to be an emissions.
interesting issue that requires further study. This is Clement et al. describe and model the performance of
mainly because both the level and the character of the a conceptual intelligent system for automatic progres-
noise from vehicles will change and the noise parameter sion of vehicles through a signalled intersection, under
correlating with human annoyance may be different. automatic control of in-vehicle and roadside infras-
Measurement and modelling of noise may have to be tructure [98]. The fundamental principle is the notion
carried out across third octave frequency bands, and for that the queue of vehicles assembled at a red signal can
the propulsion noise separate from the noise from the be moved simultaneously as a single block or platoon
road-tyre interface. once the signal switches to green. Once clear of the jun-
The secondary noise from vibration and rail-wheel ction, vehicles in the platoon are progressively released
‘squeal’ are often cited as major problems. While new back to individual driver control.
road technologies can reduce noise levels without The advantage of automated platoon advancement
compromising safety [90], they are expensive to lay may be seen in increased throughput and reduced delays
and require regular maintenance. Variation in levels and for approach lanes at signalled junctions. This technol-
spectral frequency content of the noise is changing such ogy could offer the opportunities for substantial
that urban noise is becoming more irritating despite increases in the capacities of existing intersections.
being quieter on average. Therefore, sound signatures However, from the environmental perspective the
that are significantly different from those of existing increased road space should be re-allocated to pedes-
internal combustion engines require more sophisticated trians or priority for buses while maintaining current
noise measures [91, 92]. This led to standardisation of capacities for road vehicles, otherwise the vehicles may
modelling and assessment as laid down within the speed up or the spare capacity is eroded by suppressed
HARMONOISE guidelines [52]. demand.
This technology could play an important role in
5 Systems solutions reducing emissions by taking control of the acceleration
of the block of vehicles, avoiding aggressive acceleration
Despite considerable efforts to reduce source emissions, and smoothing flows. Also, by adjusting the magnitude
it will be some time yet before new vehicle techno- of the green splits, the size of the block, and there-
logies have penetrated the market sufficiently to have a fore the total volume of traffic, could be regulated in a
substantial impact on roadside concentrations of timely manner to ensure that local pollutant concentra-
air pollutants. Local authorities currently manage air tions remain below the limits. By building in intelli-
quality using several different integrated approaches, gences regarding the meteorological condition, acceptable
often tailored to solve a specific environmental problem. levels of air quality can be maintained spatially and
However, a common goal to all strategies is to reduce temporally.
the number of vehicles on our roads, to create a calmer The aim of the Environmental Forecasting For the
and smoother movement of traffic flow, to alleviate Effective Control of Traffic (EFFECT) project was ‘‘to
congestion and to avoid stopping vehicles [93]. This predict poor local air quality in real time and then to
section will consider the impact on pollution of systems instigate Traffic Demand Management Strategy
solutions including traffic signal control and network (TDMS) as management measures to reduce pollution
management, public transport related infrastructure and levels in particular problem areas’’ [99]. At the heart of
technologies to encourage travel by public transport, the EFFECT system was an Air Quality Monitoring and
demand management with park-and-ride schemes, road- Management (AQM&M) system, which predicted the
user charging and speed control, and finally provision of location, time of occurrence and duration of pollution
public information to promote more effective use of ‘hot-spots’, and then provided data to permit the
road space in our networks, by passengers as well as selection of a strategy from a pre-defined library [100].
freight. The EFFECT system was demonstrated in the cities
of Leicester and Maidstone in the UK, Gothenburg
5.1 Traffic signal control and network in Sweden and Volos in Greece. The strategies that
management have been developed in the EFFECT project were
Traditionally, signal control systems were optimised to limited to addressing high levels of pollution at localised
minimise delay to traffic in a network [94, 95]. Today, hot spots.
demand responsive traffic control signal systems can Two tactical control strategies that were identified for
also operate to minimise air pollutants – either aggrega- Leicester included gating and cascading of queues. Each
ted over all pollutants, or simply by targeting the redu- strategy was designed to reduce vehicle generated
ction of a particular pollutant to address a particular air emissions on the links at the hot spots and across the
quality issue (such as NO2 or PM10) [96]. In addition, air-quality management area at the expense of increas-
signal control can relocate queues from closed to open ing emissions in less polluted areas of the city. The
spaces so that natural ventilation can disperse pollution objective of each strategy was the same, their use and
more effectively [97] or, if more appropriate, to cascade selection being determined by the severity of the
queues, to spread the congestion along a route to predicted levels of pollution. The political and practical

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 117
implications of announcing air quality problems was The additional benefit of SCOOT optimisation – using
high on the agenda. Therefore, the local authorities weighted aggregated emissions rather than a traffic
agreed that actual implementation of strategies on the network performance measure based on flow, delay and
street could not be justified unless the DETR threshold stops–were 2% for CO, 2% for VOC, 1% for PM and
for low pollution was breached. 1% for NOx. Although not statistically significant
The gating strategy to alleviate a pollution hot spot within the budget constraints for collecting data, the
was defined by using traffic assignment and signal reductions were nevertheless important. An exercise of
optimisation [97, 101], and the reduction in emissions cascading queues along a radial into the city centre of
was achieved by using the micro-simulation model Leicester showed a substantial reduction in emissions on
DRACULA (Dynamic Route Assignment Combining the protected junction – CO by 13%, VOC by 11%,
User Learning and Microsimulation) [102] and the PM10 by 6%, NOx by 5% and CO2 by 8%. However,
meso-scale model SATURN (Simulation and Assign- this was at the expense of increases in emissions on the
ment of Traffic to Urban Road Networks) [103]. A cascaded links. This demonstrator endorsed the value of
pollution hot spot was identified at the intersection of tactical traffic control found in the literature [97].
an inbound radial route and the ring road, where the
built environment created a steep-sided canyon which 5.2 Public transport related infrastructure and
limited dispersion. There were residential properties and technologies
high levels of pedestrian activity in the vicinity of the Designated bus lanes with signal priority at junctions
junction. Consequently there were concerns that human can promote bus services [104]. Vehicle tracking gives
exposure might become unacceptable on ‘pollution a wealth of information to operators to improve the
episode’ days. Therefore, by changing the offsets and reliability of services. Real-time passenger information
green durations of the traffic signal timings, the traffic regarding time of arrival at bus stops makes the use
queues that caused the excessive levels of emissions of the bus more attractive. Through such systems as
were relocated to an upstream junction, close to a park, Startrak in Leicester, the public in some cities can
where the natural ventilation of the built environment receive transport information via mobile phone [105].
aided dispersal. The environmental performance of the Park-and-ride schemes also have an important role to
TDMS was evaluated by direct measurement and by play in reducing the amount of traffic on the roads.
modelling. Successful services, with high profile buses travelling
Using detectors to measure traffic levels every five on bus-only lanes, with priority at signals, have
minutes during the morning peak hour, the SATURN substantially reduced journey times. Nowadays, public
and DRACULA models were used to predict the transport and more specifically park-and-ride schemes
emissions. The predicted emissions and measured are becoming a real and attractive alternative to the
concentrations were compared between sites. The results car in places such as York, Leicester and Cambridge.
showed that there was a greater measured decrease of However, from an environment perspective, some of
carbon monoxide, of up to 5 grams/sec, at the closed site the benefits of removing congestion from city streets
compared with the increase, of up to 1 gram/sec, at the can be eroded by the increase in speed attained by
open site, demonstrating the significant value of tactical the bus. Therefore, investment in clearer vehicle
control of queue location. The measured reductions technologies is worthwhile.
could be sufficient to prevent breaches of the limit values In the HEAVEN project (Healthier Environment
on days when temperature inversions occur. As expected through Abatement of Vehicle Emission and Noise) of
the modelling showed substantially larger changes in the EU’s Fifth Framework Information Society and
emissions compared to changes in measured pollutant Technology Programme [106], Leicestershire County
concentrations. Also, the micro-scale modelling resulted Council identified the potential for the installation of
in estimates of emissions reductions of up to a factor of five peripheral park-and-ride sites in managing traffic
five greater than those predicted by the meso-scale demand to reduce congestion and to ensure that the
modelled estimates. This is due to the fact that the latter pollutant concentrations in the Air Quality Manage-
ignores elevated emissions related to the driving modes, ment Area (AQMA) would meet the National Air
acceleration and idling [97]. Quality Objectives by 2005. The transportation software
The Transport and Road Research Laboratory Transport Improvement Planning System (TRIPS) was
carried out an evaluation of the benefits achieved by used to model the effect of park-and-ride [107]. The
optimising the dynamic signal traffic control system resulting changes in flow and speed were input to the air
SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimisation Technique quality model Airviro.
[Note 3]) [96]. This work used a performance measure The results showed that, despite an assumed 4.5%
that minimises aggregate pollutant emissions rather than growth in traffic, the park-and-ride scheme would
a sum of flow, delay and stops. The results showed that reduce vehicular flow enough to reduce emissions in
for SCOOT over Fixed-Time [Note 4] signal control, the air quality management areas in the city centre [108],
pollutant emissions fell by 20% for CO, 16% for VOC, whilst at least maintaining the status quo for noise
10% for PM10 and 7% for NOx. levels. The park-and-ride option also allows Leicester
City Council to honour its commitment to the UK
Government by maintaining air pollution levels below
Note 3: SCOOT is a demand responsive control system that uses those considered harmful to health, and alleviate similar
detectors to monitor vehicle flows along roads in a network and
intelligently changes the signal timings to reduce delays and stops to potential problems identified in a similar study [108].
traffic in real-time. However, engineers have to ensure that spare capacity
Note 4: Fixed-Time refers to the system of traffic control which created by the modal shift is not eroded by localised
employs an optimised signal plan (pre-defined set of timings for all suppressed demand and traffic travelling at higher
signalled junctions across an area) over a period of the day during
which the traffic conditions are on average changing by less than about
speeds [109]. Again, this opens up opportunities for
10%–15%. Typically three signal plans namely am-peak, pm-peak and ITS technologies such as intelligent speed adaptation
off-peak, are implemented daily. and enforcement. It is important in implementing

118 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
park-and-ride that local authorities and bus companies introducing new vehicle technologies. These three traffic
form partnerships so that clean technologies are demand management scenarios were modelled using the
implemented in bus fleets, with a shift to more same TRIPS modelling procedure as applied to the
sustainable fuels such as low-sulphur fuels, electricity park-and-ride scenario described above.
or, in the future, hydrogen and fuel cells. The Airviro air quality dispersion model was used to
Daytime noise levels estimated using the noise emis- determine the changes in concentrations on the scale of
sions module in the Airviro air quality model [110] for 250 by 250 metre cells across the Greater Leicester area.
the park-and-ride scheme were within 0.2 dB(A) of the The results of the modelling of the impacts using TRIPS
base case [93]. The human ear would not notice such a showed that the network capacity changes substantially,
small change in the levels within the measured variation. with significant consequential effects on pollutant levels.
Larger benefits of  0.5 dB(A) were predicted for Firstly, for the reduction of speeds by 20%, 18% less
evenings and night time, through the reduction of traffic can complete their journeys in the peak hour and
vehicle flows along the main radial of Narborough consequently the peak period would last longer. Also,
Road, Leicester. The project highlighted, the need for the 82% of traffic travelling in the peak spent more time
better profiling of the 24-hour flows used in the model, in the network driving at a slower speed. This created
and improved method of the reallocation of traffic from more delay resulting in a 9.2% increase in journey time:
cars to buses, especially during the peak hours, in order traffic also travelled longer distances because of ‘rat
to more accurately and realistically assess the changes in running’. The resulting effect, in winter, was to increase
noise levels. emissions by 116%, 175% and 202% for NOx, CO and
Any technology that enhances modal shift could PM10 respectively, and in summer to increase emissions
reduce vehicle emissions. An earlier study of public by 119%, 175% and 1.5% for NOx, CO and PM10
transport interchange demonstrated that success lay respectively. This substantial increase in all pollutants
not only in the co-ordination of the road network with would be unacceptable, and therefore reducing speeds
and between all public transport services (bus, rail, ferry, by 20% is not an option for Leicester [113].
etc.) and ensuring short walking distances at mode The air quality benefits of banning HGV during the
changes etc., but also by implementing through-ticket- winter period were to decrease emissions by 36% and
ing processes, building design and provision of facilities 13% for NOx and CO respectively, and in summer to
and information [111]. decrease emissions by 37% and 12% for NOx and CO
Lo et al. studied multi-modal trips where the traveller respectively. The modelling took into account the fact
used more than one public mode and/or service to that the highest volumes of commercial vehicles tend to
complete a journey in an environment with competing travel along radial and ring-road routes where traffic is
private sector operators of transit services and different heavier. Consequently, the drop in flows on these routes
fares structures and systems [112]. In order to model the meant that the remaining traffic of cars and light
complexity of the multi-modal trips, a nested logit vehicles tended to speed up, thus eroding some of the
modelling framework was demonstrated as a method to potential benefits of the remaining traffic if speeds were
examine the effects of fare competition on traveller kept at a lower level. Furthermore, these decreases in all
behaviour, operator profitability and network perfor- pollutants can only be sustained if there are steps to
mance. The approach was demonstrated successfully in ensure that the increase in capacity is not further eroded
Hong Kong for airport services. by suppressed demand [113]. Clearly there is a role for
ITS technologies, including mobile phones, VMS, bus intelligent speed adaptation.
priority in urban traffic signal control, in-cab ferry Not surprisingly, by far the largest benefits were
confirmation systems in commercial vehicles, smart card achieved by ensuring that 100% of vehicles by 2005 all
technology for ease of payment of car parking, and bus achieved the standards of Euro IV emissions. NOx levels
or train ticket purchase, etc, clearly offer much poten- were found to reduce by 78% and 81% for winter and
tial to deliver integrated solutions to contribute to the summer respectively, despite an assumed 4.5% growth
success of public transport interchanges, and more in traffic levels across the network from the base
efficient movement of commercial vehicles to and scenario. Although this scenario was unrealistic, it
from ferry services with consequential benefits to the demonstrates the potential of clean technologies as a
environment. way to mitigate air quality problems.
A parallel assessment of roadside noise in terms of
5.3 Managing demand the equivalent continuous noise levels, the LAeq, at a
One of the main aims of the HEAVEN project was to distance of 10 metres from the kerb was carried out.
conceptualise generic systems architecture for an inte- No attempt was made to include complex propaga-
grated decision support system (DSS), which was tion effects (topography, meteorology etc.), as would
applied in the cities of Leicester, Rome, Prague, Paris be required for noise mapping [114]. The study
and Rotterdam [93]. A component of the DSS is the focused on changes in noise emission solely due to
modelling of measures designed to reduce the environ- input traffic parameters. The most effective strategy to
mental impact of transport. These measures have been reduce noise emissions was found to be the complete
of two types, short-term tactical and long-term strategic. removal of HGVs from the area considered. This led to
In HEAVEN, the emphasis was on developing and an approximate reduction in daytime LAeq, 1-hour levels
quantifying the impact of the more strategic citywide of  2.7 dB(A). At night the reduction is higher, being
traffic demand management strategies (TDMS). In up to 3.1 dB(A). Obviously, the strategy of removing all
Leicester, in addition to the park-and-ride scheme HGVs from the roads is unrealistic. It must also be
described above, the potential to improve air quality noted that the TRIPS modelled HGV flows ( 10%)
and reduce noise levels through appropriate control were generally greater than the HGV proportions
and management of traffic included the reduction of observed during an on-street monitoring campaign
traffic speeds by 20% across the Leicester conurba- during summer 2002 ( 6% HGVs). Therefore, it is
tion, banning heavy goods vehicles, and the impact of suggested that the effectiveness of the HGV

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 119
removal scenarios was slightly over-estimated in this forecast of an air quality episode. Current emergency
study [93]. measures include only allowing vehicles with an odd
In the context of noise, the 20% speeds reduction is a numbered registration plate to enter the city one day
less effective strategy, with corresponding reductions in and even the next, a policy implemented in Athens, Paris
roadside LAeq, 1-hour levels for the studies of Narborough and other large European cities.
Road being of the order of  0.4 dB(A). Indeed, when Road pricing seeks to manage traffic demand during
using the UK CoRTN procedure, reducing speeds peak periods. The effect of introducing road charging
below  25 km/h in the model gives no benefit. This is in Leeds was quantified by Mitchell et al. [117, 118].
because of the assumption of increased congestion levels A chain of dynamic simulation models of traffic flow,
at lower speeds increasing the calculated LAeq, 1-hour pollutant emission and dispersion was integrated within
levels. Some sections near junctions on the secondary a geographic information system model to assess the
links and on Narborough Road actually show increases impact of alternative transport scenarios on air quality
in roadside noise level of the order of up to 1.0 dB(A) for the city of Leeds, UK. The scenarios addressed
when the speed decrease is applied, as speeds move away included: ‘‘business as usual’’ traffic growth to 2015;
from the minimum for emissions at 20–40 km/h. In the network development; road pricing with cordon char-
HEAVEN project, compared with reducing speeds by ging; road pricing with distance charging; and the wider
20% or banning commercial vehicles, the park-and-ride adoption of clean fuel vehicle technology. The impact
scheme showed the least improvement in noise levels of these developments on exceedence of air quality
over the base case. standards for NO2, PM and SO2 was identified. Finally,
The main result of this study, both in respect to air differences in the spatial distribution of air quality (as
and noise pollution, was the importance of including NO2) between scenarios were highlighted, in light of
network capacity effects when modelling traffic demand their significance to social equity concerns. The study
management scenarios. Ignoring capacity effects leads showed that air quality in Leeds is generally good, with
to an over-prediction of the benefits on some stretches forecast exceedences of PM10 and SO2 standards
of road causing a redistribution of traffic, further com- attributed largely to point sources, not road traffic.
plicating the situation. Also, the work highlights the Management of road traffic does, of course, modify
importance of re-allocating the spare capacity gener- air quality. The network development for Leeds is
ated, for example, by removing HGV to give priority to likely to increase capacity, which increases the number
other modes (e.g. pedestrians or buses) to ensure that of trips and hence emissions, including NO2. The drop
drivers do not travel at higher speeds. in air quality is most noticeable close to new roads,
In the UK, Atkins has presented a variety of case particularly along stretches of some radials and more
studies looking at synergies between potential measures widely across much of the eastern suburbs. The
to reduce air-pollution and their effects on traffic noise associated rerouting improved air quality in the south
[115]. Among the considered measures are; park-and- of the city, where it was poorest due to the urban
ride schemes, bus priority lanes, speed limit changes, motorways.
vehicle access restrictions, road alignment changes, Implementation of road-user charging was shown to
acoustic barriers, and size limits on heavy goods have strong implications for the redistribution of air
vehicle. The report states that ‘‘relatively few mitigation pollution. The single cordon in particular reduced
measures designed to improve the air quality or noise pollutant concentrations significantly in the city centre,
environment will lead to a worsening of conditions for but did so at the expense of all areas immediately
the other factor and some will be beneficial to both’’. A surrounding the cordon. Road pricing only brought
notable exception to this statement related to measures major improvements in air quality (>10 mg/m3 NO2
to reduce vehicle speeds. Air pollutant emissions are reduction) under high distance charges. However,
noted to be optimum at speeds in the 70–90 km/h range, considering the overall impact and distributional effects,
whilst noise emissions in the new HARMONOISE road a modest distance rather than a cordon charge appeared
source model show a minimum between 20 and 40 km/h to be most effective in reducing concentrations.
[52, 116]. Road user charging has a role to play in implementing
Atkins’ examination of the effects of altering urban low emissions zones (LEZ) by restricting areas of the
speed limits in residential areas, from 50 km/h to city to clean fuel vehicles only access (CFV), but
30 km/h, suggested a decrease in noise levels of quantifying their effect is different. A clean fuel analysis
0.8 dB(A) was achievable, but at the expense of an demonstrated a need for much improved emission
increase in pollutant emissions by over a quarter. A factors [Note 5] for (CFVs). Although Euro II-IV
similar examination of motorway traffic concluded that vehicles have very low emissions, it was difficult to
speed restrictions would be beneficial to both noise and make a case for air quality for CFVs at the strategic
air quality. Atkins’s report concludes with a number of level. However, they may have a role in tackling local
measures considered to have the greatest benefits on pollution hot spots, which were confirmed to be more
both air-quality and noise, including park-and-ride numerous under street canyon than flat terrain model-
schemes, high-occupancy-vehicle lanes, utilising new ling in LEZ, for example. But even ambitious LEZs
technology low-emission vehicles, and urban traffic only achieved such gains as would arise through
control systems to optimise speeds and prioritise flows natural fleet renewal by 2005 [119]. The study concluded
for public transport lanes.

5.4 Road pricing Note 5: The exhaust emissions of the different pollutants are measured
In general, curbing congestion is synonymous with for a representative sample of vehicles from the national fleet at
different driving modes, for example whilst cruising at a particular
reducing total pollution. So any road pricing or space speed, accelerating, idling etc. These result in a standard set of
rationing policy that seeks to alleviate congestion is emissions factors that are used for input to air quality models. This
important also for the environment. However, more allows model outputs to be compared across different urban areas in
dramatic measures are needed in the event of the the country.

120 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
that, from an air quality perspective, the lesson was to noise and air pollutant concentrations, of tactical
ensure effective control of point sources, and adopt ‘do control strategies.
nothing’ strategic traffic management. However, redu- Another example of the use of speed control in urban
cing congestion (where emissions are poorly modelled) areas is to reduce accidents in areas prone to ‘rat-
was likely to be important. running’. The next section discusses research that has
quantified the environmental impact of low-technology
5.5 Enforcement of speed limits traffic calming measures such as speed humps. This gives
A study carried out by TNO for the Transport Research some measure of the potential benefits that could be
Centre of the Dutch Ministry of Transport aimed to achieved by ITS technologies such as intelligent speed
determine the optimal speed limit on motorways near adaptation.
bottlenecks from the point of view of traffic throughput,
safety, noise, emissions, and so on [120]. Three different 5.6 Traffic calming
speed limits were studied (80, 90 and 100 km/h), all with Traffic calming measures, including humps, chicanes,
strict enforcement, and the results compared with a base junction tables, etc. have traditionally been introduced
case of 100 km/h without strict enforcement. The results to reduce speeds in urban areas where there are high
demonstrated that significant reduction in noise and traffic flows and speeds creating high risk of accidents
emission levels are achievable. [122]. When traffic calming substantially reduces traffic
A reduced speed limit will normally primarily flows, air and noise emissions reduce in the treated areas
influence average speeds. However, introducing strictly but often with consequential increase on alternative
enforced speed limits will also alter speed distributions. routes. Also, a disadvantage of traffic calming humps,
Empirical data revealed that under strict enforcement, in particular, is the additional noise and air pollution
drivers tended to stick more closely to the speed limit caused by drivers decelerating and braking in advance
than normally. This behaviour results in significantly of the hump then accelerating up to the next. Often
narrower speed distributions. The micro-simulation aggressive acceleration by drivers in traffic calming areas
model MIXIC was used to determine the effects on is responsible for high emissions of both air and noise
noise of the driver behaviours resulting from different pollution, particularly at the speed hump. Other types
levels of enforcement. of traffic calming, such as chicanes, junction tables,
Using MIXIC, simulations have been carried out central pedestrian islands, etc., all, to a lesser extent,
for 100 km/h and 120 km/h without strict enforcement, cause disturbances in what would otherwise be more
and 80 km/h, 90 km/h and 100 km/h with strict freely flowing traffic which therefore potentially beco-
enforcement. Using this scheme, noise emission levels mes more polluting.
had to be computed for three different vehicle types; In some respects, any investigation of traffic calming
light vehicles (primarily cars), medium-weighted vehicles is similar to studies concerned with driving behaviour.
(vans/small trucks) and heavy vehicles. Due to the This is because aggressive drivers tend to be on and off
type of road surface modelled (pervious asphalt), only the throttle more often and more aggressively compared
limited reductions in noise emission levels were obtained to normal drivers [123]. A normal or calm driver tends
by lowering the speed limit. On normal asphalt, the to be smoother, therefore producing a smooth speed-
effects are estimated to be approximately twice as large. time profile similar to a non-traffic calmed road. The
By combining microscopic traffic simulation and a aggressive driver has a speed-time profile similar to a
common Dutch noise calculation scheme, it was traffic calmed road since acceleration and braking events
concluded that from the three different speed limits, a will be more frequent. Consequently, parallels can be
strictly enforced speed limit of 80 km/h was the most drawn between driver behaviour studies and traffic
effective. However, more generally, it was concluded calming studies.
that introducing strictly enforced reduced speed limits De Vlieger’s work investigated driver behaviour and
was not a very effective measure to reduce noise found that aggressive driving produced a dramatic
emission levels. increase in emissions of CO and THC (total hydro-
As noted by Peeters [121] and Watts et al. [92], the carbons), but less so for NOx [75]. CO emissions were up
inclusion of a distribution of speeds in the HARMO- to three times higher for aggressive drivers, while HC
NOISE method generally increases predicted levels and NOx were twice as high. Fuel consumption was
over the use of a single average speed value. The generally 30–40% higher for aggressive urban driving
subtle and complicated changes in the distribution of compared to rural and motorway traffic. Average trip
speeds resulting from the implementation of speed limit speeds remained almost the same. A similar study,
enforcement measures require much more detailed and comparing congested and free flowing traffic conditions,
sophisticated micro-scale models, not just for traffic but found HC to be 12 times higher, NOx was five times
also for air and noise emissions. For noise, two sources higher and CO was four times higher [77]. In this test, a
(engine and transmission separate from road tyre small-engined instrumented car obtained on-road data
interface) for third octaves across the audible range which was then reproduced on a chassis dynamometer
rather than broadband are required and for air quality, for emissions analysis.
second by second emissions prediction [64], combined The most comprehensive and authoritative study of
with sophisticated canyon models [Note 6] [62, 63] are the impact of traffic calming measures, the first study of
necessary for quantifying the benefits, respectively for its kind, was set up by the Charging and Local
Transport Division of the DETR. It commissioned a
three-year study on the impacts of traffic calming
Note 6: Canyon model is the term given to the computational methods measures on exhaust emissions from passenger vehicles.
for dispersion of exhaust emissions, used to predict roadside pollutant The study, carried out by TRL, UK, included an
concentrations at the street level in complex built environments. They
vary in complexity and include, Eulerian, a vector model of pollution analysis of nine types of traffic calming measures using
as a fluid; Langrangian, a model of pollutants as particles or simple many types of vehicles. The results are important in
statistical and empirical models. assessing the impact of traffic calming measures on

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 121
the environment and the local community. This location, in the vicinity of hospitals and schools, for
wide reaching study took nine different measures example. They can also change during different weather
into account, assessing the emissions produced, speed, conditions, when there is snow and fog, or during
safety and delays caused to emergency vehicles. The incidents and special events, such as football matches
test procedure involved using a LIDAR (Light Detec- and bank holidays. In addition, ISA has an important
tion and Ranging) system to produce speed-time profiles role to play on trunk roads and motorways to calm
for the vehicles passing through each of the schemes. traffic, delay the on-set of the peak and to manage
Afterwards, the impacts on the emissions were deter- capacity following incidents. In these situations, envir-
mined using the driving cycles and a chassis dynamo- onmental benefits result from reducing the interaction/
meter with constant volume sampling. The pollutants conflicts among vehicles, smoothing flow which in turn
measured were CO, CO2, HC, NOx and particulates. also reduces accidents.
The results for two types of vehicles clearly showed Pollutant emissions vary depending on cruise speed,
that calming measures increase emissions of the harshness of acceleration and deceleration, and length of
pollutants. Catalyst cars were most sensitive to traffic time spent in queues. For the same level of traffic flow,
calming methods, although they tended to have the recent research suggests that busy but not congested
lowest absolute emissions rates compared to diesel traffic is cleaner than when the vehicles are cruising at
and non-catalyst vehicles. The results in the TRL high free flow speeds [125]. Furthermore, the optimal
report were compared to an average speed model speed to minimise pollutant emissions varies with
MEET: (Methodologies for Estimating Air Pollutant pollutant type.
Emissions from Transport) [124]. While the MEET It may be that ISA can calm traffic to optimise
model tended to underestimate CO and overestimate emissions of a pollutant that threatens to exceed limits
NOx and CO2, the percentage change in going from a in a particular area, at a particular time of day.
non-calmed road to a calmed road was very similar for However, a trade-off with safety may need to be
the TRL and MEET data for all the pollutants. accepted. As more ISA vehicles penetrate the market,
Andrews et al. showed that emissions for a traffic their value in regulating speed may increase. Also, in
calmed road employing speed humps were two to three particular, as explained above in sensitive areas such as
times as high as a non-calmed road negotiated smoothly residential streets, ISA can achieve traffic calming
[60]. This was measured on a mass basis using an FTIR instead of road humps with significant environmental
installed in-vehicle on a Euro I petrol-fuelled, passenger benefit for both air and noise pollution.
car. CO2 emissions increased by 90%, CO by 117%, On-road trials of in-vehicle speed limited vehicles
NOx by 195% and THC by 148%. Five toxic species were first conducted in Sweden [126]. More extensive
of hydrocarbons also, were examined and found to trials have been subsequently carried out in four
increase dramatically due to speed bumps. Swedish cities [127]. In the earlier Swedish road trials,
The TRL results were similar to those obtained by the focus was on design specifications rather than
Andrews et al. [60], although the latter yielded much evaluation of their environmental impacts. Simulation
higher changes in emissions. This was because the experiments of different penetration rates of ISA
TRL study used a rolling road dynamometer to vehicles into traffic networks was carried out by Liu
reproduce drive cycles that were obtained from real- and Tate [128].
world driving speed profiles. Consequently, emissions The traffic micro-simulation model DRACULA was
were probably limited in terms of acceleration by modified to represent the complex interaction between
slippage between the tyre and the rolling road. Another controlled vehicles and other traffic, and the control
reason for the increase is the slightly aggressive nature impacts on driver behaviour, network congestion and
of the driver negotiating the speed bumps in the study pollution caused [102]. The results showed that the
by Andrews et al. [60]. Normally, well-designed speed speed control is more effective in less-congested traffic
cushions do not require heavy vehicular retardation, as conditions than in high congestion. They also showed
was the case for the more aggressive round-top speed- that while ISA reduces excessive traffic speeds in the
hump in the Andrews study that required the driver to network, it does not induce more congestion to the
slow to 10 mph. Also, another factor in the Andrews network. A further finding was that ISA reduces
study was the heavier weight of the car almost fully variation in speed, which in turn reduces accidents,
laden with equipment and two people on board. For all and helps to reduce fuel consumption and its
the reasons mentioned, it was not surprising that the consequential impact on the environment. Simulation
Andrews study did not agree very well with that of TRL. analysis of ISA on a rural two-lane road and a
However, an important inference from the traffic motorway network was also carried out and showed
calming studies is that vehicle control systems with that, in general, the ISA effect on network performance
intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) could, by managing was less significant when compared to that in the urban
speeds through satellite communication along vulner- environment.
able streets, significantly reduce air emissions. Wilmink et al. studied two urban networks in the
Brabant area of the Netherlands [57], and formed the
5.7 Vehicle control systems basis of the modelling for the Project for Research on
Vehicle control systems based on ISA can manage Speed Adaptation Policies on European Roads (PROS-
speeds through global positioning systems (GPS) and PER). As a component of the IMAGINE project, the
on-board computers. The main advantage of ISA, sensitivity of the noise prediction was studied depending
relative to other forms of urban speed control such as on which of four different methodological approaches
20 mph speed zones or traffic calming, is their ability to for modelling the impact of ISA [129]. The methodol-
vary speed control spatially and temporally. For ogies varied in their level of detail, and the changes in
example, speed limits can be changed depending on noise levels resulting from ISA were modelled for the
time of day, such as slowing along major roads at night Brabant area and an urban area of the city of York,
time. They can also impose speed limits depending on UK. The DRACULA model was used to assess the

122 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
noise with 0% and 100% ISA penetration. The results potential to substantially decrease the total hours of
showed that, for the chosen links, there was little travel of freight vehicles, with obvious financial benefit,
variation in predicted sound power emission or roadside amelioration of congestion, and consequential substan-
LAeq, 1-hour between the 0% and 100% ISA penetration tial reduction in air pollutant emissions.
cases. The minor variations that do exist may be just as
readily explained by differences in the bulk flow and
speed parameters in the simulation model runs, rather 6 Informing the public
than any subtle changes in speed distribution affected by
ISA. This work has identified the limitations of current Public information provision aims to cut down conges-
tools to assess the impacts of ITS in general, and ISA in tion, influence mode choice to more sustainable trans-
particular. port modes, and inform the public of pending air quality
episodes.
5.8 Movement of freight Information provision includes:
Goods movements by road have substantial environ-
 In advance of journeys, to plan the choice of mode,
mental impact. Firstly, they require much stronger road
route and time of departure.
foundations, making road building more expensive and
 During journeys, through radio broadcast advising
a higher drain on natural resources. The wear and tear
where congestion problems are so that people can take
on roads by heavy vehicles requires high levels of
steps to avoid them.
maintenance. The subsequent environmental impact
 Using variable message signs (VMS) at the roadside
caused by congestion associated with road works can
advising drivers to use park-and-ride to avoid conges-
be substantial. Goods vehicles are noisier and produce
tion or prevent air pollution hot spots.
higher levels of pollutants due to the power needed to
 In the popular press and on the internet, advising on
move their large payloads. Currently, enforcement
the location and expected time of occurrence of poor air
technologies that constrain the movement of goods
quality and steps to take to help alleviate potential
vehicles to major roads built to accommodate them, and
problems and avoid exposure.
away from environmentally sensitive areas such as
residential streets during the early hours of the morning There are numerous technologies available to deliver
or during the night, achieve substantial environmental information to the public to meet the needs of users.
benefits. Any information or vehicle tracking technology These include internet, radio, television, mobile phone,
that makes freight operations more efficient also has VMS, parking information signs, etc. One of the
environmental spin-offs. limitations of information provision is its accuracy,
The recent publication of the AQEG confirmed that timeliness and, most importantly, the delivery of the
diesel traffic emissions are the major source of particu- personalised information. In this section, some evidence
late matter near to roads and the regional contribution of the environmental benefits of information systems as
to background particulate matter [3]. As commercial found in the literature will be presented.
vehicles are largely diesel fuelled, control of their Yin et al. demonstrated the means by which ITS
emissions must be central to any UK strategy to control technologies can reduce congestion in urban road
exposure to particulate matter. Also, as there is no networks [132]. The paper recognised the significance
known safe level for exposure, it is not appropriate of the reliability of travel times in route choice and
to rely solely on air quality objectives for their departure time choice decisions by individuals, and the
control, as relatively few people tend to live in places impacts that ATIS may play in these decisions.
where pollutant concentrations are at their highest; for Interestingly, work by Yang and Huang showed that
example, close to busy roads. The emphasis of the the benefits of ATIS initially increases with market
advice was to maximise the benefits of controls on penetration but in some cases, after some optimal level is
particulate matter but aim to reduce exposure more reached, negative effects, such as increased total travel
widely. The recommendation was to implement regula- time, may result [133]. This was due to the fact that
tions based on reducing the average exposure to ATIS users over-react. This has led to a general policy
particulate matter experienced by the UK population conclusion that it is only necessary and desirable to
which would complement the 24 hourly and annual equip a proportion of vehicles with ATIS. However, if
averages [3]. implemented as a component of a more global integra-
In addition to the strategic management of commer- tion of technologies–dynamic signal control system, for
cial movements in a conurbation, as outlined in the example–the latter can monitor and forecast the
above sections, Advanced Traveller Information consequential changes in traffic levels and conditions,
Systems (ATIS) in the freight industry deliver import- and thus modify the ATIS message accordingly. There is
ant benefits to the environment by reducing unnece- a need to overcome challenges in hardware and software
ssary vehicle mileage through suggesting optimal before technology integration becomes a reality.
routes. Ridwan used a fuzzy preference based model The EU Fourth Framework project Integrated
of route choice which can account for drivers who do Environmental Monitoring, Forecasting and Warning
not necessarily minimise travel time or cost in their Systems in Metropolitan Areas (EMMA) [134], the
route choice decisions [130]. The uncertainty of dec- sister project to Environmental Forecasting for the
ision making is captured by the fuzzy preference model Effective Control of Traffic (EFFECT) [99] with partner
that supports ATIS project implementations. Tanigu- cities Leicester, Madrid, Gothenburg and Genoa,
chi and Shimamoto designed a dynamic vehicle rout- developed a co-ordinated approach to the provision of
ing and scheduling model that incorporated real-time information. This included a newsletter, pre-trip plan-
traffic information using variable travel times in a road ning via the internet, and dynamic message systems
network, using dynamic traffic simulation to update (DMS), using radio broadcasts and variable message
travel times [131]. This ATIS, specifically targeted for signs during the journey. The aim was to inform and
use in urban freight operations, was shown to have the update travellers of congestion and air pollution

IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006 123
problems in an attempt to influence their choice of mode were developed to provide trip attributes, describing
of transport (e.g. park-and-ride, public transport), or travel behaviour for each point recorded. The accuracy
even postpone trips on days when there are pollution of measurement and validity of the algorithm was
episodes. assessed for 100 individuals surveyed using the com-
EMMA aimed to produce 24- and 48-hour forecasts bined data logging system. This technology, while desig-
of air quality in Leicester, based on the weather forecast ned for transport operations, could also provide travel
obtained daily from the Met Office in the UK. These activity descriptors – i.e. mode of transport, duration of
forecasts were used to both inform and warn the public, exposure according to the different modes, etc. –
and to alert the traffic signal control operator to any essential for the assessment of human exposure to
pollution ‘‘hot spotss’’ that could be alleviated using pollution levels to feed into health assessment tools
traffic demand management as described above. [137]. The value of mobile phone technology as a source
Gothenburg city council attempted to influence driver of information to enhance the management of urban
behaviour by providing information and advice using networks was described in [138].
VMS signs. The effectiveness of seven traffic and six Bell and Paksarsawan [139] and Chen and Bell [140]
environment VMS signs was established by a telephone outlined a system’s architecture for an integrated moni-
questionnaire survey and by assessing the degree of re- toring and modelling platform as a basis for a soph-
routing achieved when drivers are advised by measuring isticated decision support system (DSS). A database
actual traffic flow levels [134]. platform forms the kernel of the DSS by capturing and
The controlled experiments showed that the actual storing data from all of the available technologies on
wording on signs affects how drivers interpret the vehicles, systems and people. Statistical algorithms
message and the action they take. There was clear would be used to mine the database platform to identify
evidence that the driver must be able to trust that the problems related to either congestion or environment
information was up-to-date. It was shown that drivers and, with faster than real-time modelling, provide
were not familiar with the names of all the interchanges solutions to the problems in real-time. A more recent
and roads, and that advice ‘‘to follow the signs to ...’’ work presents an integrated decision support system for
was more useful. The experiment showed that messages urban air quality assessment [141].
relating to traffic incidents were taken more seriously As ITS develops, vehicle tracking allows data on
than those relating to pollution episodes. The difference journey times and speeds of vehicles through cities to
in the public responses were also influenced by prior be made available, to fine tune traffic demand strategies
knowledge of the network and traffic conditions. and urban traffic management control to further reduce
However, as a consequence of the information provi- pollutant emission. Smart-card technology, used to pay
sion, there was no statistically significant reduction in for car parking, to ride a bus or train, provides valuable
traffic flow levels measured on streets on the day of the information on the demands of trip making and thus
pollution episode studied. allows better management of public transport. Fur-
In a parallel study in Leicester, on the eve of a thermore, the data from these systems would allow
pollution episode (a temperature inversion), the public information on personal activity to be collected. This
were informed by radio broadcasts, television and local may then be used as input to exposure models to better
newspaper articles and were given advice to use public reflect the impact of demand management strategies and
transport, park-and-ride, or even postpone their trips if policy on health rather than pollutant concentrations
possible. On-street surveys in the central area of the [27, 67, 142].
city–mainly shoppers, as the pollution episode took ITS technologies are the mechanisms through which
place on a Saturday–demonstrated that in the morning up-to-date information concerning the state of the
about one third of shoppers were aware that pollution traffic and transport network can be deposited directly
levels were high. By the afternoon, this had risen to two on to the information platforms for dissemination and
thirds. However, of 104 subjects interviewed by tele- action by both the public transport operator, traffic
phone in the evening, one member of the public had not manager and the public. Indeed, the internet and the
entered the city when advised that there was a mobile phone are increasingly likely to become means
temperature inversion. The survey was carried out on by which the public can gain access to information
the first occasion that information and advice had been concerning congestion, arrival time of buses at stops
given to the public. It is hoped that, through time and and, perhaps in the future, a fully integrated real-time
education programmes, the public will respond more private-public transport information system. The perso-
positively to advice during periods of poor air quality. nal hand-held web-based information systems giving
Both surveys highlighted the potential problems of traveller information services will play an increasingly
persuading drivers to act responsibly and change their important role in the future. Research has shown that
travel behaviour in response to incidences of poor air information provision, whilst having an important role
quality [100, 135]. to play, currently has limited impact, as drivers are
reluctant to use public transport as an alternative to the
7 Integrated information platform car. Therefore, ATIS, mobile phones, VMS, internet,
for decision support ISA, smart cards, etc., should be considered as
technologies that can facilitate the implementation of
As ITS assumes an increasing role in air-quality integrated private and public transport policies for
management, they are becoming a vital tool for the demand management and control, rather than as entities
delivery of sustainable cities. However, in future, such in themselves.
technologies should be seen as an important source of Another important role for the database platform is
data. Asakura and Hato demonstrated fundamental to use historic data to advise policy and land-use
concepts and methods for the use of mobile com- decisions, and to evaluate the impact of policy inter-
munication instruments, such as cellular telephones, vention and TDMS. However, as the vehicles and the
for tracking movements of individuals [136]. Algorithms nature of traffic flows in our urban networks change as a

124 IEE Proc. Intell. Transp. Syst. Vol. 153, No. 2, June 2006
result of technology, so the need for the models used to to reduce their need to travel. Government intervention
validate the impacts need to also change. This is because is needed to regulate emissions to ensure that pollution
current models are not sufficiently sensitive to the subtle levels are not harmful to health. However, given that
changes that occur, for example when calming traffic measures to reduce one pollutant do not also reduce
flows and speeds, modifying driving profiles, etc., which another, tough decisions are needed by policy makers
affect emissions profiles of vehicles in the network. This and that will change the shape of our towns and
is not an easy task as the frequency of occurrence and cities as they adapt to the reduction in unnecessary
the character of the emissions, both air and noise, from travel. Radical and innovative solutions combining
cars, buses, trams, trains and light rapid transit, are policy, science and engineering present the greatest of
widely different and vary according to time of day and challenges.
meteorological conditions.
The assessment models for the impact of air quality
across different modes, whilst more developed for 9 Acknowledgement
strategic evaluation, need substantial improvement to
assess the impact on the environment of future This paper was commissioned by the Foresight Pro-
technologies, as these require modelling at a microscopic gramme of the Office of Science and Innovation,
level. Fundamental research in this area is currently Department of Trade and Industry.
being conducted [60–63, 143–148].
Furthermore, if the information platforms could also
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