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Article history: Many modern electronic devices utilize linear Hall sensors to measure current and the magnetic field, as
Received 30 January 2018 well as to perform switching and latching operations. Smartphones, laptops, and e-readers all work with
Received in revised form 10 June 2018 very low (sub-milliampere) currents. To perform a switching function in low-power devices, however,
Accepted 11 June 2018
Hall sensors must work in the microampere regime. This paper demonstrates, for the first time, the ability
Available online 18 June 2018
of a standard Hall detector to work linearly in the microampere regime between
√ 0 and 0.7 Tesla. To do so,
we developed a current source with RMS noise on the order of 10–100 pA/ Hz. An optimized electronic
Keywords:
circuit with minimal connections feeds current to the Hall sensor, and the Hall voltage is measured with
Hall sensors
Magnetism
an industrial nanovoltmeter. After cooling this system down to temperatures as low as 77 K, we found
Low current mostly 1/f noise. In this regime the thermal noise was negligible. We demonstrate the capabilities of this
system by precisely measuring the slope of the Hall effect with a four-point probe at current intensities
of 100, 10, and 1 A. We expect that our system can work as a microampere Hall sensor using external
voltage detectors.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction output current of the Hall sensor is in the mA regime. This current
level gives a good signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and its Hall voltage
Many modern devices, such as smartphones, tablets, e-readers, can be easily detected. This paper presents work towards the devel-
GPS units, and heart rate monitors, are controlled remotely and opment of a Hall sensor that can work in the microampere regime
operated continuously for long stretches of time. These features and still react while a device is in the sleep mode. In order to achieve
come with a practical design constraint: the devices spend most of this goal, it is necessary to first greatly reduce SNR and then find
their time in a low-power sleep mode, using a battery or a DC low- a voltage sensor capable of detecting the signal. The present work
power bus to deliver current in the sub-milliampere (mA) regime. focuses on the first factor. We demonstrate for the first time a lin-
When transmitting information, the devices switch to high-power ear DC Hall sensor working in the microampere regime, with a SNR
radio frequency (RF) activity, and the current increases to the mA similar to the mA regime used by current technologies. We mea-
or even Ampere scale. To control these switching behaviors, precise sure magnetic fields in the range 0–0.7 Tesla, for three very low DC
sensors must be used that are capable of measuring both low and current sources.
high currents. Usually, noninvasive current control is done using The basic relation between Hall voltage, current and magnetic
Hall sensors. The current flowing through the Hall sensor creates a field is:
perpendicular Hall voltage, which is proportional to the current and
detectable through the material of the sensor. Weak magnetic fields VHall = RH BI/t (1)
can be measured by various techniques, such as superconducting
quantum interference (SQUID) devices [1] or magnetoresistance where RH is Hall resistivity, B is the magnetic field, I is the electrical
sensors (“giant”, “anomalous”, or “tunneling”, respectively denoted current and t is a thickness of material.
GMR, AMR, or TMR) [2–4]. Hall sensors are also cheap, so are used RH is equal to:
in many devices. However, to conserve battery life, the energy used
by different types of sensors needs to be minimized. Usually, the
RH = rh /nq (2)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2018.06.027
0924-4247/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Y. Sharon et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 279 (2018) 278–283 279
2. Current source
3. Noise treatment
Fig. 2. Current source noise.
Having reduced the current by three orders of magnitude, it
is necessary to understand how the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio
changes. In order to measure small magnetic fields with the same
accuracy, we need to reduce the noise level. DC systems mainly
We place our circuit consisting of current source and Hall sensor
harbor two types of noise: the non-thermal 1/f (flicker) noise,
inside a cryostat. Its connections are a coaxial cable, Fisher con-
and broadband noise which depends on temperature. Our system
nectors and cryogenic wires. The nanovoltmeter is connected in a
includes three main parts: the current source, the circuit compris-
similar manner, and will have its own noise. The noise generated
ing current source and sensor, and the detector. This paper focuses
by the coaxial cables, connectors, and the Hall sensor itself has a
on the first two. First we need to understand the noise in the cur-
thermal origin. We perform measurements at 300 K and at 77 K in
rent source, then we will look at the noise in the electronic circuit
order to see how this thermal noise influences our system.
that includes the Hall sensor.
In electronic circuits, the main type of broadband resistance
Fig. 2 illustrates the noise spectral density as function of fre-
noise at room temperature in DC circuits is Johnson–Nyquist noise.
quency in the range of 10 Hz–100 kHz in the logarithmic scale in
The noise level of the sensor voltage equals [5]:
our system:
According to definition, the 1/f noise decreases until some “cor-
ner frequency” is reached, and then levels off to a constant value. V= 4kb TRf (4)
This figure clearly shows that the corner frequency is around 100 Hz
for the 3 and 5 mA current sources. At 100 A, the corner frequency
lies between 10 and 100 Hz. As expected, 1/f noise climbs in these where kb is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, R is the
plots as we move left from the corner frequency. Although this is resistance, and f is the frequency bandwidth.
Laboratory power supplies are designed to provide currents
not shown, we expect that√ the noise spectral density for the 100 A
source reaches 100 pA/ Hz for some frequency around 1 Hz. For the and waveforms over a wide range of intensities and frequencies.
10 A source, the noise curve is flat and we expect that it does not They are therefore built with many electronic components, which
change drastically between 1 and 10 Hz. The 1/f noise curve for the increase the noise in the system. Moreover, the alternating voltage
1 A source is not shown, but we expect that will be lower than the of the power supply grid introduces additional noise. The standard
10 A curve. way to reduce noise is to decrease the bandwidth using a modu-
For comparison, the Keithley 6221 current source lated signal and a lock-in amplifier. In our case, we instead use a DC
√ has approved
broadband RMS noise levels on the order of nA/ Hz. The level of battery to supply a small amount of current without introducing
1/f noise achieved by our source is 3 orders of magnitude smaller any noise from extraneous electronic components or the external
than any industrial current source connected to the external grid. grid.
280 Y. Sharon et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 279 (2018) 278–283
Table 1
Hall coefficients for 1 A, 10 A, 100 A current sources at 300 K.
Fig. 5. Measured Hall voltage, VHall , as a function of the magnetic field for three current intensities at 300 K.
Fig. 6. Hysteresis deviation in VHall [V] for the 1,10 and 100 A signals, as a function of the magnetic field at 300 K.
very close to the expected factors of 100 and 10. The most precisely Table 2
RMSE(accuracy limit) and hysteresis deviation for 1 A, 10 A, 100 A current
determined slope in this series of measurements was for the 10 A
sources at 300 K.
current, which had a relative error of only 165 m%. The uncertain-
ties in the slopes (reported in Table 2) are directly proportional to Current 1 A 10 A 100 A
the root-mean-squared error (RMSE) of the Hall voltage measure- RMSE (accuracy limit) 10.4 nV 48.7 nV 530 nV
ments. RMSE, measured in nanovolts, defines the real limit of our Hysteresis deviation 0.09 V 0.1 V 0.6 V
282 Y. Sharon et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 279 (2018) 278–283
Fig. 7. Hysteresis deviation in VHall [V] for 100 A signals, as 300 K and 77 K, full scale in the left side and zoomed on the right side.
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[4] J.Y. Chen, J.F. Feng, J.M. Coey, Tunable linear magnetoresistance in MgO Biography
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[5] G. Jung, M. Ocio, Y. Paltiel, H. Shtrikman, E. Zeldov, Magnetic Noise Dr. Dima Cheskis is a senior stuff member in the Physics Department at the Ariel
Measurements Using Cross-Correlated Hall Sensor Arrays, 2001, http://dx.doi. University. Dima Cheskis completed his PhD in Physics at Tel Aviv University under
org/10.1063/1.1340866. supervision of prof. Shimshon Barad. The subject of his experimental research was
[6] C. Yang, A Study of Electrical Properties in Bismuth Thin Films, University of ultrafast phenomena in a transient metals and specifically in nickel thin films. The
Florida, Gainesville, 2008, pp. 18. next step was postdoctorate studies in the Technion – Israel Institute of Technol-
[7] Z. Yang, R. Grassi, M. Freitag, Y.-H. Lee, T. Low, W. Zhu, Electronic transport ogy in the area of nanocrystal semiconductor laser spectroscopy. After two years
and spatial/temporal photocurrent in monolayer molybdenum disulfide in industry which includes work in Applied Materials Company, he joined to the
grown by CVD, APS March Meeting Abstracts (2016). Physics Department at Ariel University. His research interests lie in the areas of
[8] H. Blanchard, F. De Montmollin, J. Hubin, R.S. Popovic, Highly sensitive Hall magnetic and electrical phenomena of thin films, including Hall Effects measure-
sensor in CMOS technology, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 82 (1) (2000) 144–148. ments. In these days he build of laboratory which will study magnetic dynamics
[9] K.A. Borup, K.F.F. Fischer, D.R. Brown, G.J. Snyder, B.B. Iversen, Measuring of thin films like graphene and its composition using Faraday and Magneto-optical
anisotropic resistivity of single crystals using the van der Pauw technique, Kerr Effect (MOKE) setups. He teaches in number academic courses which includes
Phys. Rev. B 92 (4) (2015) 45210. basic physics courses as Mechanics and Electromagnetism and number of advanced
[10] B. Schumacher, G. Rietveld, C.V. Koijmans, L.C.A. Henderson, S. Harmon, M.J. physics laboratories.
Hall, P. Warnecke, DC conductivity measurements in the Van der Pauw
geometry, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 52 (2) (2017).