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 About the Author

Anatoly Bondarchuk

Dr. Anatoly Bondarchuk is renowned as an athlete (1972 Olympic Champion and EUKtpean
Champion in the hammer throw as well as a former World Record Holder) and Dr. Bondar~hnk's
coaching credentials are virtually unprecedented in the sport of Athletics.

Dr. Bondarchuk is a Doctor of Pedagogical Science (University of Kiev) and his research into
technique and high-performance training methods formed the basis for many of the common
techniques and practices used by the world's top athletes today. Dr. Bondarchuk developed the
USSR National Team throws program from 1976 to 1992 from which he produced numerous
I
World and Olympic Champions in the Hammer, Discus and Shot Put. He has authored 11 books
and 195 articles in his areas of expertise. A common focus is training to maintain performance
and technique. Since 1992 he has.been coaching in Portugal and Kuwait.

Dr. Bondwhuk's athletes, while members of the USSR National Team, broke 12 World
Records, and still hold the current world rec~rdin the hammer throw. His athletes won all
hammer throw medals in 4 consecutive non-boycotted Olympic Games.
 About the Translator

Dr. Michael Yessis

Dr. Michael Yessis received his Ph.D. from the University of Southern California and his B.S.
and M.S. from City University of New York. He is president of Sports Training, Inc., a diverse
sports and fitness company. Dr. Yessis is also Professor Emeritus at California State University,
Fullerton, where he is a multi-sports specialist in biomechanics (technique analysis) and sports
conditioning and training.

In his work, Dr. Yessis has developed many unique specialized strength and speed-strength
(explosive) training programs. He has served as training and technique consultant to several
Olympic and professional sports teams, including the L.A. Rams and L.A. Raiders football clubs,
Natadore Diving Team, and the U.S. Men's Volleyball Team. He has also successfully trained
many athletes in different sports.

Dr. Yessis has written 16 books including Kinesiology of Exercise, Explosive Running, Build A
Better Athlete, and Sports: Is It All B.S. ? He has also written more than 2,000 articles on fitness
and sports training that have appeared in magazines such as Muscle and Fitness, Shape,
Scholastic Coach, Fitness Management, and the National Strength and Conditioning Association
Journal. In addition, he has completed four DVDs; Exercise Mastery, Specialized Strength and
Explosive Exercises for the Quarterback, Specialized Strength and Explosive Exercises for
Baseball and Specialized Strength and Explosive Exercises for Softball.
6

Table of Contents
About the Author .........................................................................................................................................i
About the Translator ..................................................................................................................................ii
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................1
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................5
Metric System Conversions.....................................................................................................................11
Chapter 1Cycles of Sports Form Development and Training Transfer .............................................12
Classification of types of exercises......................................................................................................... 16
Constructing cycles of sports form development.................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2 Interrelationships between separate training sessions. their parts and exercises .............26
Interrelationshipsbetween training sessions........................................................................................... 28
Relationships between parts of separate trainiig sessions...................................................................... 33
Interrelationshipsbetween exercises used in each part of a complex training session ...........................41
Residual training effects ......................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 3 Standardization of training loads in separate training sessions, and micro-, meso-, and
macro- cycles of sports training ..............................................................................................................
52
Adaptation ............................................................................................................................................... 54
Interrelationshipsbetween pedalogical and biological processes ........................................................... 60
Alternation of phases of acquiring, maintaining and losing sports form during periods of its
development ............................................................................................................................................ 65
Dynamics of sports results during periods of sports form maintenance .............................................. 71
Dynamics of sports results during periods of rest ................................................................................... 76
The dynamics of sports results during phases of acquiring sports form ................................................. 80
Dynamics of sports results in separate training sessions in the phase of acquiring sports form............. 83
Increase, stabilization or decrease in the best sports achievement levels during multiyear sports
improvement ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Raising the level of personal achievements after ending each consecutive cycle of sports form
development ............................................................................................................................................ 95
Dynamics of training transfer in the training used during periods of sports form development ............ 97
Standardization of loads over separate sessions, micro-, meso- and macro cycles of sports training ..102
Chapter 4 The body's defense against adaptational restructuring that serves to increase sports
achievements ................................................................................................................................
115
Minimization of information....................................................................... :........................................ 116
About inhibition .................................................................................................................................... 119
The level of coordination of conditioned reflex activity....................................................................... 125
Some mechanisms of the defense systems on the brain level ............................................................... 128
About talent........................................................................................................................................... 138
References .............................................................................................................................................147
 Introduction
Every branch of scientific knowledge (including the theory and methodology of physical
education) has its own specific principles, that define its essence. For many decades these
principles have played in the leading role in showing the way to achieve one or another
objective. In time, all of the principles were subjected to correction in practice. Many of them
were found to be false and were without mercy, repudiated in practice. It appears that they were
all thought out in "silent cabihets"; they were hypotheses which were not substantiated in
experimental studies and presented as false "theories", which when checked, turned out to be
"soap bubbles".

They all, just as one, went through a period of erroneous flourishing but came into opposition
with the flow of new facts, which all'the more appeared with each new decade. Tied in with this,
one of them (L.V. Chkhaidze -- Chkhaidze, L.V. Directing the Movement of Man-M.
Fizkultura i Sport, 1970,-136pg) correctly noticed that sometimes "the gradual accumulation of
data, not in keeping with the old theories, and sometimes, one solitary fact or phenomena, .'

appearing at its very heart, shows itself as the necessary reason for its urgent change. In the end
sometimes science must wait a long time until that moment when on the field of battle, a
sagacious genius appears who has the ability to find and formulate a new powerful concept that
knocks down previous views and shows its undeniable superiority. Such insightful "geniuses"
appear in sports practice. .

Related to this is the "unity of general and special preparation" principle that has existed for
many decades. It is written up in many countries, considering it as basic. Even at the present
time there is agreement on all levels of sports mastery (!!!)that general training creates the
'%ase3',"foundation" for increasing sports mastery in specialized preparation (which includes the
competitive exercises). In agreement with this position is that over the first part of the
preparatory period (stage of general preparation) it is necessary to use mainly general
preparation, and only after this, over the second half of this period (stage of specialized
preparation) introduce special preparation.

Here there is a lack of precise and clear classification of these types of exercises. Very
frequently, for general preparation there are not only specialized exercises, but also exercises that
are repeated in part or as a whole, in regard to the competitive exercise. This is fxst. Second is
that in constructing a multiyear system of preparation, it is affmed that general preparation
creates the "base", "foundation" for all (we are especially interested in the high levels of
achievement) levels of sports mastery. Some specialists recommend that "Olympians" use
mainly general preparation means over the f i t two yeam of the four year Olympic cycle. It
consists of no more that 25% special preparation of tbe total volume of work executed.

In the previous book (Transfer of Training in Sports) on the basis of experimental studies, we
showed that the means of general preparation create the "base", "foundation" only on the
beginning level of sports specialization. Consequently, it does not have any relationship to the
increase in sports mastery on a high (even more on the "Olympic") level and in constructing the
multiyear system of preparation of different level athletes.

The principle of the unity of general and specialized preparation secretly rejects many means of
constructing preparatory periods that were for many (!!!) decades used in sports practice in
which it was recommended to use a one stage method (our determination) that oversees the
division of the preparatory periods into stages of general and specialized preparation. In writing
about it, authors give only general (non-concrete) recommendations on the use of a definite
system of exercises over their duration.
I In our present work we propose that specialists use not just one, but 16 ways of constructing
periods of sports form development (preparatory periods). Each of them is differentiated from
the other fmt of all, by the system of exercises used and precise and clear classification of all
types of exercises. The essence of the task being resolved is made clear (as to development or
maintenance of sports form) over the duration of each period.

)
In line with this we continue to examine transfer of training that is closely tied in with the means
of constructing the periods of sports form development used (this is done first in the theory and
methodology of physical educafion). Explained are the mechanisms of the inter-connections
between the systems of the used exercises and the changes that take place in the body systems
from adaptation.

Once again, a first in the theory and methodology of physical education, written up are the
defense mechanisms of the body systems that impede the increase in sports achievements on all
levels of sports mastery. Definite recommendations are giving for overcoming them. It appears
that the'increase in sports mastery on all of its levels is to a great extent determined not by the
systematic use of general preparatory exercises, but primarily by the systematic use of
specialized preparation means. On each consecutive level of sports mastery it is necessary to use
a more effective system of training effects (stronger in comparison to the previous), that allow
the systems of the body to rise up to a new quality level of adaptation at the moment of entry into
the state of sports form.

Also examined are other basic problems that likewise have a relationship to the systcm of
preparation of athletes having different levels of sports qualifications (but especially the highest
level).
The author sincerely thanks all of his mentors who Served in bringing about achievements in
sport, in science and on the training field. Without their assistance I could not have achieved
kind of success. A low bow and eternal memory if they have left us.

Thank you readers who have read my multiyear work. I will be very fulfilled if I could have to
some extent helped you.

Thank you to my publisher, Yosef Johnson and translator, Michael Yessis.

 Glossary

Term Definition

Block method The block method of constructing cycles of sports form development is
alternated to resolve physical ability development and technical mastery.
According to Y.V.Verkhoshansky [49,50] specialized physical preparation
should always take into consideration work on the technical and preparing
the base for technical improvement. He recommends division of the cycles
of sports form into blocks of physical and technical preparation. Each.of the
blocks should end at the moment of entry into the state of sports form in the
complex of exercises used and maintained.

Bloek-complex This method of constructing cycles of sports form development uses a

method definite complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory
exercises over the dnration of the fmt block and specialized developmental
and competitive exercises over the second.

Block complex- This method, usedover the duration of the physical preparation block, uses a
variation . definite complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory
method exercises while the athlete has still not entered into the state of sports f o m
At the beginning of the technical preparation block these means of training
are excluded from the training and specialized-developmental and
competitive exercises are introduced.

Block-vmiation in the blocks of physical and technical preparation the same system of
method exercises is used as in the blockscomplex method.

Block Construction of these cycles of sports fonn development are distinguished

varlation- from the previous ones by the fact that'in these blocks, physical preparation
combined does not use the same complex of general developmental and specialized-
method preparatory exercises and their schematic changes every 2-4 weeks. The
compkx method of constructing cycles of sports form development does not
take into account the use of the different stages, blocks. At fhe bsginning a
definite compIex of general developmental, specialized-preparatory and
specialized developmental and competitive exercises are introduced. They
are used until the athlete enters into the state of sports form. Corresponding
means of training depend upon the qualifications of the athletes, individual
essentials and tasks to be resolved on specific stages of spo& improvement.
Block In this method, when used in the physical preparation block, general
variation- developmental and specialized-preparatory exercises change every 2-4
complex weeks. During the block of technical preparation a definite complex of
method specialized developmental and competitive exercises is used.

Complex- In this block of constructing sports form development cycles there is a

combined block division in the second block in the stage of specialized preparation and
method development of sports form. In the first stage only specialized-
developmental exercises are used and in the second, competitive and
specialized-developmental. At the beginning of the physical preparation
block a definite complex of general developmental and specialized-
preparatory exercises are introduced. They are used while the athlete still
has not entered into the state of sports form.

Combined When using the combined method of development of sports form, the cycles
method are broken into stages of specialized preparation and development of sports
form. Over the duration of the fust of these, general preparatory, specialized
preparatory and specializeddevelopmental exercises are used. In the
second---specializeddevelopmentaland competitive.

Competitive In the theory and methods of physical education, the acting definition or
Exercises understanding is "sport event", in which the athlete participates in
competition. The exercises are executed in the process of competition as
well as in training. In the latter case they can model (repeat) the competitive
conditions in easier or more difficult conditions.

Complex- This method of constructing sports form development cycles uses a definite
variation complex of specializeddevelopmental and competitive-exercises. These
method exercises do not change unless the athlete does not enter into the state of
sports form. At that time, over the duration of the sports form development
cycle, there is a change in the complex of general preparatory and
specialized-preparatory exercises.

Direction of Tbis usually refers to whether the transfer tends to be or is moving in a I

Training manner more positive, negative or indifferent. In other words, by doing a.
particular type of training the m s f e r becomes more positive negative or
Transfer neutral.

Exercise The definition of this term is standard and typically means the activity in
which the person engages. It can refer to a specific strength or endurance
exercise and it can also refer to the competitive event, as for example, the
competitive exercise.
conditioningbut do not have a direct correlation to improvement of the
sports skill or sports event (except for low level athletes).

appear as a means of all-round development of the individual, and have a

positive influence on increasing the general level of work ability and
coordination. At the same time, their use with other forms of exercises serve
the flow of the restorative processes (active rest).

exercise. It may also refer to results in the exercise, results in the

each of the means. For example, strength training is the means and
concentric, eccentric, interval, explosive, maximum strength training etc. m
the methods. In the U.S.,these terms are most often used interchangeably.

function or functions. For example, the motor analyzer usually refers to the
area of the brain (cortex) which is responsible for movement in the body. It
is in this area that the brain analyzes the incoming information and then
responds by sending out the proper signals to guide the motor activity.
Physical This term is used to denote the pure discipline. The physical education
Education discipline is more highly developed and scientific in the Russian literature
than in the U.S.

Qualifications These terms are used interchangeably. They refer to an athlete's level of
of Athlete ability, i.e. whether he or she is in the elite (world or professional level),
high, average or low (novice) class. The categories are very distinct.

Level of
Athlete

Result Indice usually refers to the number of the recorded result of a particular
exercise. It may also refer to results in the exercise, results in the
competition, etc.
Indice

Specialized Specialized exercises have a direct correlation to the sports event. They
have specific criteria and must duplicate various aspects of the competitive
Exercises event, as for example, the biomechanical structure, energy source, range of
motion in which strength is displayed, etc. Also known as specialized
physical preparation (SPP).

Specialized- These exercises repeat the competitive exercise in its separate parts. In
developmental executing them, one and the same muscle groups participate, together with
exercises activation of similar systems and organs. They not only repeat the muscle
work regime and other systems of the body which ensure further increases in
the competitive exercise, but also supersede them. The specialized-
developmental exercises more or less recreate all the elements of the
competitive activity, and in so doing, make it possible to more effectively
and selectively have an effect on improving or developing the same or other
physical abilities. The levels achieved in these exercises are realized in
further execution of the competitive exercises. They serve for entry into the
state of sports form.

Specialized- These exercises as the general preparatory exercises, do not repeat the
preparatory competitive actions as a whole or in their separate parts. However, they use
exercises similar muscle groups in their execution. The training work serves to
activate the functions and body systems from which an increase in sports
results in the main movements depend. Identical or close to identical
regimes of muscle work and different functions of other systems are
involved.
Sports Form This term typically refers to when the athlete attains all that is possible from
the specific training done over a specific period of time. For example,
entering sports form after working on a particular exercise and mastering it,
means that the athlete has attained full mastery of the exercise and full
development of the physical quality. There are various stages of sports form
development culminating in the sports form needed for competition. This is
analogous to peaking at which time the athlete achieves technical and
physical perfection.

Stage These terms are interchangeably. Stage of training is synonymous with

period of training. At times, stage of kaining may also refer to level of
Period training.

Stage-complex This method of constructing a sports form development cycle uses a specific
method complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatoryexercises
over the duration of the general preparatory stage (GPP). At the beginning
of the stage of specialized preparation, specialized-developmental and
competitive exercises are introduced. Excluded are general preparatory
exercises. There is also a change in the specialized preparatory exercises
over the duration of the specialized preparation stages which once again use
a definite complex of specialized-preparatory, specialized-developmental
and competitive exercises.

Stage complex- This method is used on the stage of general preparation which uses a defmite
combined complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory exercises. At
method the beginning of the stage of specialized preparation, a new complex of
specialized preparatory and specialized-developmental exercises are
introduced. The competitive exercises are used only during the stage of
sports form development.

Stage-complex- This method uses the same system of exercises as the ones above. The only
variation difference is that over the duration of the general preparatory stage, a
method specific complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory
exercises are used. The stage of specialized preparation begins with the
introduction of a complex of specialized-preparatory, specialized-
developmental and competitive exercises. These methods of training change
every 2 4 weeks.

Stage-variation This method of constructing cycles of sports form development uses the
method same system of exercises which is used over the duration of the stage-
complex method. The difference is that every 2-4 weeks there is a change in
the exercises used over the duration of the general and specialized
preparation stages. The first stage is basically the same as the second and
ends at the moment of entering the state of sports form in the exercises beiig
used.
Stage variation- This method of constructing sports form development cycles is distinguished
combined ftom the stages of the complexcomhiied methods only in that over the
method duration of the general preparatory stage, there are changes in the exercises
every 2-4 weeks.

Stage variation- This method calls for a change in the means of training (general preparatory
complex and specialized-preparatory exercises) over the duration of the general
method preparatory stages and uses a standard complex of specialized-preparatory,
specialized-developmental and competitive exercises during the following
stages of specialized preparation.

Standing Start These terms are used interchangeably. They refer to running start positions.

Hi@ Start

Variation This method of constructing sports form development cycles is distinguished

method from the complex because it calls for a change in the methods of training
used every 2-6 weeks. In sports practice it most frequently consists of 4
different (according to name and content) stages. The latter of them which
oversees entry into the state of sports form, is called the stage of
development of sports form. There must be a session between the exercises
used over the duration of these cycles. Resolution of each following task
should come from each of the previous. The corresponding means of
training can change on each stage and depend upon various factors.
 Metric System Conversions
To convert kilograms (kg) to pounds (IbJ multiply lbs by 2.2,

Torjonvert meters (m)to f e t (ff), multiply by 3.28.

To convert feet (ft) to meters (m), multiply by 0.3M

To convert pounds (Ibs) to kibgems (kg), multiply by .4563

 Chapter 1
Cycles of Sports Form
Development and Training
Transfer

In the theory and methods of physical education, the term "cycle of sports form" development is
often identified with the term "preparatory period" or with the term "period of development of
sports form". The first of these was firmed up in sports practice in the 1920's and 1930's of the
previous century while the 2"* began to be introduced only in the 1980's. Its introduction
coincided with the appearance of new material on the principles of constructing the periodization
of sports form, in the base of which, were the regularities of development, maintenance and loss
of sports form.

Without splitting hairs as to the fine points in the differences in terminology, we will note that
the use of the term "period of development of sports form" according to our thinking, creates the
pathway to resolving the problem. When it exists in a more definite form it widens the
understanding of the structure of yearly cycles of training that take into consideration the
individual essentials of the athletes, the calendar of competition and the multiyear process of
sports improvement.

It was always thought that in the first part of the development of sports form cycles (which can
be of various durations) it is necessary to create a 'base", "foundation" or "precondition"
initiallyin Ode&i W@p&dized event and only after this, begin to
train for the formation of sports form.

In the 1920's and 30's into the role of this "something", created "base" there were other sports in
which the athlete was involved in the fall-winter or summer-fall season. These were basically
"related" sports. Sprinters and jumpers frequently began to take up ice skating, gymnastics and
acrobatics. Throwers took up weight lifting, boxing, and wrestling and middle and long distance
runners, skiing and ice skating.

In doing this, individual athletes achieved championship recognition in several different sports.
Thus, LKotkas was Olympic champion in freestyle wrestling, and champion and record holder of
the USSR in the hammer throw. S.Lyakhov was victorious in boxing competition, set records in
the discus throw and was often champion of the USSR in these events. N.Ozolin won the USSR
championships in the ski jump and in the standing long jump. And still one more example+.
Nenashev was world record holder in the hammer throw and in weightlifting. It is true that even
in t h e years some specialists became skeptical of the idea of participating in several different
sports, considering that "it is not possible to be a universal athlete, that is to like and s ~ n d e r
oneself to all types of sport without discrimination" or that such "Universality-amateurism, that
does not allow one to show his individual capabilities to the greatest depth possible" (66).

In the 1940's, the accumulation of theoretical and experimental material made it possible to
conelude that the level of sports achievements depended not only on the all-round, all-sided
d e v e l - w
--
. .. b u t i a s e ~ ~ W ~ ~ ~ n ; f t ~
clear that over the cycles of development of sports form, it is necessary to combine all sided
training with deeper specialization.
Further on, these views found their expression in the principle of general and specialized
preparation which came into practice at the end of the 1950's and beginning of the 1960's (153).
It oversees the combination of three basic positions:

1. Inseparability (unity) of general and specialized preparation;

2. The mutual conditioning of the general and specialized preparation-general preparatory

means creating the prerequisites for increasing sports results in the specialized-
preparatory exercises;

3. The necessity to combine to a definite degree, corresponding means of general and

specialized preparation that change in relation to mastery of the athletes and deeper
specialization.

At that time it was believed that the means of general preparation created the "base"
"foundation" for increasing sports results in the specialized preparation. Because of this,
development of sports form cycles began to be divided into stages of general and specialized
preparation.

On the following stage of formulation in the theory and methods of sports training (1970's-
1980's) it became clear that general preparation creates the "base", "foundation" only in the
training of novices and low level athletes. This served as the basis for rethinking the position on
the use of general preparation in the first part of the cycles of development of sports form. One
group of athletes completely eliminated it from the training process. Another group continued to
use general preparation in small amounts for active rest and even for carrying out general warm-
up. A third group used general preparatory exercises for one-two weekly cycles which followed
after the periods of restoration (transitional periods), for resolving the tasks of preparation of the
body systems for the following work.
It should be noted that at the present time, there are supporters of the unity of general and
specialized preparation concept who stubbornly use general preparatory exercises over the stages
of general preparation for the overwhelming majority of the training. They swear that they
create the "base" "foundation" for specialized preparation.

:Explaining the veracity of the role of specialized preparation in the process of the individuals'
,sports improvement, serves as the reas'on for searching for new means of constructing cycles of
sports form development. Swving to do this were the studies opening up the essence of the
regularity of sports form development, and studies of the individual characreristics of the
athletes. This gave a picture of the duration of stages and periods and likewise showed the
mechanisms of training transfer,

The proposed means of constructing periods of sports form development varied in determining
the content of this "something", creating the "base", "foundation" for increasing sports
achievements. "It" in some cases is created over one stage and in others two stages and in still
others, three to four. The duration of these phases vary between one to two weekly cycles up to
three to four and more.

In sports practice, they use stage, block, combinational, variational, mixed and complex means of
constructing periods of sports form development. They oversee not only the structure of the
given periods (alternation of stages) and the sequence of using training means, but also their
duration. In some of them, it was recommended to use specific dynamics of volume and
intensity of the training loads.

Before expounding on the essence of the above enumerated means of constructing periods of
sports form development, we will look at the classifications of exercises used in sports practice.
Such discourse is needed because with great sorrow, there is no united understanding among

15
specialists regarding the terms "general preparatory" and "specialized preparatory" exercises.
And from here, there is a paradox in that the understanding of "specialization of general
preparation means "according to the degree of deeper sports specialization" is not always
understood.

In some track and field disciplines, they came to agreement in that in general preparatory
exercises, there is not only specialized preparation but also specialized-developmental, asserting
that they appear as means of general preparation and create the "base", or "foundation" for
means of specialized preparation. Thus, in track and field jumps, several authors relegate
multiple jumps and sprints to general preparatory exercises. In cyclical endurance events they
considered the aerobic run as a means of general preparation for many years.

Classification of types of exercises

The initial signs of classification of different exercises appear in their system structure (266),
poly structure (25, 80, 126) and poly functionality (96,267). System structure is looked at as the
joining of the competitive event with exercises of its' joint parts. The multi structure is
determined by the introduction of a definite number of body systems (including the neuuro-
muscular), as well as the repetitive regimes of their functioning. The poly function answers to
the use of training loads that bring about a relatively identical level of activation of certain
functions and their individual organs and body systems. According to the parameters of their
effects, they can be somewhat lower or higher in intensity than the competitive exercise,

By taking into consideration the above signs, all exercises can be divided into general
preparatory, specialized preparatory, specialized-developmental and competitive.
 neralpreparatory exercises-these are exercises, which when executed, do not repeat the
competitive actions as a whole or in their separate parts. Different muscle groups take part in the
work. With their help there is activation of those body system functions which do not ensure an
increase in sports results in the competitive exercises. General preparatory exercises appear as a
means of all-round development of the individual and have a positive affect on increasing the
total level of workability and coordination., Simultaneously, their use with other types of
exercises serve in the flow of the restorative processes (active rest).

Specializedpreparatory exercises-are the same as general preparatory as they do not repeat the
competitive actions as a whole, or their separate parts. But, similar muscle groups participate in
their execution. The training work is accompanied with activation of those functions and
systems of the body from which an increase in sports results in the main exercise depends.
Regimes of muscle work and different functions of other systems are identical or close to
identical to the competitive.

Specialized-developmentalexercises-repeat separate parts of the competitive exercise.

Involved in the process of their execution or significant parts of the same muscle groups are used
and similar systems and organs are activated. They not only repeat the muscle work regime and
entail other body systems that not only ensure W e r increases in sports results in the
competitive exercises, but also supersede them. Specialized-developmental exercises more or
less recreate all the elements of the competitive activity, and in this, have the abiity to more
effectively and selectively, have an effect on the development of certain physical abilities. The
level achieved from doing them is realized in the process of further execution of the competitive
exercises. They serve for entry into the sports fonn state.

Competitive exercises- are identified in the theory and methods of physical education with the
understanding of "type of sport" in which the athlete takes part in competition. They are
executed in the process of competition as well as in training. In the latter case, they can be
modeled to repeat the competitive conditions, make them easier or more difficult.

Constructing cycles of sports form development

Theoretically and in practice, it is possible to use six stages in constructing cycles of sports form
development. They are distinguished fromone another by the system of exercises used and the
understanding of the "something" which creates the ''base", or "foundation" for increasing sports
results in the competitive exercise. All of the means of constructing cycles of development of
sports form in each stage are split up into stages of general and specialized preparation. Over
each of these stages, the athletes sliould enter into the state of spom from in the exercises being
used. That is, the stage of specialized preparation begins only when the athlete has resolved the
task put before him in the previous stage.

The basis for constructing cycles of development in each stage lies, in the view of L.P. Matveev
(153), in the division of preparatory periods into stages of general and specialized preparation.

Stage-complex method (figure 1.1) of constructing cycles of sports form development, assumes
that over the duration of the general preparatory stage, the athlete will use a definite complex of
general preparatory and specialized preparatory exercises. At the beginning of the stage of
specialized preparation, general preparatory exercises are excluded from the training and
specialized developmental and competitive exercises are introduced. A change in the
specialized-preparatoryexercises also takes place. In this, in the stages of specialized
preparation they once again use a definite complex of specialized-preparatory, specialized-
developmental and competitive exercises.
 The Exercises
Used

Stage Stage
general specialized general specialized
preparation preparakion preparation preparation
Cvcle ( development of sports form I Cycle development of sports form
1 4
The Exercises
Used

Stage

Cycle

The Exercises
Used

general stage stage of specialized

development of sports form Cycle

System of exercises used when using the stage-complex (1). stage-variational (2), stage complex-
variational (3), stage variational-complex (4), complex combined stage (5) variational-combined
stage (6),means of constructing cycles of sports form development

On--general developmental, Cn--specialized-preparatoly, CP--specialized developmental and

C--competitive exercises. The anow here f shows the time of change of the training means.

19
The stage-variational method (figure 1.2) of constructing cycles of sports form development
assumes the use of a system of exercises that are used in the stage-complex method. The only
difference is that over the stages of general and specialized preparation, after every 2-4 weeks
there is a change in the exercises being used. The first stage, just as the 2nd,ends at the moment
of entry into the state of sports form in the exercises being used.

The stage-complex variational method (figure 1.3) cycles of sports form development oversees
the use of the same system of exercises as in the preceding methods. The only difference is that
over the stage of general preparation a definite complex of general developmental and
specialized-preparatory exercises are used. The stage of specialized preparation begins with the
introduction of specialized-preparatory,specialized-developmental and competitive exercises.
The means of training used change after every 2-4 weeks (3).

Stage-variational complex method (figure 1.4) instructions call for carrying out a schematic of
training means (general preparatory and specialized-preparatory exercises) over the general
preparatory stages and to use the standard complex of specialized-preparatory, specialized-
developmental and competitive exercises during the latter stages of specialized preparation.

In the stage complex-combinational method (figure 1.5) during general preparation, a definite
complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory exercises are used. At the
beginning of this stage of specialized preparation a complex of specialized preparatory and
specialized developmental exercises are introduced. The competitive exercise is used only in the
stage of sports form development.
Stage variational-combined method (figure 1.6) of constructing the above noted cycles is
distinguished from the stage complex-combined method only by the fact that over the stage of
general preparation, there is a change in the exercises used every 2-4 weeks.

The block method of constructing cycles of development of sports form proposes the alternation
of development of physical abilities with competitive technical mastery. According to
Y.V.Verkhoshansky (49,50) specialized physical preparation should always take place before
work on technique in order to prepare the base for its improvement. It proposes the division of
cycles of development of sports form into blocks of technical and physical preparation.

In our view, each of the blocks should end at the moment of entering into the state of sports form
in the exercises used during execution of the complex of exercises. In the theory and practice of
sport, it is possible to find discussion of six block methods of constructing cycles of sports form
development. They are distinguished from one another by the system of exercises used during
blocks of technical and physical preparation.

The block-complex method (figure 2.1) of constructing cycles of sports form development
assumes the use of a definite complex of general developmental and specialized-preparatory
exercises over the fust block and specialized developmental and competitive exercises over the
second. The exercises used do not change in the middle of each block.

The second method of constructing the above noted cycles of sports form development we call
the block-variational (figure 2.2). In the physical and technical preparation blocks the same
system of exercises is used as in the block-complex method but the means of training changes
every 2-4 weeks.
The Exercises on The Exercises
Used cn
used
ft c,
C

Stage Stage
general specialized general specialized
preparation preparation
Cycle I development of sports form I Cycle
1 4

The Exercises The Exercises

Used used

Stage Stage
specialized form

Cycle [ development of sports form I Cycle

2 5
The Exercises
on
me Exercises
used Used
cn

w
Stage Stage
stage of
general specialized general specialized form

Cycle Cycle
3 6
System of exercises used in the blockcomplex (I), block-variational (Z),block complex-
Figure 2: variational (3), block variationalcomplex (4), block complex-combined (5) block variational
combined (6),means of constructing cycles of sports form development.

On--general developmental, Cn--specialized-preparatory,CP-specialized developmental and

Key: C--competitive exercises. The arrow here T shows the time of change of the training means.
The block complex-variationalmethod (figure 2.3) of constructing cycles of sports form
development assumes that over the duration of the physical preparation block, a specific
combination of general developmental and specialized-preparatory exercises is used. It
continues to be used up to that time when the athlete still does not enter into the state of sports
form. At the beginning of the technical preparation block these means of training are excluded
from the training and specialized developmental and competitive exercises are introduced. They
we changed every 2-4 weeks.

In using the block variational-complex method (figure 2.4), during the physical preparation
block, general preparatory and specialized-preparatory exercises are changed every 2-4 weeks.
During the technical preparation block, a definite complex of specialized developmental and
competitive exercises are used.

The block coaplex-combined method (figure 2.5) of constructing cycles of sports form
development, assumes the division of the second block on the stage of specialized preparation
and development of sports form. On the fmt stage, only specialized-developmental exercises are
used and on the second, competitive and specialized-developmental. At the beginning of the
block, physical preparation is introduced with a definite complex of general developmental and
specialized-preparatoryexercises. They are used up until that time when the athlete still has not
entered into the state of sports form.

The block variational-combined method (figure 2.6) of constructing cycles of sports form
development is distinguished from the preceding one only by the fact that during the block of
physical preparation, the same complex of general developmentaland specialized-preparatory
exercises is not used and a change in them takes place every 2-4 weeks.
The complex method of constructing cycles of sports form development (figure 3.1) does not
oversee the use of different stages, blocks (13). At the beginning a definite complex of general
developmental, specialized-preparatory,specialized-developmentaland competitive exercises are
used up to that point, when the athlete still has not entered into the state of sports form.
Corresponding means of training depend on the qualifications of the athletes, their individual
characteristics and resolution of tasks on a definite level of sports improvement.

The variational method, of constructing cycles of sports form development (figure 3.2) as
distinguished from the complex method assumes a change in the means of trainings used every
2-6 weeks. In sports practice, it most frequently consists offour, different according to name
and content, stages. The latter of them, which assumes there is entry into the state of sports
form, is called the stage of development of sports form. There should be continuity between the
exercises used during the given cycles. Resolution of each of the following tasks should come
from each of the previous ones. Corresponding means of training can be changed on each stage
and depend on various factors.

When using the combined method (figure 3.3) cycles of development of sports form are divided
into stages of specialized preparation and development of sports form. During the first of them
general preparatory, specialized preparatory and specialized-developmentalexercises are used
and in the second-specialized-developmental and competitive.

The complex-variational method (figure 3.4) of constructing cycles of development of sports

form takes into consideration the use of a definite complex of specialized-developmentaland
competitive exercises. These exercises do not change up to the time when the athlete still has not
entered into the state of sports form. At this time, during the cycles of development of sports
form, there is a change in the complex of the general preparatory and specialized preparatory
exercises used.
 The Exercises
Used

Stage
stage of stage of sports
specialized

T
development of sports
I Cycle development of sports form
1 3

The Exercises
Used

development

development of sports
Cycle development of sports form
2 4

The system of exercises used in the complex (I), variational (2), combined (3) and
complex-variational (4) means of constructing cycles of sports form development

On--general developmental, Cn--specialized-preparatory, CP-specialized

developmental and C--competitive exercises; The arrow here shows the time of
change of the training means.
 Chapter 2
Interrelationships between
separate training sessions,
their parts and exercises
In the first half of the 20th century many specialists in the theory and methods of physical education and
sports physiology, came to the conclusion that there was a relationship between separate parts of the
training sessions used during a weekly cycle of training. They explained the effect that each previous
training session had on each following session. It was brought out that the training transfer depends on
the alternation of training sessions that have different emphases, with days of passive and active rest
during a weekly cycle of training.

In the second half of the 20th century it was brought out that with use of the complex method of
constructing separate training sessions, not only does each previous load influence each following one,
but that each following one has an influence on the preceding one (266). In the complex method of
constructing separate training sessions, we have in mind the use of several types of exercises. For
example, in the track and field jumps and throws, separate training sessions can consist of "technical" and
"strength" portions, and in the sprints, "speed" and "thmw" portions.

In the track and field throws there is substantial evidence of the relationships between separate exercises
in the same part of the complex training session. It turns out that using lighter, heavier and competitive
weights have a different effect on training transfer during periods of sports form development. In some
instances, sports results can be increased only with throws using lighter, or heavier or competitive
weights. Or, increases could be from the use of two of them, as for example, throwing the heavier and
competitive weights. Only rarely do we see increases from the use of the three different weights at the

There isn't always an increase insports results with an increase in the clean, which accompanies an
increase in the snatch, even though these two exercises are close to one another in relation to their
movement structure, consecutiveness of using the same muscle groups, muscle work regime and so on.
In the training of sprinters an increase in speed does not always take place when there is an increase in
speed endurance and vice versa. Athletes frequently come up against these facts, especially those who
specialize in sports requiring the display of endurance. Here, with an increase in general endurance, there
n't always an increase in special endurance and vice versa

hitar findings can be seen not only in separate hack and field disciplines, but in other sports. They all
substantiate the fact that with the use of the same or different training sessions, the means of training
appear not as a simple selections of exercises, but in a defmite complex. Each selection has its own
structure, not only in the alternation of the exercises but also in their interrelationships and mutual effects.
This is related to the selection of training sessions that have a definite manner of alternation over the
weekly cycles of training.

The interrelationships between separate training sessions, their parts and exercises, always have a direct
and reverse tie-in. When the influence of each previous training session, it's parts or exercises on each of
the following ones is taken into consideration, then we can say there is a direct tie in. If we however, use
the complex method of constructing the mining sessions, then each consecutive exercise or each
following part has an influence on each of the previous ones. This characterizes a reverse tie-in.

Direct and reverse tie-ins can be strengthened or get summed up, according to their influence, the training
session, the training parts or the exercises. They can also show no influence on each other in the presence
of specific conditions. The direction of these interrelationships is explained by the laws of central
nervous system (CNS)functioning. Most frequently this is seen in the aftereffects, which we will
examine later.
When looking at the more important interrelationships between training sessions, their parts and
exercises, we are most interested in not only the question of their interrelationships, or even if they always
exist and the presence of influencing factors, but the mechanisms of the interrelationships. This should
determine the direction of the training transfer of one or another exercise or some aspect of activity. By
not knowing the interrelationship mechanisms, it is not possible to discuss the process of transfer,
especially in regard to the competitive event. They all have a theoretical and practical base. By having
the data we will try to put it all together.

Interrelationships between training sessions

The interrelationships between separate training sessions over several cycles of training began to be
widely studied from the 1940s to 1950s. Determined from the research were the response reactions of the
body systems to the effects of different training loads in relation to their direction, duration and strength.
The results showed that the body always responds with a specific reaction to the type of work or after-
work phases and stages of fatigue or restoration.

Special attention was given to the alternation of the phases of fatigue and restoration. It was noted that
depending upon the appearance of partial, full and above normal (super) restoration, it was possible to
recommend one or another type of weekly cycle, or type of load and load amounts used. Repeat use of
the training sessions, at the moment of the appearance of the given phase, was more effective than in the
phases of fatigue (139). The greatest effect from the training load was considered to be achieved when
each following training session began in the phase of supercompensation, characterized by super
restoration of the initial level (154,182).

It is impossible to not agree with the supercompensationphenomena. However, in sports practice, over a
period of time coaches came to the conclusion that beginning each training session after the phase of
super restoration is not always best, The reason for this is that it most frequently appears not on the
following day, but after several days of passive rest. And, the greater the training effect over the duration
 .- -

the individual training session, the more the time that is needed. In some situations, the phase of super
toration can appear after two days, in others after three, after four and so on.

It was found that small training loads, executed at the beginning of weekly cycles that lead to periods of
sports form development, do not always make it possible to achieve high sports results. This is especially
$0 in the cyclical disciplines of track and f ~ l for
d which it is necessary to fulfill substantially greater
amounts of high volume and high intensity training loads. This is needed in order to achieve the
necessary level of speed endurance needed in the sprints and general and specialized endurance in middle
and long-distance running, as well as in sports walking. This conclusion also applies to athletes who
specialize in the track and field jumps and throws.

It appears that the most effective system of tsaining that oversees the use of repeat training sessions
during weekly cycles, is in phases of not only full restoration but also partial. In some instances, a
definite number of training sessions can begin in full and above the initial state of restoration while in
others, only partial. The number of these or other training sessions, beginning with the appearance of one
or another phase of restoration, depends on many factors.

First is the use of weekly cycles where after one or several training days, passive rest follows or
"restorative" training sessions are introduced. It is also possible to alternate "developmental" and
"restorative" training with days of passive rest. This is followed immediately by two "developmental"
training sessions followed by one "restorative". Right after this there are days of passive rest. In sports
practice, many variants of combining "developmental" and %eestorativemtraining sessions with days of
passive rest can be found.

On the contemporary stage of sports development, weekly cycles are constructed in such a way that
decreased workability is summed up from one training session to another. After a certain number of such
trainings, days of passive or active rest follow. They serve to achieve full, or above the initial level,
restoration of workability at the beginning of the first training session in the following micmycle.
Trainability, in comparison to the level of workability at the beginning level from one microcycle of

29
sports training to the next, shows an increase. Naturally, all of this depends on the changes in the sports
results.

The restorative processes are influenced not only by the alternation of training sessions with days of
passive rest, or even high intensity with low intensity trainings, but also in the use of weekly cycles of
training that oversee different types of training sessions. For example, in the track and field jumps and
throws, strength training fquently follows the technical training. In this case, weekly cycles of training
often consist of three technical and three strength training sessions, where the second training session
follows in the required order after the frst or precedes it.

Summation of the training effects, where each following training microcycle begins with full or super-
restoration, play a major role in the process of developing sports form. The steady presence of restoration
over the duration of these or other training sessions, frequently restores the ability to acquire the new level
of adaptation-in relation to how much has already been established (phase of acquisition).

Consequently, some non-restoration during the phase of establishing sports form has a positive influence.
If each training session begins in the phase of full or super-restoration, then there is a decrease in the
number of means, methods and ways of affecting new qualitative and quantitative adaptational
restructuring in the corresponding body systems. This is not always beneficial in cyclical events where
the number of training methods used is significantly less than in the track and field jumps and throws.

Reaction of a body system, in some phaseof fatigue or restoration, depends on the.structure of the
exercises in the training micmcycles. In practice, the exercises appear as a joint part of a united system of
training effects used over the entire period of sports fonn development. It has been shown that in relation
to the regime of training effects used over weekly cycles of training, the structumand means of training
used are distinguished from one another and from the direction of the training transfer (205,257,266).

A decrease in the level of workability and its restoration, depends on the functioning of many body
systems and especially the nervous system. Even at the beginning of the 20th century, researchers came

30
 -4

e conclusion that the nervous system fatigues significantly earlier than other systems. This shows up
immediately in the restorative processes not only in cyclical, but in acyclical track and field disciplines.
Thus, right after short and long term loads, executed at a moderate or maximum tempo, there immediately
follows a sharply expressed s h i in the electrical activity of the brain (10, 116). There is disruption in
differentiation (210). signs of energy insufficiency show up (206), and unfavorable shifts in the vegetative
systems are deepened (59).

e functional mechanism of the CNS has its own specifics and is distinguished from those of the
ardiovascular and respiratory systems. There is experimental data which shows that after ending the
aining sessions, poorer workability does not always take place. Using low-volume and low intensity
aining loads is accompanied with not only restoration to the initial level, but they also create conditions
r transitioning onto even higher loads (59). Medium intensity training loads serve to decrease the
xcitatory processes (209,210). improve attention which in turn, creates a favorable psychological state
5), improves overall self feeling, and decreases signs of emotional overload (165).

In the training of swimmers, after executing speed work, an increase m excitation of the nervous system is
observed (200). In other sports, the end of the training session is accompanied by an increase in the
number of cancelled differentiations (9,lO) and there is improvement in motor reactions (10,16) as well
as their strength and intensity (70).

By using standard parameters of separate training sessions over the period of sports form development,
we came to the conclusion that the body system reactions, when looking at the dynamics of workabiity
and sports results, depend to a great extent on the structure of the weekly Uaining cycles that are used.
Thus, after two training sessions followed by a day of passive rest, the athletes in most cases, feel better
not after the tirst day of rest, but after the second.

When using the "three plus one" structure, where right after the third training session there is a day of
rest, the dynamics of how the athlete feels change -- the athletes feel good on the first and third day.
When there are six training sessions in the week one gmup of athletes feels better on the fmt day after
rest, and the second -- over the fourth training day and on the third to fifthdays.

31
The athletes' self feeling has an objective base, since it corresponds in a way that influences the sports
results. As a result, when using the "two plus one" system, on the second training day, results with
throwers are most often somewhat higher by a few percentage points than on the first training session.

With a change in the structure of the weekly cycles of training, there are insignificant chaages in the
restorative and fatigue processes in various body systems. This has an influence on the subjective self
feeling of athletes and naturally, on the results, regardless of whether it is during periods of sports form
development or during periods of maintenance.

The interrelationships between separate sessions over several weekly cycles of training (structure,
alternation of different effects of the training sessions, volume and intensity of the loads used) determine
to a great extent the specific functioning of the more important body systems in the different groups of
track and field events or in each individual athlete. The laner depends mainly on the influence of the
training regimes used, the mechanisms of energy formation in relation to the aerobic (glycolytic) and
anaerobic (creatine phosphate) reactions and subsequently, energy expenditure.

Also having an influence is the load level on each body system in relation to the specialization. For
example, the increase in sports results in the track and field jumps and throws, depends mainly on the
CNS mechanisms and neuromuscular system functioning. In the cyclical events, requiring the display of
endurance, it is the respiratory, cardiovascular, circulatory and vegetative nervous systems.

As soon as we looked at body system functioning in the three different groups of track and field events,
we noticed that the decrease and recovery of workability after separate training sessions, as well as after a
specific number of training sessions, were different. After using interval training in the anaerobic-
glycolytic and anaerobic- alactate regimes in the group of events requiring the display of endurance, it
was noted that toward the end of the trainings, as a rule, there is a decrease in the level of workability.
However, in the jumps and throws the level of workability can significantly improve.
 here the logical action was taken by specialists in relatian to the structure of the weekly cyeles and
tent of the training loads used. For full restoration in the cyclical events quiring the display of
ce, after interval W g in the above noted regimes, the athletes had passive rest on the
ing day or they utilized training loads in the aerobic regime. Throwers and jumpers, can use the
methods depending on the strength of the training effect during the weekly cycles of training.

raships between par& of separete training sessions

essions consist ofadefinite number of diffent parts. Their specificity and the direction of
effect depend on the kinds of exercises used, as well as the training load regimes. When the
ex method of constructing the weekly training cycles is used, a relationship between thei
Is observed. Most frequently, complex trainiw sessions canai4teftcua-w. w are
considering general and specialized warm-up.

example, in the sprint and hurdle events the most often discussed is the technical and speed, and then
speed-endurance, strength, throw, jump and other parts of the session. In the track and field jumps
throws, jumps and throws are maintained, but absent are those that are directed toward development
f, as for example, speed endurance.

'Qclical events requiring the display of e n d m c e , have their own t e r n which reflect the specifics of the
means and methods that affect their relationship to the specialization. But even here, strength, jump, and
thmw portions are also used after training for general or spe&ializcdendurance or different types of
specialized endurance. As arule, it is necessary to takeinto consideration that in the cyclical events
requiring the display of endurance, the complex method of constructing separate training sessions is used
significantiy less than in the other track and field events.

The duration of each part depends on the specificsof the spialimtion. Thus,in the track and field
thnrws, technical work takes up about 50%of the total session time. The same amount of time is given to
the strength portion if these exercises are planned for use in the training. The amount of time is
significantly less in the "jump", "throw" and "speed" portions.

Naturally, the duration of one or another portion depends on the athletes qualifications. For an example,
we can look at the training of low-level jumpers and throwers. The amount of technical work is
significantly less than the amount of time taken on speed, jump, strength and other aspects. It is known
that with an increase in sports mastery, the portion of developmental methods decrease all the time, and
high level athletes use primarily specialized-preparatory exercises.

Different types of training parts in the training session are alternated in different groups of track and field
events with a definite consecutiveness. Thus, in the jumps and throws most often the technical portions
precede the strength, speed, jump, or throw portions. In the cyclical events, only strength, throw or even
jump parts follow the aerobic or anaerobic parts. In the speed-strength events they often use separate
training sessions in which strength portions precede the technical, speed or other parts.

In the sources available to us, we did not see a single experimental study which explained or showed the
important and essential interrelationshipsbetween separate parts of the training sessions. There are only
studies that generally substantiate that each previous portion can have a definite influence on the
following part. We can see studies that look at the influence of warmup on different physical abilities
during the basic part of the training session, or its influence on the functional state of specific body
systems and so on.

Low intensity warmup brings the body to a state of somewhat higher activity, which serves to have better
adaptation to the work. It activates the restorative processes and cancels out specific nerve centers and
their groups from the previous activity (9, 11). Moderate intensity warmup shows a favorable effect not
only on the processes of restoration because of the concentration of positive consequences of the previous
work, but it also has the ability to lengthen the time of maintaining an optimal state of the CNS (101, 102,
146,210).
 up with the use of maximum effort can in some cases, activate the processes of excitation, and in
ers, worsen the initial body state by deepening the processes of inhibition, if it takes place after the
vious work. Activation appears only in the presence of an optimal state of the neuro-muscular
tern. However, in this state, corresponding structures of the body cannot be found in the same state at
same time. This state is held no longer than 15-30 minutes. During this time, athletes show good
fter activation there usually follows an immediate and sharp worsening of the functional

thoughts of several authors should be noted here (262). They correctly consider that with warmup,
at only prepare the body for the following main work, even though this to some degree is not always
,but it also creates an optimal level of activation of the nerve cells. This ensures a higher speed of
neration and quality formation of skills with maximum display of motor qualities.

We would like to add that the warmup Bppears as a definite system of training effects in the preparatory
partof the training session. It cousists of a complex of exercises which are alternated in some sequence,
becuted in WIC
intensity zones and so on. Here, it is very important to consider the training load

Progress in the training session depends very heavily on the system of training effects used in the
preparatory portion of separate training sessions. By its makeup, it determines the further reactions of the
body systems. We have in view its influence on not only the flow of the restorative processes, but on the
activation of specific nerve centers, that are very important in speed-strength training events. Based on all
of this, the end result determines the direction of the transfer of training.

Direct and reverse ties function between the preparatory portion of separate training sessions and its other
parts. The direct tie-in occurs when, in relation to the state seen after each previous part of the training
session, how the flow of each following corresponding body system takes place.
 In order to explain this, we will again go back to the practical material received in the study of the
influence of warmup on the state of the neuro-muscular system. In some situations, after warmup,
corresponding groups of nerve centers in the brain can be found in a state of excitation, and in others,
inhibition. Consequently, in the presence of the excitatory state, the following training load will be
executed on an active background. In the inhibited state, execution will be passive.

. For another example, let us allow that before beginning the training session, corresponding groups of
nerve centers which coordinate the upcoming activity of the athlete are found in an inhibited state. If the
warmup is executed with low intensity, then we can activate those or other groups of nerve centers and
further work will take place with an active state of these structures. If we use a warmup with maximum
intensity, then there will be even deeper inhibition and as a consequence, the following part of the training
session will be carried out in a passive state.

All of this reflects immediately on the level of sports results. If, in the first case the athlete always
demonstrates his best achievements, then in the second case, it will be significantly decreased.

This example is related to the training of jumpers, throwers and sprinters. In relation to the training in
cyclical events requiring the display of endurance, it is possible to hypothesize that with the help of
specialized warmup, which always appears as one of the basic parts of each session, we can resolve
several problems. This includes working out a problem and canying it along, and restoration in one or
another of its stages of insufficient restoration, as for example, after the previous training session with
anaerobic work. In this case, the use of slow running (aerobic) will serve to keep the flow of the
restorative processes going to decrease the level of lactic acid, continue energy formation and so on. By
using near maximum and maximum intensity training we increase fatigue even more.

Characteristic of reverse tie-ins is the influence of each following portion of the complex training session
on each of the previous ones. It can be seen in the training of jumpers and throwers. We will once again
look at the example of a training session composed of technical and strength portions. Here, the second
part of the training session can activate the first. This happens because the background dominant
excitation in the technical portion will be strengthened and "build on itself' with the arising hot bed of
 tivation in other nerve center cells that coordinate the brain activity which controls the strength portion.
is also possible to get an abrogated reaction. Here, the arising hot bed of weak irradiation in the
ngth portion cancels that group of nerve centers which were activated in the process of executing the

ithout exception, in the cyclical disciplines of track and field, every following part can likewise show
influence on each preceding part on the nerve level. It can also have a place where during one training
rent types of exercises are executed. For example, when the training session consists of
,&runningportion and a strength portion. Or, if in the first part of the training session the athlete does one
or another type of anaerobic work and in the second, aerobic.

The presence of a definite neuro-musclar system state in the speed-strength track and field events (jumps,
throws), after execution of a portion of the complex training session, there is always the athlete's
subjective self feeling. It can be poor, outstanding, moderate and so on. We would not take the
subjective sensations into considerationif they did not affect the dynamics of the best training results. In
training, in 82% of high level throwers, the sensations correspond to a definite level of sports
achievements in a specific period of sports training.

In experimental studies we fixed the dynamics of the subjective self feeling to the dynamics of the best
training results when using a complex training session. It consisted of four parts (technical, strength,
technical, strength) and in another, six parts (technical, strength, technical, strength, technical, strength).
It was found that in two technical and two strength portions, 75% of the athletes had the best self feeling
over the first technical part. In the remainder of the athletes, in the second.

When using three technical and three strength portions, 68% of the athletes had good self feeling during
the first and third (!) technical parts and poor, in the second. The remaining athletes felt good during only
the first or only the second portion and less frequently the first and second. With good self feeling, sports
results were always better by one or two percent than in the three training sessions in which the athletes
With a change in the structure of the training session complex, there is a change not only in self feeling in
execution of some part of the session, but also in the dynamics of the sports results. However, it is
necessary 'to have a certain amount of time for this to be seen. Most frequently, the dynamics of self
feeling and sports results change after one weekly cycle of training at the beginning of which, there was a
change in the structure of the training complex influences. When we talk about the alternation of self
feeling and sports results over a certain portion of the complex training session, we have in view the use
of standard (according to definite parameters) weekly cycles of training (structure, means of training, their
volume, intensity and so on) over long (4-6 week) segments of time.

If the structure and content of weekly cycles of training change after one to two weeks, it i s usually not
possible to fix any changes because of the relatively stable response reaction seen in the dynamics of self
feeling and the best training results.

The data received by us indicates that the dynamics of self feeling and the dynamics of sports results in
the technical portions, influences the intensity of the training loads used in the strength portions. To a
certain extent this can be explained by the experimental studies in classical and sports physiology. It
appears that a moderate intensity training load can weaken the excitation processes in the brain (210), but
because of disturbed differentiations (9) a decreased in their threshold of excitation (146), activated visual
perception and motor analysis centers (145) increased excitation of the CNS (146), improved steadiness
of attention (45) strengthened lability of the neuromuscular system (210) and conductance of nerve
impulses (102).

Maximum intensity work can be accompanied by the onset of inhibition (1 1,40), but it cannot be
excluded from the training process since it also, under specific conditions, has the ability to strengthen the
excitatory processes (103).
 y natural that after ending one or another portion of the training session with the use of only near
and maximal zones of intensity, the state of the body systems will be different from that
ed after training with weak and moderate intensity loads.

here is still one more example of the possible idluence of one part of the training session on another
training loads of moderate and maximum intensity are used in the cyclical events. Low volume
work executed with maximum intensity, brings about significantly greater shifts than high volume
e loads but executed at a moderate tempo (102). Here, right after using the first type of load there is
ation in the brain followed by a decrease. At the same time, a fast tempo load can increase the
nt amplitude, but a moderate one serves to activate considerable oscillation and amplitude (162).
,with an increase in tempo there is deeper depression in the visual and motor analysis nerve centers

definite effect on separate brain structures is seen by the use of different muscle work regimes. When
g the isometric regime, the training loads are accompanied with more expressed excitatory and
itory reactions than in the dynamic regime. In the isometric regime, they are more stable and affect
CNS for a longer period of time (16).

e have already looked at the mechanisms behind the direct tie-in between separate parts of the training
ession. It was brought out that each previous part has an effect on each of the following ones and that
ey resolve not only the task of development of definite physical abilities, but also prepare the body
stems for the work before them. The presence of one or another state at the beginning of each part of
training session depends on the response reactions of the body systems and naturally, the training

We will now look at the essence of reverse tie ins, which assume there is an influence of each following
part on each of the previous ones. We will look at this problem beginning first on the nerve level. In this
case the remaining level of activation in one group of nerve centers, which ensure coordination of motor
activity during the first part of the training session, can again influence the activation arising in other parts
of the motor analyzation centers in the second part. Recall that integrated CNS activity oversees very

39

I
It is only natural that after ending one or another portion of the.training session with the use of only near
maximal and maximal zones of intensity, the state of the body systems will be different frum that
observed after training with weak and moderate intensity loads.

And here is still one more example of the possible influence of one part of the training session on another
when training loads of moderate andmaximum intensity are used in the cyclical events. Low volume
tempo work executed with maximum intensity, brings about significantly greater shifts thanhigh volume
intense loads but executed at a moderate tempo (102). Here, right after using the first type of load there is
activation in the brain followed by a decrease. At the same time, a fast tempo load can increase the
current amplitude, but a moderate one serves to activate considerable oscillation and amplitude (162).
Also, with an increase in tempo there is deeper depression in the visual and motor analysis nerve centers

A defmite effect on separate brain struchlres is seen by the use of different muscle work regimes. When
using the isometric regime, the training loads are accompanied with more expressed excitatory and
inhibitory reactions than in the dynamic regime. In the isometric regime, they are more stable and affect
the CNS for a longer period of time (16).

We have already looked at the mechanisms behind the.direct tie-in between separate parts of the training
session. It was brought out that each previous part has an effect on each of the following ones and that
they resolve not only the task of development of definite physical abilities, but also prepare the body
systems for the work before them. The presence of one or another state at the beginning of each part of
the training session depends on the response reactions of the body systems and naturally, the training

------- - -
---------
------

We will now look at the essence of reverse tie ins, which assume there is an iduence of each following
part on each of the previous ones. We will look at this problem beginning first on the nerve level. In this
case the remaining level of activation in one group of nerve centers, which ensure coordination of motor
activity during the first part of the training session, can again influence the activation arising in other parts
of the motor analyzation centers in the second part. Recall that integrated CNS activity oversees very

39
different f o m of interrelationships between "close" and "far" lying groups of nerve centers. For
example, they can strengthen the level of activation seen in one group while in others, there is weakening
and in still others, there is greater disturbance and so on.

In order that the mechanisms that influence each following part on each of the previous parts be more
understandable, we can use an example from the training of a hammer thrower who uses a complex
mining session consisting of technical and strength parts. By using different exercises over both parts of
the training session, we create a definite level of activation in two different parts of the motor center of
the brain beginning fmt in the group of nerve centers which "throw the hammer". Later there is
activation in the centers which ensure the coordinated activity of the CNS in execution of the strength
exercises.

If the level of activation in the second group of brain nerve centers is going to be higher than the level that
appeared in the first group, then it can take upon itself some "quantity" of the remaining hotbed of
excitation after execution of the technical work. In so doing, it will naturally weaken it. "Dominant"
activation of the second group of nerve centers in the brain over the first will lead to a decrease in the
strength of the training effect in the exercises used during the technical portion of the training session.
this time, even though the athlete used effective zones of intensity, which at the beginning served to
create an optimal level of activization that was adequate for them.

With definite conditions of constructing the training process, the rising irradiation of excitation over
duration of the second part (strength) of the training session can cancel the group of nerve centers w
"throw the hammer," creating optimal conditions for response reactions of the body systems, but on
following technical part of the training session.

When using complex training sessions, composed of a large number of different parts as for ex
three, the influence of each following part on each of the previous parts can be shown as links in a
In this, the level of activation in the third group of brain nerve centers that has arisen (the third
training session) will have an influence on the remaining level of activation in the second group

40
 F -'4C

nd part of the training session) and the reformed level of activation in the second group, under the
ence of the third, on the first.

follows that the third part of the training session in our example acts on the second and
ectly has an influence on the first part. This makes it possible to say that after ending each training
sion, in the specific group of nerve cells in the brain that actively participated in the prcvious activity,
from the level of activation having an influence on the end result in regard to the transfer of

reverse tie-in in the cyclical events requiring the display of endurance, it is possible to
pose that for example, the use of moderate running in the concluding portion of the training session
11 act favorably on those body systems which participated in the different exercises for the anaerobic
'ning effect. Pertinent to this is not only the central and vegetative nervous systems hut also the
spiratory, cardiovascular and circulatory and other systems. Weak intensity work serves to decrease the
I of lactic acid, improve energy formation and other reactions of the body systems and to ensure

time, study of the mechanisms of direct and reverse interrelationships between separate parts of
eomplex training sessions will allow for purposeful directing of the training transfer process.

Interrelationships between exercises used in each part of a complex training

In the theory and methods of physical education and likewise in mixed areas of scientific thought, we did
not see a single study which directly or indirectly looked at the relationships between separate exercises.
We will try to examine this problem based on the material received by us in the track and field throws.
Visualize such a situation: during a separate technical portion in the complex training session, the athlete
executes 10 throws of the hammer with the standard weight (7.260kg), lighter weight (6kg) and heavier
weight (IOkg). With this combination of different weights, the athletes feel better when throwing the
7.260kg and lOkg hammer and worse when throwing the 6kg hammer. This relates not only to the feel
for the weight, subjective self feeling, and coordination, but to the dynamics of the sports results. If in
throwing the 'rst and third weights, as for example, during the period of maintaining sports form, the
athletes show their best results. In throwing the lighter weight they don't reach their best personal
achievements by several percentage points. When using a different combination of these weights the
sports results in the 6kg hammer throw improve.

Here it is necessary to keep in mind that the discussion is of the standard weekly cycles, according to
definite parameters, over the above named periods of sports training.

The presence of a good state in throws of the standard and heavier weights and poor, or average state in
throws of the lighter weight is observed in most experimental cases (87% of the total number of subjects)
and is repeated from one training session to the next (83% of cases over the monthly cycle). The key here
is their mutual effect that influences the direction of the training transfer.

It was found that the sports results in 94% of the cases were higher in throws of the competitive and
heavier weights and remained at the previous level in throws of the Lighter weight. In the study, the
athletes did not use any pharmacological preparations. When using, as for example, steroids, sports
results increase in the throws with all three of the weights but most of all in throwing the standard and
heavier ones.

Interrelationships between separate exercises are also observed in the strength portion of the training
session complex. For example, we will look at two exercise-the snatch and the barbell clean.
According to movement structure and muscle work regime, they are both close to one another, the same
as when throwing the lighter, competitive and heavier weights. Thus, with a specific selection of
exercises in the strength portion of the complex training session, sports results can simultaneously
increase in both the snatch and in the clean.
 ging the order of using these exercises and with the introduction of others, sports results can be
only in the snatch or only in the clean. Once again, we must emphasize that in these studies, the
tes did not use any pharmacological preparations. When using steroids, the sports results
taneously increase in all strength exercises by 10-20%or more.

exercises can also have an influence on one another in the training of sprinters and hurdlers
using exercises that are close to one another in regard to their structure and content. Let's look for a
nt at the use of short and long cunning segments during a single training session. In the theory and
ce of track and field, there is agreement that speed training sessions are divided according to time,
n training for development of speed endurance. The different exercises recommended for use are on
rent days of the weekly cycle.

arently, specialists experienced with this method came to the conclusion that their use at the same
e during separate training sessions in different sequences does not have a positive influence on the
evelopment of speed nor does it serve to increase speed endurance. We do not have any basis to not
lieve or to substantiate the W n g on this position. But, we have a right to suppose (this does not
forbid anyone from doing this in all groups of sports events), that when using short segments in the first
of a complex training session and long segments in the third part, with the barbell strength exercises
jg the second part, the strength exercises will not have a negative effect on the h t , or the opposite, the
first part on the second. This occurs no matter how complex the after-effects are after executing the short
segments that affect all the body systems.

In cyclical events requiring the display of endurance, training loads directed to the development of
general and specialized endurance are broken up in a likewise manner. This occurs even though many top
athletes, during the training session before and after doing anaerobic work, use a sufficient amount of
aerobic running. If in the first case, they resolve only the task of drawing in and working out the quality,
then in the second, it is restoration. Not excluded is that the use of anaerobic runs in the second part of
the training session can simultaneously influence the development of aerobic abiities.
However, all of this is proposed in a hypothetical discussion which we are not tied into. The more it does
not cause any harm as in the given situations, they do not have a specific recammended character.
Without doubt, the above combination of training means on one or another level of sports achievements,
allows each individual athlete to use this combination to increase his achievements. This is h e even if
we think that this is the worst available variant that can be used in sports practice.

The experimental data received by us (questionnaire from a large group of coaches and athletes), related
to the regularities (laws) of sports form development in cyclical events requiring the display of endurance,
substantiate that anaerobic work shortens the period of gaining sports form in the aerobic.

Residual training eflects

Even during the time of Descartes, it was known that after each action, there is a definite order in the
following after-effects. The residual appearances began to be studied from many different angles at the
end of the 19" and beginning of the 2 0 centuries.
~ Classical physiologists such as I. Sechenov, L Pavlov,
S. Shemngton, A. Ukhtomskii, V. Vvedenskii, and others noted that in the process of integrated CNS
activity, the leading role is played by the residual effect appearances. With them it is possible to
accomplish the formation, development and restructuring of conditioned reflexes and other behavioral
acts. It was brought out that they always have a place in any CNS activity.

Consequential appearances (residual effects) maintain within themselves, definite structures which in
some situations activate them and in others, inhibit them. They appear on the central and segmental
(spinal) levels. It has been shown that consequential appearances have a bio-electrical beginning which
appears to be the heart of the biological nature of living organisms. It was explained that the residual
effects arise in separate neurons as well as in groups, ensembles and centers (171). and their inter-central
interrelationships are functional (l2,24, 131). They become united in specific centers (72, 141, 245),
complexes and ensembles (238), where they achieve harmony through the establishment of definite
coordinations.
 g the ensembles and constellations is always accompanied by changes in electrical activity
frequency, strength and power). Right after this, there is a functional restructuring in other
urons. These changes have a mosaic character where there is excitation of certain centers
n in others. Inductional interrelationships between them occur earlier (229). Their systemic
always depends on the irritants coming from without, according to a schematic in which the
y rearranges the inner root switches. They are so labile that they allow the neurons to
integrate into definite functional systems (115, 116).

hment of new coordinational interrelationshipsbetween separate nerve centers or their

ways accompanied by corresponding reactions in the body systems. We have in view first of
tional interrelationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition. For example,
after fast rising excitation in specific brain structures, there is inhibition of these as well as
(228). Also possible are their reverse interrelationships (23, 37). As a result of repetition,
constellations, by uniting nerve centers, can reproduce not only under the action of irritants
about the given reaction, but by other stimuli which were not used earlier in experimental

s of activation or slowingdown depends to a great extent on the state of the neighboring

ons, as well as their interrelationships. Their alternation takes place in the analyzational
and betweenthese systems (133,159,161, 171). Here, it is necessary to note that in sports
ent, great significance is gven to the activating background of the residual effects from which
extent, training effectiveness depends (120). In this, it is always necessary to remember that the
of one or another initial state appears as the result of a definite training effect. It can be changed
ing other complexes of irritants (119,229). but in sports practice, by exercises which have an
the symmetrical (100,204) and asymmetrical muscle groups.
-------- - - - - -

relatively standard, according to definite parameters of the training exercise complexes, we

ma1 conditions for activating the necessary groups of nerve centers (120). In the base of the
tion of relatively stable reactions, Lie the abilities of the brain structures to maintain frequency,
and the model of the rising hot bed of irritants (65, 142). It has been shown that even time
are reproduced (206).
The activating actions can be strengthened with an increase in the intensity of the acting agents (24) and
with the use of a large volume of speed loads (144).

In sports practice, the process of restoration and activation of competitive activity can be favorably
influenced by several types of exercises. For example, many jumpers use different forms of press
exercises when preparing for competition on the following training session. Sprinters and hurdlers also
use these exercises. Throwers frequently use the half squat with the barbell at 95-1008 of maximum
weight. An overwhelming majority of athletes in the speed-strength events in track and field, came to the
conclusion, through trial and error, that in the last training session before competition, it is necessary to
use strength exercises with the barbell. They are different according to their influence, volume and
intensity. Wide use is also made of the isometric muscle contraction regime.

In all these cases, the discussion is not only of restoration, which is achieved as a result of the active
switching from one form of sports activity to another, (known as the LM. Sechenov phenomenon), but
also by the activization of specific nerve structures in the brain. This includes those that coordinate the
integrated activity in the special track and field event or sporf.

An increase in sports achievements depends not only on the amount of the activated effect, but also on the
time found in the given state of the specific ensemble of brain nerve cells. This has an influence on the
duration of maintaining the following appearances after ending the training session or their separate parts.
In some cases, they can be maintained for minutes, in others for hours, and in still others, days. The exact
time that they are maintained depends on the intensity of the training loads (10, 57, 101,241), the muscle
contraction regimes used (16, 162), the volume of work, and the intensity of the irritants (70,200). Also,
having an influence is the "newness" (161) and complexity of the influencing agents.

The amount of time specific groups of brain nerve centers are found in an activated state also depends
upon the means of structuring the different training sessions. Thus, when using a uniform method (the
training session consists of one type of exercise) the residual effects can be maintained for hours or days.
 the complex method, they can be maintained for long periods of time only in those groups of
which coordinate CNS activity in the exercises executed during the latter part of the training
d the previous parts-only when the given group of nerve centers dominate over all the

this paragraph an involuntary question arises: what is the minimum, optimum, and critical
finding these and other brain nerve centers in the activated state?

each period allows for the flow of corresponding specific training actions for adaptive
ng, after which it follows to begin developing sports form and after this, to increase sports

g to our presentation, excessively long stays in the dominant active state in these or other groups
n nerve cells can show up negatively on the integrated activity of the CNS. This serves to create a
nt type of neuro "pathology" (47), right after which in sports practice, there is a disturbance in
nation accompanied with poor self feeling, not feeling like training, lower sports results and so on.
y all of this has an influence on the functional state of other body systems.

drd not find answers to the above proposed questions in the theory and methods of physical education
sports physiology. There is an absence of any kind of experimental data on this problem. We can
propose, that the minimal amount of time for staying in the dominant active state is tenths of a
ond-from 10-30. The basis for this is in the results of experimental studes camed out by us. In
ese studies we tried to find the minimum volume of training loads, in one or another track and field
rcise, that served for entry into the state of sports form. Here, we have in view that the given volume
in separate training sessions, during the period of sports form development, is forced (injuries) or
berate (the amounts of the training effects used). The results of the experimental studies are presented
 TABLE 127

Minimal training loads executed I some of the track and field; exerdses that serve entry into the
state of sports form

the shot forward and

800m before and after

Tied in with this, it is expedient to recall trials in the preparation of athletes specializing in the track and
eld multi-events. In them, the time of working out in each separate event most frequently varies between
-40 minutes. These periods of time do not interfere with one another since many of the top athletes
w sports results in separate events on the international class, master of sports level.

e understand that this is tangential data but according to our hypothesis, they can to some extent,
swer the first question relative to minimum periods. What relates to the remaining ones-the optimal
d critical, in order to explain them it is necessary to have precise experimental data. The only thing that
iis obvious is that in the cyclical events requiring the display of endurance, these time periods can be
longer than in athletes specializing in the speed-strength events.

Once the optimal periods of the activated influence on specific groups of nerve centers in the brain are
determined, it may be possible to explain the optimal volume of training loads in separate types of
exercises. Experience in preparation of throwers and jumpers shows that the volume of training loads
executed by most athletes in the second half of the 1980's and during the 1990's of the last century have
significantly decreased-approximately by two times-in comparison with the amounts used in the
second half of the 1960's and during the 1970's. But the world records, as in known, substantially
increased in all jump and throw events.

The residual effects always remain in the "working" groups of the brain nerve centers. Their mosaic
depends on the system of training influences used. Depending upon the specifics of the exercises used,
the training loads (volume and intensity), structure of separate tmining sessions (alternation of training
means), the establishment of definite coordiational interrelationships takes place between separate
groups of nerve centers. They are maintained up to the time when one or another system of irritants
exerts its influence. With this, changes in the body immediately restructure the system of
internlationshipsbetween the "working" groups of newe centers. The observed changes take place in all
body systems that ensure the process of sports improvement.
In a series of experimental studies with jumpers and throwers, we found that complete formation of new
coordinational interrelationships between separate groups of nerve centers in the brain took place even at
the beginning of the second week of the training cycle, after a change in the training complex. In the
experiment, the athletes used standard, according to specific parameters, weekly cycles of training for 4-6
week periods of time.

The new coordination interrelationships established between separate groups of nerve centers in the brain,
always reflect the changes in self feeling when executing one or another part of the complex training
session and on the best training results. For example, athletes felt good during the fmt part of the
complex training session and relatively poorly in the second. Of the 25 trainings carried out, data on 19
of them showed that this change in self feeling was repeated. It was always accompanied by a
corresponding level of sports results.

One system of training influences is distinguished from another first of all by the self feeling in separate
parts of complex training sessions. This relates to not only those cases when the athletes, as for example,
use standard programs, according to definite parameters of weekly cycles of training, and do not use
steroid type preparations or other pharmacological means during the period of maintaining sports form.
As a rule, athletes feel good in some parts of the training session, ok in others and poorly in still others.
In rare cases does the same self feeling occur in all of the parts. If the athletes use steroid type
preparations and other pharmacological means of stimulation and restoration, then they always feel good
when using any system of training influences, even poor ones.

The compiled material creates a base on which it is possible to substantiate the interrelationships between
separate training sessions, their separate parts and the exercises used. The interrelationships are explained
by the presence of residual effects, which always have a place where there are.training influences. Here,
every previous training session acts on each following one and each previous part of the complex training
session has an effect on each of the following paas. Analagous interrelationships exist between the
exercises used. In this case, there are direct tie-ins between separate structural units of the weekly cycle,
complex training sessions and their parts.
 n to reverse tie-ins, each of the following training sessions has an effect on each of the previous
a similar way, each following part of the complex training session has an influence on each of
s ones. Likewise, there are influences of one exercise on another exercise where each of the
exercises has an influence on each of the previous ones.

influences observed between separate training sessions, their parts and the exercises used can
vating specific nerve center groups in the brain), as well as negative (inhibiting actions).
ssible to find instances of inert interrelationships where in certain conditions they do not show
on one another, that is, separate groups of nerve centers function independently. Most
occurs when there is sufficient distance between the nerve center groups.

nof the interachons between the above noted structures depends on the system of training.
is characterized by the exercises used, the training loads (volume and intensity), structure of
g sessions, weekly cycles, and so on.

ystem of training effects appears as the reason for the creation of the end reactions in the
ponding body systems, especially in the brain. Depending on them is not only the mosaic of the
lating-inhibiting processes in specific groups of nerve centers in the brain, but the dynamic flow of
I
w e and restoration in separate body systems. And this, in the end result, has a positive influence on

e theoretical and experimental material put together in this chapter forms a base upon which it is
isible to say that in all track and field disciplines, in constructing individual training sessions and
tkly, monthly and other cycles of training, it is necessary to take into consideration not only
lergetic" levels of body system functioning, but also "integrative" ("nervous"). The first answers to the
w of the processes of expenditure and restoration of life vital substances and the second-coordination
he CNS activity.
 Chapter 3
Standardization of training
loads in separate training
sessions, and micro-, meso-,
and macro- cycles of sports
training
In the theory and methods of physical education and likewise in mixed areas of scientific
knowledge, there is united thought relative to the use of standard training influences. They are
considered standard according to definite parameters of the training complexes used during
separate training sessions and weekly cycles of training. In addition, they are in agreement with
the means of constructing the training sessions and weekly cycles that allow for the development
of physical abilities (34,139,205,257). They can maintain sports form (34,265). direct the
transfer of training (205,266) shorten the time periods for entry into the state of sports form
(265), provide successful appearances in competition (154, 181) maintain a high level of
psychological preparation (189) maintain the flow of restorative processes (266) and so on.

In regard to the standardization of training loads during sports training microcycles and cycles of
sports form development, there are two extreme, contradictory points of view. When in
agreement with one of them, it is impossible to create standard (single form) conditions in
training because the athlete's body will quickly adapt to it. And, according to the degree of
 tation, the reaction to the stimulus decreases. As a consequence, fast acustomization
ars to decrease the tempo of increase in the athlete's sports results over periods of sports
development (58, 181), and in the process of multiyear preparation. It is believed that
ent changes in the means of training, and their volume and intensity, conditions a more
pressedreaction of the body systems. This leads to the possibility of adaptation decreases.

ording to those who have the opposite point of view (34) standardization of separate training
ions, and micro-, meso-, macro- cycles of sports training, makes the flow of short term and
term adaptational restructurings easier, it shortens the time period for entering into the state
ports form, serves to produce a positive transfer of training and so on.

the reader has already switched his attention to the fact that the opponents and proponents
f standardization explain their views refemng to adaptation. The fmt group believes in its
ific "evil" and the second group, its opposite "good". Differences in evaluation of
ptation came about because opponents to standardization mechanically transferred the
eaning of "adaptation" in the theory and methods of physical education, and moved away from

Those on the side of standardization, in using the term "adaptation" to explain many aspects of
sports improvement, always consider it a material base. It always appears as the basic form, the
main means for the existence of living things. Based on this there are different understandings of
the mechanisms for adaptation restructuring in the body systems in response to the influence of
~ i k o m p l e x e s u f m i n i n ~ ~ i e n ~ s W t i TIE
i i irEihiitunng
i5 is accompanied
with an increase or decrease in sports results.

In order to understand the different views between the antagonists and protagonists of
standardization of training effects over definite periods of time it is necessary to:

53
 1. Explain what is meant by "adaptation" in the theory and methods of physical education
and in mixed areas of scientific understanding.

2. Show the differences in the interrelationships between the biological and pedagogical
processes.

3. Show the body system response reactions over periods of sports form development.

4. Study the specifics of the response reactions of the body systems when looking at the
increase in sports results over many years of sports improvement.

5. Compile the principles of constructing standard -- according to &finite parameters of

training sessions, weekly cycles of training and periods of development and maintenance
of sports form.

Adaptation

Adaptation appears as a basic form, a fundamental method for the existence of living things. It
reflects the essence of life processes in general and shows fully the general biological ability of
the body to adapt to external and internal irritants (170). The very idea of accommodation
presents itself as a source for different types of scientific hypotheses, serving science with many
points for further study of the essence of living things (17 1). Adaptation appears as a general
scientific problem. It grew up from the "junction" of many branches of scientific knowledge.
Adaptation allows for improvement of a theoretical fundamental, appearing from its
methodological base and providing a basis for explaining many hypotheses, both theoretical and
practical (7).

Adaptive changes are always sent where there are disturbing factors. From this, the essence of
training is that "function changes in relation to the very same function" (6),that is, adaptation
 "@-.I- '

eously appears as a consequence and a reason for the appearance of different . . . , I ' rn

cturing in the body systems. It is known that "use" by the body leads to its development
on-use" to its decline, a decrease in function. "Use" develops and forms the organ in
n to the specific influences of various agents (134).

the medium changes, the responses change, opening up the necessary instincts to maintain
and give posterity (6, 871, and to improve its perspective and life steadfastness in the process
olution (87). However, adaptation cannot be determined only as a consequence of the
n of the body systems to changing means and conditions of life activity, the kinds of
nts and so on. Under this concept we should understand relationships between external
s and tie-ins with this form of physiological and behavioral reactions of the body which
see not only accommodation, but also the development of the individual (7, 170).

tation appears as being a necessary condition for the existence of all living things on earth
). With the loss of the ability to accommodate, the body stops to function (170). Evolution
ving things is not what is different, as much as the evolution of accommodation (204).

word adaptation stems from the Latin word "to accommodate", "adjust". They call it an
utstanding and important property of man's body which he acquired over many millions of
ars of evolution. Accommodation occurs where there are irritants in the protoplasm. The
@action of the protoplasm in turn has its presence everywhere where there is living protoplasm.
Protoplasm, thanks to the action of the changing irritants, changes itself (251). With a change in
the external and internal influences, changes take place in the response of specific body systems.

IThe processes of adaptation take place over the entire life of the individual. The body, under the
influence of external and internal means, ensures a certain state with minimal restructuring of life
, important systems (7, 195). Accommodation, has a response reaction of the body systems to the
55
irritants coming from without and take place with definite regularity. This process consists of
several stages or phases. They alternate in a definite sequence.

Most frequently, adaptation is characterized by a trial of these stages, phases. In some cases, the
process of accommodation consists of stages of irritation, adaptation and depletion (140) while in
others, there is discussion of the phases of accommodation, higher adaptation and readaptation
(140). In sports physiology, they note the presence of developmental phases, achieving the
highest trainability and then the decrease in trainability (187). In the theory and methodology of
physical education, they speak of the alternation of phases of acquiring, maintenance and loss of
sports form (153, 154).

The course of accommodation has been studied on the level of the entire body and in separate
systems. It appears that adaptation on the brain level consists of three phases: orientation,
unsteady and steady accommodation. The first of them is accompanied with excitation and
decompensation. Over the duration of the second phase, there is a search for the steady state,
which corresponds to the new surrounding conditions. The third phase is accompanied with the
steady state in which there is an increase in many parameters of work ability (239).

There is interest in the dynamics of long term adaptational changes over the duration of the
school year in students. It has been noted that towards the end of the first half year, in one group
of participants, a drop in work capability is observed (97, 129) and there is a depressed
functional state of nerve elements in the brain (239). In another group these indices improve. At
the end of the second half year, many indices increased in comparison to those that they had in
the middle of the school year. However, their highest level is observed at the beginning of the
fust half year (86).
 ork, we were interested in the factual material in relation to an increase in trainability
establishment of sports form over the developmental cycles. We do not agree that the
s of long term adaptation necessarily begins with the acquisition of sports form after which
es of maintenance and loss follow. It appears to us that the process of accommodation is
iverse. It depends not only on the individual essentials of the athlete, but on the systems
ng influences used during sports form development periods. In some cases, it begins
e period of rest, in others after the period of development of sports form and in still
after periods of maintenance.

se of this, reactions of the body systems should be different even if they are only found on
nt initial levels after ending each of these periods. For example, after periods of rest, the
I of sports form decreases by about 8-12%,and after periods of maintenance, it is close to
um or above maximum. This, in the end result, determines the reaction of the body

ternation of the noted stages and phases in a definite sequence is observed when discussing
term adaptation restructuring that appears as a result of the long term influence of particular
tern of irritation. Here, the flow of long adaptation restructuring fully coincides with the
esses of sports form development. It reflects the essence of the long term reaction of the
ady systems during the sports form development periods in response to the use of a particular
mplex of training influences. Consequently, adaptation here is necessary, as without it, the
ete will not enter into the state of sports form. It can be stretched out over time, but when
ere is a problem standing before us for entry into sports form, it cannot be escaped. Without

w,
adaptation is necessary in every way possible and we should not block it.

It is only natural that long term reactions of the body systems, in view of the sports results during
sports form development periods, consist of short term reactions. The latter appear as a result of

57
accumulation of training effects consisting of close and distant effects. Cumulative training ,
effects, summed up over several training days, weeks, and months of training cycles, find their
reflection in the sports results in particular phases of sports form development.

If this is so, then it is necessary for us to explain how this influences adaptation to the reactions
of the body systems in view of the growth, stabilization or decrease in sports results over
separate training sessions, and micro-, meso-, and macro- cycles of sports training.

In the general theory of adaptation there is a thought that for short term reacoons in the body,
there are mechanisms of re-activation that are fully formed in the process of evolution. They are
not seen in realizing long term reactions (111). In the latter case, we have only genetically
determined preconditions that ensure their formation only as a result of multiple or long term
influencing factors received from external factors acting on different body systems in response to
accommodation. Between genetics and function there are direct and reverse ties. The fmt ones
unite when immediately after protein synthesis, which "makeses"
the structure, the structure makes
the function. The reverse tie is seen in the infrastructure of some form that has an influence on
the activity of the genetic apparatus (156).

The response reactions of the body depend upon the systems of loading used. Thus if we use
uniform influences, then we only make it possible to involve these or other specific and non-
specific structures into the work (76). Reformation takes place as a consequence of long and
steady use of different enabling agents (76, 115). Long term adaptation restructuring is formed
gradually under the long term effects of exogenic factors (86, 88).

Non-specific and specific aspects of accommodating reactions are organically tied in with one
another. They more or less follow one another. The first reactions ensure the general ability of
the body to restructure in the process of their functioning. With their help, specific life ensuring

58
 e place (76, 151). They serve to raise the resistance of the body in response to the
external factors (151). Non-specific reactions appear as a result of tangential
(76) and specific reactions are direct, which have an immediate influence on the
irritants that are used.

daiaptive restructuring takes place on all levels of the body systems (7, 119, 170).
them, there are definite tie-ins. Thus, in the process of integrated activity of the CNS,
structures of the brain not only adapt by themselves to the encroaching stimulants, but
the ability to exert a specific influence on other body systems. For example, the
lum oversees coordination of the afferent influence on the skeletal musculature (177,
y activating its specific nerve structures in the skeletal fibers.

term adaptation restructuring is always accompanied by definite changes in sports results.

cases, after one or several training sessions during periods of sports form development,
can be increased, while in others, they remain on the same level and in still others, they
e. The direction of the given changes depend on the individual characteristics of the
etes and the system of training influences used. In one of these groups of athletes we saw an
ase in sports results after a period of rest even during the second training session. This
dicates that the athlete's body responds to the training influences not on some kind of
undless future, but immediately by summing the remaining training effects. In this case,
cussion is of the periods of sports form development.

order for the long term adaptation restructuring to continue, it is necessary to have long
periods of time. It was found that after repeating 5-7 same type training sessions, each of which
begins after 48 hours of rest, there is an increase in trainability. An increase in strength took
place after 10 days of training (96).
If we consider that the position, presently accepted in the theory and practice of physical
education, is in agreement in that there is an organic interrelationship between long term
adaptation restructuring and the regularity of sports form development, and that the state of
sports form appears as a result of adaptation reformation, then for realization of the latter it is
necessary to have not days and weeks, but months. According to some authors, these limits
were determined to be 6-8 weeks (285) while others, 2-8 months (33). In students, this limit
fixed the end of adaptation in the instructional process on the sixth (239) and ninth weeks (8,
129) after beginning the school year.

Interrelationships between pedalogical and biological processes

When examining the problem of periodization in sports training, L.P.Matveyev was the first in
the theory and practice of physical education to bring the attention of specialists to the existence
of the interrelationship between pedagogical and biological processes (153). He was the fmt to
describe the system of training influences used over yearly cycles of training which resolved
questions on how to direct the processes of development, maintenance and loss of sports form,
and how to increase the level of sports mastery on each new level of improvement.

We identify these with periods of development of sports form where the increase in sports results
should take place at the end of these periods. That is, when the athlete enters into the state of
sports form. By using a system of training influences in the yearly cycle of training, we resolve a
whole complex of questions. First, it is necessary to determine the system for using the exercises
during the above named periods of sports training; second, to select corresponding means of
constructing periods of development and maintenance of sports form as well as the volume and
intensity of the training loads.

The biological processes are characterized by all types of adaptive reactions (short and long
term), which the body responds to individually in regard to the system of training influences used

60
 i which

simportant is the study of the response reactions of the body in view of the increased level
ts at the end of each separately taken period of development of sports form. Left
ved is the problem of constructing a multiyear system of training that ensures an increase
dts over many years of sports improvement.

nd result of the interactions between pedagogical and biological processes appears in the
s of the training and competitive results during the yearly cycle of training. Here, the
of training influences used show the essence of the training process as an enabling factor.
the reason for the appearance of different reactions in the body which lead to adaptive
ative) restructuring on all levels. At the same time, a change in the dynamics of

e dynamics of sports results during the yearly cycle of training always reflect the structure and
wise, the essence of the methods of constructing each period of development and
tenance of sports form. The structure of the yearly cycles of ~ainingdepend on the
endar of competition. By using a definite selection of periods of development, and
aintenance of sports form and rest, which are alternated in a specific sequence, we become
customed to it. The means of constructing the periods of development and maintenance of
s form have an influence on their duration, the system of exercises used and so on.

There are direct and reverse tie-ins between the pedagogical and biological processes. One form
of the direct tie-in has been mentioned earlier. Recall that the system of sports training, as an
enabling factor, brings about a whole complex of different reactions in the body. Examples of
reverse tie-ins can be served by the forced action of athletes and coaches in the process of

61
determining the long periods for development and maintenance of sports form, periods of rest
and the time for beginning them. We will look in more detail at these questions. We will begin
with the dwation of periods of sports form development which should end at the time of ending
long adaptational restructuring.

In sports practice, this process coincides with the appearance of sports form maintenance which
follows the phase of its acquisition. The duration of using the entire complex of training
influences, with the help of which the accommodative changes were formed, together with the
formation of sports form, is now conducive to beginning the phase of readaptation and a decrease
in sports form.

L.P. Matveyev (153) wrote that one and the same factors serve to develop sports form at the
beginning but later negate it. The process of readaptation and the decrease in sports form takes
place because the body, in a given period of time, completed its long adaptational restructuring
in response to a specific system of training. By its continuous use, it no longer appears as a
enabling factor.

Any change in the means of training at the moment of entry into a state of sports form, serves to
maintain the achieved level of results, and as a consequence, prevents the appearance of the
phase of readaptation. Introduction of new complexes of training at the moment of entry into the
above noted state, and later changing them as for example, after every four weeks, conditions are
created for maintaining sports form over many months. In our experimental studies,
maintenance of sports form lasts for nine months. During this period of time, we introduced new
complexes of exercises after 3-4 weeks.

These discovered regularities of maintaining sports form dictated our time of changing the means
of training and the duration of using one or another complex. By the amount that long term
 changes in the body coincide, according to the time of the beginning of sports form
t, it follows that for creating conditions for continuing the flow of these processes, it
to create periods of rest in a corresponding way. They must precede the period of
development. This relates to not only its duration, but also the selection of
The duration of the rest period according to our data, should not be less than four
ng which it follows to use general preparatory exercises.

serving these positions when constructlng penods of rest, will not serve the beglnnlng of
w of long term adaptation restructuring in corresponding body systems and naturally, the
pment of sports form. Introducing a new complex of tralning influences at the beginning
e sports form development period will serve to maintain it on the acquired level. Excluding
g rest periods from the spec~alized-preparatory,specialized-developmental and
tlhve trluning sessions for four weeks leads to a decrease in the ach~evedlevel of sports
evement by 8-12% (our data). This appears, in our understanding, as a result of passlve
tation. We can substantlate that this slgn~ficantdecrease in sports form, that takes place
ng the phase of readaptation, creates conditions for beginning new long term adaptational
mctunng and increases sports form.

here is still another example of the interrelationshipbetween the biological and pedagogical
sses. It relates to constructing periods of sports form development after periods of rest. In
general theory of adaptation, a position is taken that the steadier and more long term action
ne type of irritant is, the faster the body accommodates to it (170). From here it is possible to
thetically propose that the more frequently we change the complexes of exercises used, then

sequently, if the task standing before us is to shorten the period for entry into the state of
form, then during the periods of its development, it is necessary to use standard complexes

63
of training effects. When it is necessary to increase these time periods, contradictory actions are
used, the exercise complexes are changed after these or other periods of time. According to our
data, changes in the means of training every four weeks increases the period of entry into the
given state by two times, and after two weeks, by 3-4 times.

Inasmuch as we have repeatedly come up with the question of how long the periods of sports
form development should be, then it is necessary to note that their duration is dictated by the
individual periods of long term adaptational restructuring. This period is from two to eight
months.

From the above experimental and theoretical material, we see that in some cases, the training
effects on long term adaptational restructuring in the body are individualized. In other cases, the
regularity of the adaptational changes that take place have an influence on the duration of the
periods of development and maintenance of sports form, as well as their structure. These factors
determine the limits for introduction of one or another complex of training exercises both at the
beginning and ending of the periods.

In this section we looked at the general mechanisms of the interrelationships between the
pedagogical and biological processes. Further on, we will look in greater detail at the partial
questions regarding their interrelationships, putting together the essence of the response reactions
of the body in view of definite dynamics of sports results during micro-, meso-, and macro-
cycles of sports training. In addition, we will examine separately taken trainings sessions when
using one or another system of training influences over the the given time periods.
 n of phases of acquiring, maintaining and losing sports form during
its development

ying the structure of periodization of sports training, L.P. Matveyev (153) was the first to
ut the existing phases of acquisition, maintenance and loss of sports form. The
ties of sports form development were in the foundation of the sports form periodization
sed by him. During the preparatory periods it was surmised that there is acquisition of
form (phase of acquisition), competitive-maintenanceof its achieved level (phase of
fenance)and in the transitional phase a loss (phase of loss). In this way, the body
izes in response to the effect of a definite system of training loads during the yearly cycle
ning, regardless of whether it had a one, two or three cycle schematic structure.

an understanding of the construction of periodization of sports training was a significant

forward. By its own essence it was innovative and a major addition to the theory and
thods of physical education. It forced specialists to rethink their view of directing the
sses of development, maintenance and loss of sports form, and likewise, construction of a
stem of sports training during micro-, meso- and macro- cycles of sports training.

owever, with great sorrow, he allowed a small error in adjusting the regularities of sports form
evelopment to the calendar. It was complicated in that the name and alternation of sports
ning periods should correspond strictly to the calendar of competition. Thus, in the absence
of competition, the athletes were supposed to acquire sports form (preparatory period) or even
lose the given state (transitional period). Over the duration of the competitive season
(competitive periods) the task of maintaining the achieved level was resolved.

In time, in sports practice there was great amount of data collected which gave evidence that the
phases of sports form development did not always correspond to the noted periods and often did
not appear during of one or another of them. Fist, in some cases the athletes entered into the

65

I
state of sports form in the middle of the preparatory periods or during some other part of the
competitive ones. Second-a decrease in sports form was observed at the end of preparatory
periods and at the beginning, or in the middle or at the end of the competitive periods. Third-
maintenance of the achieved level took place during the second part of the preparatory periods.
Here it is possible to recall situations in which many athletes did not see an increase in sports
results over the entire yearly cycle of training.

The experimental data made it possible for us to supplement what already existed after many
years of witnessing the regularities of sports form development. First of all, it appears that
besides the regularities in development of sports form, there is regularity in its maintenance and '
loss. This is explained by the alternation of the phases of acquisition, maintenance and loss of
sports form that is not tied in with the alternation of the preparatory, competitive and transitional
periods. It depends on the individual characteristics of the athletes, how the means of
constructing periods of sports form development are used and how after each period, the process
of entering into the state of sports form begins.

And now we will more closely look at the regularities of sports form development after periods
of rest. We will look at how the means of constructing periods of sports form development
appear or influence the dynamics of alternation of its phases of acquisition, maintenance and
loss. For example, we will take the three most frequently used methods of constructing the
above noted periods: stagecomplex, variational and complex. We will begin with the
regularities of development of sports fonn when using the stage-complex method. Recall that
this method assumes the division of sports form development into the general and specialized
preparation stages. During the first stage, only general preparatoq and specialized preparatory
exercises are used. At the beginning of the specialized preparatory stage, the training sessions
that use general preparation are excluded. Taking their place is a specific complex of special-
preparatory, special-developmental and competitive exercises.
 stage-complex method of constmctingperiods of sports form development (figure 5 )
the beginning, enter into a state of sports form in the general preparatory and
preparatory exercises. After this they begin the specialized-developmental and
exercises. In one group of athletes, the process of development of sports form
.the phase of acquisition, after which the phases of maintenance and loss of sports
. In another group, the phase of acquisition precedes the phase of loss. In the third
phase of sports form development alternates as follows: maintenance, loss,
n, maintenance and loss.

a1 essentials are observed not only in the alternation of phases but in the duration of
s, the limits of entering into the state of sports form is from 2-8 months, but for most
2-3 months are sufficient. Here it also follows to note that the loss of sports form phase,
eded acquisition and maintenance, appears only in those situations when the athletes
to use the same complex of exercises after entering into the state of sports form.

3-&. ,@ 6 --.-
6 6

f
y'F
'
', o /'
-./---- 6 2,
/'

a
.\;>,--8aL--k
6 '\"

El
development of sports

general specialized
------------

Dynamics of sports results when looking at the alternation of

phases of acquisition (a): mntenance (b) and loss @ of sports
I)
form after transitional periods in the first (I), second (2). and
third (3) group of athletes when using the stage-complex
method of constructing cycles of sports form development

67
When using the variational method of constructing periods of development of sports fonn, in the
fust group of athletes the body reactions, in view of the alternation of the phases of acquisition,
maintenance and loss, remain much the same as when the stage-complex method is used. A
difference is observed only in the duration of the phase of sports form loss (the second group)
and during the phase of acquisition-it increases. The third group of athletes do not enter into
the state of sports form because the change in the training methods after short periods of time, as
seen in the variational method of constructing these periods, increase the phase of maintenance
of sports form all the time.

The development of sports form when using the complex method of constructing periods of
sports form development takes place the same way during the general preparatory stage as when
using the stage-complex method. Also observed are three different types of reactions, in which
there is a different type of consecutiveness in the phases of acquisition, maintenance and loss of
sports form. They are alternated (figure 6). When using the complex method, the difference is
only in the state of sports form. The athletes simultaneously enter into sports form in all of the
exercises used (general developmental, specialized-preparatory, specialized-developmentaland
competitive). The duration of the cycles of sports form development are also individual and can
be anywhere from 2-4 months.

The regularities of sports form development put together by us when using the stage-complex,
variational and complex methods of constructing periods of sports form development, give
evidence that in the overwhelming majority of cases, athletes enter into the state of sports form
regardless of their individual characteristics, which are expressed in the specific alternation of
the acquisition, maintenance and loss phases. Exceptions are seen only in three groups of
athletes in which the means of training change after short periods of time, as stipulated in the use
of the variational method of constructing periods of sports from development. The exceptions
serve to increase the duration of the maintenance phases. Consequently, similar influences do
not create conditions for entry into the sports form state and the use of the given method for this
group of athletes is not advisable.
 development of sports
Cycles

Figure 6: Dynamics of sports results when looking at the alternation of

phases of acquisition (a), maintenance (b), and loss (B), after
periods of rest in the first (I), second (2). and thud (3) groups of
athletes when using the complex method of constructing cycles
of sports form development

elopment of sports form when using the stage-complex and block-complex methods is the
e. In both cases, after finishing the fust stages, or blocks, they enter into the state of sports
rm in the exercises used. When using the variational method, and likewise the combined
thod, the process of development of sports form in both groups of athletes (fust and second)
s with entry into the state of sports form. The third group of athletes do not enter into the
ven state because the change in training means increases the duration of the sports form
aintenance phases. As can be seen, we appear to witness the same reactions that were seen
en using the variational method of constructing periods of sports form development.

e looked at the response reactions of the athletes in view of the alternation of the phases of
uisition, maintenance and loss of sports form over the duration of the periods of development
hich began after the rest periods. The direction of these reactions depends on the individual
aracteristics regarding the flow of long-term adaptation restructuring (alternation of phases and
eir duration), the methods used for construchon of the periods of sports form development and

69
from the initial level of sports form at the moment of beginning use of one or another system of
training influences.

At the moment of entry into the state of sports form the athlete achieves the 100%level on each
new step of improvement. After ending the period of sports form development, the task is to
now repeat entry into the given state by introducing a new complex of training influences. In
this case, the process of sports form development in the first and second groups takes place
differently from what happened after the periods of rest. The reaction to the form of phase
alternation changes and the period of development of sports form is lengthened. Thus in the first
group, before the phase of acquiring sports form, the athletes undergo the phases of maintenance
and loss again.

The phases of sports form in representatives of the 2"dgroup are alternated in the following
sequence: maintenance, loss, acquisition, maintenance and loss. In athletes in the thii group,
the process of sports form development, just as after the periods of rest and just as after the
change of one complex of training with another, for the sake of repeating entry into the given
state, it takes place in the same manner (figure 7). Recall that repeat entry into the state of sports
form, after ending the previous period of its development, is possible only when using the
complex method of construction, that is, at the moment of beginning each consecutive period of ,
sports form a new complex of exercises is introduced. It is used up to that time when the athletes
will repeatedly not enter into the state of sports form.

In conclusion, we once again must remind the reader that the appearance of the phase of sports
I

form loss, which precedes the phase of acquisition and maintenance, appears as a result of using
all of those complexes of training loads that served entry into the given state. In order to escape
the phases of loss, it is necessary, after ending the phases of sports form maintenance, to make a
change in the means of training, if maintaining the achieved level or repeat development of
sports form is the task standing before the athlete.

70

I
 kzllPhases

6 6

Cycles 7 development of sports

7: Dynamics of sports results when looking at the alternation of

phases of acquisition (a), maintenance (b) and loss (B), of sports
form after changing one cycle of training effects with another
during the repetitive introduction in the given state when using
the complex method of constructing cycles of sports form
development

ics of sports results duringperiods of sports form maintenance

g periods of sports form maintenance other tasks are resolved that are different from those
ere in the developmental periods. The achieved level of sports form is maintained by
cing new complexes of training exercises the same as after phases of maintenance, which
e the phases of acquisition (the fmt schematic), just as after each consecutive period of
form maintenance. The duration of these periods is faur weeks. A change in the means of
g after such periods of time helps the athletes regardless of their individual characteristics
(length of the phases of maintenance) to achieve the proposed objective. It is also possible to
carry out a change in the means of training after shorter periods of time.

In the theory and methods of physical education, definite zones of sports form have been
calculated. It oversees the oscillation of results from 1-34. It is considered that the more
quently the athlete is capable of showing results in the given zone, then the greater is his

I
stability of sports form.
Stability of sports form should be judged by the best training and competitive results. Its
dynamics depend on the specifics of the sports event and the methods of constructing the peri
of sports form maintenance. When using the combined method oscillation of the best
competitive and training results are less expressed than when using the variational. The first
method oversees use of a standard, according to definite parameters, of the training exercise
complex over the entire period of sports form maintenance while the second one has a change in
means after one to two weeks. Many athletes also carry out exercise changes after even shorter
periods of time--several times during the weekly training cycle.

In the complex method of constructing periods of sports form maintenance, there is rigid
standardization of not only the complex of exercises used, but also the structure of weekly cycles
of training and volume and intensity of the training loads. In practice, we were able to maintain
the level of sports results with the lower limit between 98-99%.

Oscillation of results during the weekly cycles of training in the periods of maintaining sports
form, is inescapable. It depends on many factors. The most important of them appears to be the
system of training influences used and the individual essentials of the athletes. In separate
training sessions, and in several of them, the best training results can decrease by more than 3-
5%. After this, they again come back to the previous level or are in the calculated zone. A
significant decrease in sports results is observed over several training sessions that follow the
competitive ones. Usually in the speed-strength track and field events the achieved level of
restoration occurs earlier than in athletes in the cyclical events that require the display of
endurance. Showing a sports result in the calculated zone 1-2 times a week is sufficient in order
to talk about the maintenance of sports form.

In a large group of athletes a decrease in sports results is observed over the first weekly cycle
after a change in the means. The lower limit can oscillate between 93-97%. In the following
weekly cycles the earlier achieved sports form is restored and is found in the calculated zone.

72
 would like to look more closely at the general dynamics of sports results over Cweek
f training in the periods of sports form maintenance. We were able to do this by carrying
dy with throwers. In one group, in the fist 2 weeks after a change (the first change) in
lex of exercises, there is not only maintenance of the level of results that they achieved
crease (by 1%). In the following two weeks sports results decrease somewhat but are
within the calculated zone of maintaining sports form.

other group of athletes all of this takes place in an opposite manner. In the first two weeks
is somewhat of a decrease and in the remaining two, an increase in results. There are also
who in the fmt and third weeks observe somewhat higher results and in the second and
,a decrease. There is still another group of athletes for whom it is characteristic to see a
ase in sports results in the first and third weeks, and an Increase in the second and fourth.

are not excluding the fact that there can be other reactions of the body in view of definite
s result dynamics during separately taken weekly cycles of training during periods of sports
maintenance. We have written about four types of reactions after the first change in
g means which follow the phase of maintaining sports form during the period of its
pment. The increase in sports results in the given cases are explained as follows: for some
on the athletes could not realize the achieved level of sports result at the moment of entry
the state of sports form.

ost frequently, in the track and field throws, this happens because the background activation
that they have before beginning execution of the competitive exercise extinguishes it. This is
related to the strength training or some parts of it that are used before the "technical" training or
their technical parts. We cannot find other explanations since at the moment of entry into the
state of sports form, long-term adaptation restructuring in the corresponding body systems also
appear as reasons for this happening.
We exclude cases where over the periods of maintaining sports form, the athletes use various !

pharmacological preparations which because of their stimulating effect, serve to increase sports
results. This relates mainly to the use of steroids. Depending upon their strength and duration of
use, the results can be increased by more than 5%.

Besides this, the illusion of entering into the state of sports form is created over the duration of
each consecutive period of maintaining sports form. Here we have in view a significant increase
in sports results which follow up to two to three weeks after stopping the use of the steroid
preparations. In related situations, discussion is of natural sports form, which appears as a result
of long term adaptation restructuring in response to the use of any system of training influences.
It is not the "steroidal" sports form, the appearance of which is explained by the use of the above
mentioned pharmaceutical means.

When using the variational method of constructing periods of sports form maintenance,
oscillation of the best training and competitive results during the weekly cycles of training is
more expressed than in cases of using the complex method. In separate training sessions they
can decrease by more than by 5%. Going beyond the lower limit of the calculated zone of sports
form most frequently takes place during the weekly cycles immediately after a change in the
complex of exercises used. A decrease in sports results can be observed over several training
sessions. After this, restoration takes place up to the earlier level.

When using the variational method, the mean interval of time between results seen in the
calculated zone of sports form maintenance increases. For example, when using the complex
method of constructing periods of sports form maintenance, athletes (most frequently in the
speed-strength events) can show their best training results, or results close to them, after one
training session. When using the variational method it is after two to three sessions.
 that when using any method of constructing periods of sports form maintenance, the
s of the results depend on the volume and intensity of the training loads that are used.
er high intensity training with loads in the 95100% zone, there is a decrease in sports
at can last for several sessions. When using an optimal combination of weak, moderate
m zones of intensity where the proportion of the latter does not go over 10-20%. the
can show results in the calculated zone of sports form maintenance in every training
in the weekly cycles of training.

ficant decrease in sports results is observed after using large volume training loads over
r several training sessions. In these instances, the lower limit of the calculated zones can
ase by more than 5-7%. Recovery to the previous level of results takes place only after

tice, we constantly come up against the presence of different variants of change in the
s of results during weekly cycles of training in the periods of sports form maintenance.
y factors have an influence. This includes the system of training influences used, individual
ctions of the body systems and the endogenous oscillation of their functional state. For
ample, we will look at four types of sports resuits that athletes show over weekly cycles of
ing during periods of maintaining sports form: single peak, double peak, triple peak and
adrupie peak. The first type characterizes those who overreach in each separately taken
y cycle. These athletes show their best competitive or training achievements one time. On
the rest of the days of the week the results can decrease by 3-5%or more. The best sports results
can be shown at the beginning, middle or end of the weekly cycles.

I
In two, three and four peak dynamics, the athletes show the best sports results over two to four
training sessions. Sessions, during which they demonstrate the best sports achievements can in
some cases follow one after another in the weekly cycles and in others, alternate with trainings
during which the level of sports fonn temporarily decreases by 3-5% or more.

Oscillation of results over the weekly cycles of training during periods of sports form
maintenance are inescapable and natural. Jf the athlete, even if it is only one time in a weekly
cycle of training, demonstrates a result found in the zone of sports form maintenance, then this
appears as a sign of its maintenance. It also indicates that by changing the methods over the
above noted periods of training, we resolve the task put before them.

Dynamics of sports results duringperiods of rest

In the theory and methods of physical education and likewise in sports practice, there are various
points of view relative to the use of one or another system of exercises during the periods of rest
(transitional periods). Some specialists consider it necessary to use only means of general
preparation. Others recommend the use of specialized-preparatory in addition to general
preparatory exercises. Their ratio (according to the amount of time taken) should be 3:1,3:2 st
even 2:2 general preparatory to specialized preparatory.

According to the views of other groups of specialists, it is expedient to use not only specialized
developmental, but competitive exercises during the periods of rest. Their portion in the training
process is insignificant and usually does not go above 10-20% of the total volume. A third group
of specialists recommend that the athletes should not use any kind of exercises over the period of
rest and use only passive rest. Tied in with this it should be noted that many outstanding athletes
passively rest during the above noted periods of sports training and it does not interfere with
them showing world level achievements.
fe will not examine the worthiness or deficiencies of each proposed variant of constructing the
st period as this is not our task. But the existence of various points of view regarding the
)nstmctionof the given periods of sports training, requires us to write about the type of
sponses the body has, in view of the dynamics of sports results in response to the influence of
e above training variants. Even the non-use (passive rest) of any kind of exercise can be
msidered a system of influencing the body during the period of rest.

I studying the response reactions of the body, in view of the specific dynamics of sports results
ning the rest periods, it was very difficult to collect a sufficient amount of experimental data
hich would allow us to understand the essence of this problem. The reason for this was that the
ienvhelming majority of athletes do not use specialized-developmentaland competitive
iercises. To resolve the periods of rest situation, we were able to establish instances
luestionnaire survey) of their participation in competitions for different reasons (but basically
)ligated) during rest periods. One group of subjects entered competition after one week of rest,
e second group two weeks after and the third group--three. Among those questioned were
ose athletes who were mainly students-76%. With the selection of the experimental material,
was possible to evaluate the decrease in sports form after ending the period of rest. We did not
perience any difficulties especially with the speed-strength athletes.

sented in tables 128-131 are the experimental data related to the dynamics of sports form loss
ing periods of rest when the athletes did only (1) general preparatory exercises; (2) general
oaratory and specialized-preparatoryexercises; (3) all types of exercises; or (4) had only
rive rest.
 Table 128
~ C of sports
S form losses during the periods of rest when using only general

preparatory exercises
Weekly Cycle Number of Subjects Level of Sports Results relative
to what was possessed earlier, %
First 37 -1.8(f1.3)
Second 45 -4.2 ( i l ,1)

Third 52 -8.2(i2.2)
Fourth 54 -9.1 (i1.7)

In the first, second and fourth instances, the level of sports results decreased fairly significantly.
The dynamics of sports form loss during the rest periods when using all types of exercises,
depended to a great extent on whether the athletes carried out a change in the specialized-
developmental and competitive exercises at the beginning. If they introduced a new complex of
exercises then the level of sports form did not decrease. If the athlete continued to use all the
same exercises then a loss of sports form took place.

Table 129
Dynamics of sports form losses during the periods of rest when using only general developmental
and specialized-preparatoryexercises
Weekly Cycle Number of Subjects Level of Sports Results relative to what was possessed earlier, %
Fist 29 -1.6 (k1.1)
Second 36 -3.9 (i1.3)
Third 32 -7.7 (+1.6)
Fourth 43 -8.5 (k1.3)
 Table 130

Dynamics of sports form losses during the periods of rest when using all types of exercises

Table 131

Dynamics of sports form losses during the periods of rest using passive rest

In our view the experimental data examined helped to make more precise the mechanisms of
sports form loss or its maintenance during the rest periods. They are explained not only by the
individual essentials of the athletes, but also by the system of training influences used. The main
conclusions can be formulated as follows:

1. Exclusion of specialized-preparatory, specialized-developmental and competitive

exercises and the use of only general preparatory exercises over the periods of rest carries
with it a steady decrease in the level of sports fom.

2. The use of general preparatory and specialized-preparatory exercises also leads to a loss
of sports form.
 3. The use of all types of exercises during rest periods allows for maintaining sports fom.

4. Passive rest leads to a loss of sports form.

The dynamics of sports results duringphases of acquiring sports form

In the theory and methods of physical education, all specialists agree that improved results take
place over the phases of acquiring sports form. In addition, it is fact that this process has its own
beginning and end. No one is against the concept that the dynamics of sports form during these
phases is always characterized in a wave like fashion where there is alternation of "small",
"medium" and "large" waves of sports result increases. Agreement between the specialists ends
however, when it comes to the essence of the examined problem.

Here we see contradictory points of view relative to the tempo of increase of sports results during
one or another part of the phase of acquiring sports form. Some believe that an accelerated
increase in sports results is observed only when there is a decrease in the volume of training ,
loads and an increase in their intensity (153,154). This takes place in the second part of the
phase of acquiring sports form and is explained by the regularities of "delayed transformation".
The delayed transformation phenomena means that somehow or other, sports results stay behind
the dynamics of the training load volume.

According to other specialists, the greatest increase in sports results is observed at the beginning
of the phase of acquiring sports form. It takes place according to the deeper long term adaptation
restructuring that causes its tempo to decrease (57,58).

Tied in with this is that there is no single method of generalizing evaluation of the dynamics of
sports results over a period of sports training. In the process of our study we conditionally
divided the phases of acquiring sports form into four equal parts. Their duration depended on the
80
 ual duration of the phases of acquisition of sports form and the methods used to construct
riods of development. After this, according to the results of different tests, the best
vements over each of these parts were determined.

example, there can be maximal training results in the test exercises or, in the sum of the
increases in different indices over all the training sessions in the cycles (parts). The
nce between test achievements, fixed at the beginning of the phases of acquiring sports
,and also at the end of each of these parts, allowed us to judge the dynamics of sports
ts over all the phases.

experimental material received gives us a basis to talk about the existence of ten types of
rts result dynamics over the phases of acquiring sports form. In the first of them it is
aracteristic to see a steady increase in sports results. The second type is distinguished from the
t by the fact that during the first part of this phase there is a more significant increase in sports
achievements and after this, the tempo of increase gradually decreases. The t h i i type of
ynamics is characterized by a great increase in sports results during the first and fourth part and
a small amount in the second and third.

In the fourth type, the dynamics observed have an opposite correlation between large and small
waves of sports achievement increases as most of the increases take place over the second and
third parts. The fifth type of sports result dynamics is distinguished from all of the previous ones
in that right after two large wave like increases there are two small ones. The sixth type of sports
result dynamics is characterized by two large waves of sports achievement increases at the
beginning and after this, two small ones.

II
In the seventh type of dynamics a small wave like increase precedes three large ones.
large waves there is a small one. The ninth type of sports result dynamics takes place as follows:
small, large, small, small. The tenth type of dynamics is distinguished from the ninth in that over !

the phase of acquiring spoxts form, immediately after a large wave there is a small one then a
large one and again a small wave.

Evaluation in greater &tail of the sports result increases over each of the four parts of the sports :
I
form acquisition phases is possible through the factual data that is presented in table 132. f

Each large or small wave consists of a defimte number of training sessions. Over each time
period sports results can rise, be stabilized or decreased in comparison to the previous training
achievements. But their general dynamics always have a tendency toward an increase from one
part of the phase of development of sports form to the following.

Table 132
I
I

Dynamics of sports results over the phase of acquiring sports form (meandata) I

I Type of dynamics of sports ( Increase in sports results over the phases. of acquiring sports f m
First Part Second Part 1 Third Part I Fourth Part
First 1 1.9
I
1 2.2
I I
2.9
I
2.3
 ics of sports results in separate training sessions in the phase of acquiring
m

revious section we explained that the dynamics of sports results during the phase of
ng sports form is characterized by a wave like curve which increases up to that time when
thlete no longer enters into this state. Here, during each following training session, results
increased, stabilized or even decreased. Now we have before us the task to determine
e level of sports form, in separately taken training sessions, changes. The changes taking
are determined by the changes in the sports results which take place at the end of the
g session relative to the level that they had at the beginning. The level of sports
vements at the beginning of the training session in some cases can be higher than those seen
ng the previous weekly cycles of training in the phases of acquiring sports form, while in
cases, they are the same and in still others, lower.

erimental studies, participants included throwers of various qualifications. A

stionnaire was conducted among the athletes who specialized in the speed-strength track and
Id events (sprints,jumps, multi-events). In the study methodology, it was proposed that at the
of separately taken training sessions, the athletes would use maximum effort in the
petitive or similar exercises (jumps with an accelerated run-up (for jumpers) and runs for
orter and longer segments for sprinters.

sented in table 133 is the experimental data which reflect the direction of change in the
arnics of the sports results toward the end of the training sessions when using the uniform
------------

of training. For example, throwers use only competitive weights in throwing, jumpers
y jump with an accelerated run-up, and sprinters run short segments. With sprinters, results
ere recorded only in the first and second series. Note that the athletes, during the training
ssions, used a specific volume of loads and used the same or other intensity zones. These

I
examples are very diverse. Their direction to a great extent, is determined by the level of sports
results which were had in the first part of the training session. If the results were above the level

83
which they had over the previous weekly cycles, then in only 18% of the athletes did it increase
at the end of the training sessions, while in 25%it remained on the previous level and in 47%,
the sports achievements decreased.

Somewhat different results were registered by athletes in whom the beginning level of sports
results was the same as over the previous weekly cycles: the number of athletes going above the
level of their best achievements increased by 24%,in 32%of the subjects they were stabilized,
and in 44% they decreased.

Table 133
Dynamics of sports achievements during separate training sessions, when using uniform exerdses
Initial level of maximal training Change in result dynamics at the end of the training sessions, % of
results in comparison to those total number of participants
achieved earlier
Increase Stabilization Decrease
Increase 18 25 47

Stabilization 24 32 44
Decrease 42 40 8

The greatest quality change took place in the third group of athletes. In 42%of the athletes there
was an increase in sports achievements in the second part of the training session and in 40%it
was stabilized and in 8%, it decreased.

Related to this is the experimental data, received when using similar (uniform) exercises over
separate training sessions, that made it very difficult to give an objective evaluation of the
changes that took place in the sports results. This is especially true when the discussion is of
their increases. In some cases, this can be explained by the ending of the short term adaptation
restructuring in the corresponding body systems. In other cases, by the restorative processes
 the training loads used over the first part of the training session (we have in view the main
~uldfor example, cancel one or another structure of the brain.

1bry possible that at the beginning of the training sessions, athletes did not have the
bsary psychological set or the necessary muscle relaxation. We can also bring in poor
d execution of the movement which very frequently appears as a lack of feel for the
hatus, the track, the board, rhythm, tempo and so on.

1 much easier to give an evaluation in instances when athletes show the same sports results in
first and second basic parts of the training sessions. Here it is possible that at the end of the
iion, no negative change in body system functions took place. All the indices that
racterized the level of sports mastery of each individual athlete were the same. It is not
sible to not agree with this. It is even easier to explain instances of decreases in the level of
rts achievements which are observed at the end of the sessions. To do this, we can bring in
ples of studies that substantiate the gradual expenditure of some substrates for energy, the
opment of fatigue and so on.

pletery different results were seen when using the complex method of constructing the
ng sessions. Recall that it oversees the alternation of several diverse parts that follow one
other in a definite sequence. In our experimental studies, sprinters, between use of two of the
same series (for example, using only short or long running segments) did throw or strength work
lasting 15-30 minutes. With throwers, the training session consisted of two throw portions and
one strength. They alternated in the following sequence: throws, strength, throws. In jumpers,
between jump portions they used throw or strength exercises. In the training of multi-event
athletes, we considered the situation in which the athletes, at the end of the training session,
repeated the same work which they did at the beginning. This could have been jump, run or
throw exercises.
Without exception, all of the athletes in the speed-strength track and field events who took
3
in the experimental study, regardless of their initial level of sports results, experienced a de
change in the dynamics of sports achievements in the second portion of the training session;
either increased, stabilized or decreased. These changes appeared as a result of the adaptatio
changes taking place in the body under the influence of a definite system of training influen
The increase, stabilization or decrease in the sports results can be explained by those same
arguments that were looked at in cases with similar appearances when using uniform exerci
during separate training sessions. Thus, we fully coped with the task standing before us, m
because it fully corresponds with the positions on this theme which exist in the theory and
methods of physical education and in several related areas of scientific knowledge.

However, in our view, the arguments camed out by us to explain the dynamics of training re
over separately taken training sessions is completely abstract, nave and in many cases, far
the truth. This is so even though it appears fully logical to explain the decrease in sports results,
in the second part on the expenditure of energy resources that take place or by the ensuing
fatigue. We once again emphasize that in this section discussion is of the speed-strength events
in track and field.

The naiveness of our arguments is found in the fact that the increase, stabilization or decrease i
sports results is explained on the basis of different levels of energy, fatigue-restoration, etc.,
forgetting or only casually remembering the role of the nervous system. And here by its own 4

siwcance, it should assume that the leading role. The activity of the CNS predetermines the
direction of the specificity and essence of all short term and long term adaptation restructuring
that takes place on a micro and macro level of other body systems.

At the present time we know very little about the principles of CNS functioning in the process of
sports improvement, and as a consequence, we cannot single mindedly adapt to what is taking
place in the brain in the excitatory-inhibitory processes without which, it is impossible to direct

86
 ning transfer. It is true that sometimes we inadvertently allow for the transfer to the
etitive exercises not knowing or not following proven reasons for the changes taking place.

w we will look at the possible influences of the excitatory-inhibitory processes on the

narnics of sports results at the end of the training sessions when using uniform means of
strutting them. The increased level of sports achievements takes place on account of the fact
the executed training work can serve to further disturb the nerve centers which ensure one or
other activity. In many cases it has a favorable influence on increasing the level of activation
corresponding groups of nerve centers in the brain.

Stabilization of sports results can be explained by the absence of a change in the activity of one
or another group of nerve centers, which further increases the nervous potential that has an
influence on increasing the sports results at the beginning of the following training session.

I
A decrease in sports achievements can be due to:

I
Inhibition arising;

A "break" or "mix-up" in activation on the close and far away groups of nerve centers;

The developing fatigue in corresponding nerve centers.

I
When using the uniform method of constructing the training session, we looked at the intluence
of similar exercises, taking into consideration their volume and intensity, and the dynamics of the
results. When using the complex method, discussion is of the interrelationship between diverse
means of training executed in the second and third parts. The increase in sports results can be
explained by the fact that the training work executed, as for example, during the strength or
throwing parts, serves to cancel out the correspondingnerve centers and due to the change in the
inhibitory processes, excitation-activationtakes place. The earlier activated state is strengthened
87
because of the "building on itself" with supplementary activation from "neighbors". The
executed in the second part of the training session serves to raise the level of activation in
competitive or close to them, exercises. Not excluded here is the influence of the "active
phenomena of LM. Sechenov, which also has a neurological base.

The stabilization of sports results in the third part of the complex training session can be
explained by recovery of the level of activation that could have decreased toward the end
first part of the session. Very logical is that there is no interrelationship between the secc
thud parts as a consequence of which, the level of sports results change.

A decrease in sports achievements can be the result of:

A change in the excitatory processes of inhibition;

Transfer of the activated state from one group of nerve centers, responsible for
coordination of the nerve activity in the competitive exercises, to the closer or fan
groups of nerve centers, that coordinate other exercises;

Fatigue of corresponding groups of the above noted nerve centers.

In conclusion, we will take note that the study of constructing complexes of training sessi
well as the mechanisms of the interrelationships between their separate parts, comes up a
the thought that in these situations, we have to deal with separate training sessions which
one another within minutes, not hours, as is observed when alternating uniform trainings
weekly cycles. Naturally, the discussion is of short term non-prolonged training sessions
which uniform type exercises are used, with low volume and different intensity zones. B
them there is a more expressed interaction on the "nerve" level, than when using uniform
training sessions. This is explained by the fact that the amounts of the residual effects se
hours after separate trainings, significantly decreases. In the complex method of constru
 idual effects reach the maximum possible amoun

Table 134
Dynamics of sports achievements over separate training &ons when using
the,ampiex method of conrnetion

Change in the result dynamics at the end of the training sessions, % of

achieved earlier

course, here it is necessary to note that at the beginning, it is necessary to explain the
iuities of such interactions, which in the future, will combine the increase in sports
evements with the exercises needed by us. Because of this we.can confidently say that in the
,in the track and field speed-strength events, we will see the complex method of
nsmcting separate training sessions. Specialists are all the more leaning toward this which is
bstantiated by the data carried out by our questionnaire of athletes specializing in all groups of
k and field events (tables 135-139). The questionnaire was carried out from 1976 to 1992.
I'
pwticipating in the questionnaire were presently active athletes as well as those who
;I
@,scontinuedtheir career a long time ago.

Apparently one cannot under evaluare the role of the central nervous system in the training of
athletes specializing in the cyclical events requiring the display of endurance. Execution of one
and the same exercise ( mming and walking appear as such) during the entire yearly cycle of
training, fatigues the nervous system more simcantly than any standardized period of
development or maintenance of sports form in speed strength event athletes. This takes into
consideration the use of different zones of intensity, different segments, durations of rest
between them, but does not go into the alternation of work regimes and the means of aerobic and
anaerobic running. Moderate alternation of specific and non-specific training loads, which
includes the use of the delayed training effect, creates conditions for the flow of restorative
processes, both on the nervous system as well as on the energy level, on fatigue-restoration and
others.

Table 135

Dynamics of using different means of constructing the training sessions in the group of sprinters

Olympic cycle, years I Number of cases, % of relative to the total number of respondents
Uniform Complex

1960-1964 86 14
 Table 136

arnics of using different means of constructing the training sessions in the group of jumpers

Table 137

Dynami- of using different means of constructing the training sessions in the group of throwers
 Table 138

Dynamics of using different means of eonstrncting the training sessions of athletes, specializingin
the group of events requiring the display of endurance

Table 139

Dynamics of using different means of constructing the training sessions of multi-event athletes

92
Increase, stabilization or decrease in the best sports achievement levels during
multiyear sports improvement

The multiyear dynamics of sports results of each individual athlete can be presented in the form
of a parabolic curve consisting of three parts. The first of them characterizes the increase in
sports achievements from one yearly cycle to the next. Over the second part the level of sports
results stabilize and in the thud, it decreases. Each of these events is significantly differentiated
from one another, especially the first.

In the specialized literature dealing with analysis of multiyear sports improvement, the presence
of three stages are seen: increase, stabilization and decrease. Each of these stages corresponds to
one of the above noted parts of the parabolic curve. Because of this, further on we will speak not
of the parts of the curve, hut of the stages in the multiyear dynamics of sports results. The f i s t
stage lasts up to that time when the increase in sports results over the yearly cycle does not
decrease by more than 3%.

The factual data received shows that the duration of the stage of sports increases varies from 4 to
16 years. Its duration in most athletes interviewed was equal to 6 years. After ending the fmt
yearly cycle of training, sports results increased by 39.5% (+23.3%),in the second, by 27.7%
(&18.9%),the third-by 16.6%( f 12.1%),the fourth-by 8.2% (f4.7%),the fifth-by 6.2%
(*2.2%) and the sixth-by 3.6% (M.5%).

These increases in sports results reflect the mean level of increase in the best achievements of the
athletes interviewed in all track and field events. If these results are to be compared in each
event separately, then the tempo of increase in one event is significantly distinguished from
another. Thus, in the throws, the greatest increase is observed in the hammer throw, and in the
jumps, in the pole vault. In comparing the tempo of increase in sports achievements between
track and field event groups, it appears that the greatest increase in sports results take place in the
thmw9 and in the cyclical events, requiring the display of endurance. The lowest increase is in -.
the sprint events.

The length of the stage of slow increases in sports achievements varies from 2-5 years. In this
period, there is an insimcant increase in sports achievements which do not go above the 3%
zone. In most athletes, the tempo of increase decreases each year. For example, in the f i t year
they can increase by 2-3%, and in the following, not more than 1%.
1
It was likewise shown that the duration of the stages of increased achievement in athletes of
different qualifications is different. For example, athletes who achieve the class I sports
category, take on average, about four years (plus or minus 1.5), for Master of Sport-five years
(plus or minus 0.8), in Masters of Sport International Class-seven (plus or minus 2.1), and in
champions-nine years (plus or minus 1.3). mitor's note: for information on the different
athlete categories see Secrets of Russian Sports Fimess and Tmining]

The duration of the stages of stabilization of the achieved level of sports mastery is likewise
individualized and varies from 1-10 years. Most frequently, athletes hold the achieved level for
4-5 years.

The duration of the stage of decreased sports results depends on how long the athlete appears in
competition. In 85% of the cases, it begins after 30 years of age. A decrease in sports results
most frequently does not take place gradually, but suddenly. Thus, in the first year it can
decrease by 3-5% or more. After this, this level can be maintained for some time or even begin
to gradually decrease.
 stopping of sports achievement increases after several years can be explained by two main
. First-the athlete used up his genetic capabilities, which are expressed in the
vement of a specific level of sports results. Second--the system of training effects used is
capable of bringing the athlete to a higher level of adaptation after ending each consecutive
le of sports form development. In these cases, the athletes more or less "have served their
e" with these results at the moment of entry into the state of sports form.

ioooking over the genetic capabilities, we hypothetically propose that they oversee the use of a
ite number of cycles (periods) of development over the entire life of the individual. Here,
ave in view not only physical development but also mental. It is only natural that over each
these cycles of development, long term adaptation restructuring takes place in the
rresponding body systems. Consequently, in champions, the cycles of development are
gnificantly greater than in mid level athletes.

aising the level of personal achievements afer ending each consecutive cycle of
orts form development

The state of sports form appears as a result of long term adaptation restructuring, which takes
place in the corresponding systems of the body in response to a definite system of training
influences. The level of sports results, achieved at the end of the cycles of sports form
development, are determined by the total qualitative and quantitative changes, which in some
cases, serve to raise it to a new, higher level of adaptation and in others-"expire" (repeat) to the

I Consequently, an increased level of personal sports achievements depends fiat of all, on the
I system of training iduenres used. It oversees the use of not only a definite complex of
f exercises of different types, volumes and intensities of training loads, but also corresponding

I means of constructing separate training sessions, micro-, meso-, and macro cycles of sports
training. If the athlete uses one and the same system of training influences for several years, then
at the end of each consecutive period of sports form development, the natural increase in
personal sports achievements slows down and then ceases. We once again repeat that the
discussion here is of the natural increase in sports results. This phenomenon has great
significance since when using stimulating preparations it is extremely difficult to determine
which factors were responsible for its increase.

The data received by us shows that over the first 5-6 periods of sports form development, that
follow after a period of rest, the increase in sports achievements with the use of one and the same
system of training effects, does not cease, even if it has a tendency toward a decreased tempo of
increase. Upon expiration of the given time period, sports results stabilize. Only the introduction
of a new complex of exercises using great volume and intensity of training loads, serves to
increase achievements.

In comparing multiyear results of throwers in the 1960's and 1980's, we found that the stage of
increases in results in the first group was almost two times shorter than in the second. Here we
can hypothetically propose that the increase in this stage, to a great extent, was determined by the
training system used. It was shown that it practically changed in all of its composed
characteristics. The throwers in the 1980's used a significantly greater number of specialized
preparation means (more than 50 exercises) in the stages of sports result increases than throwers
in the 1960's who used less than 20 exercises. Similar changes took place in other track and
field disciplines (jumps, sprints, hurdles and multi-events).

The level of results achieved at the end of the periods of sports form development always
correspond to a definite level of adaptation. Here, long term adaptation restructuring in different
body systems serves to increase sports achievements. Because of this, the athlete has the task of
improving his present level of adaptation over each consecutive period of sports form
development. Only when he has resolved this, is it possible to await an increase in personal
 rts achievements. In order for this to happen, the multiyear process of sports improvement
ould be constructed so that during each consecutive cycle of sports form development, stronger
mplexes of training loads are used. The loads should be characterized not only the means and
ethods of training used, together with their amounts, and volume and intensity, but also the
eans of constructing separate training sessions, and the micro-, meso- and macro cycles of

Iports training.

Dynamics of training transfer in the training used duringperiods of sports form

development

The dynamics of training transfer in the training used during periods of sports form development
are characterized by increased achievement in some exercises, stabilization of the previously
achieved level in others and a decrease in still others. It is also possible to have situations where,
at the end of the phase of acquiring sports form, the level of personal achievements in the
training stabilize in certain exercises and decrease in others. At the same time, an increase in
results in all the means of training used over one or another period of sports form development
can be observed only in athletes with low sports qualifications. But even here in some exercises
they can be increased more and in others-less. Simultaneous increases in achievement in all the
exercises used in the training of high level athletes can only take place when using different
pharmacological preparations.

The dynamics of training transfer depend not only on the strength of the complex of training
influences used (even though it predetermines the increase in sports results in general), but also
on the structure of separate training sessions, and micro-, meso-, and macro cycles of sports
training. The structure of separate sessions depends upon the alternation of the means of training
used. Weekly cycles consist of the optimal alternation of training sessions having different
emphases with days of passive rest. The structure of the middle (meso) cycles of training
predetermine the order of the following different weekly cycles of training according to their
volume, intensity and composition of means. Macro cycles of training combine into a united
97
 I

system, different cycles of training according to their strength and direction of their affect. This
serves in long term adaptation restructuring in correspondence with the body systems, and
consequently, for entry into the state of sports form.

In the theory and methods of track and field, the effects of the system of training influences used
over the weekly cycles during periods of sports form development, will result in transfer. This is
considered a given fact. Thus, in the cyclical track and field events (205,257) it was proposed to
use several regimes of weekly cycles of training, each of which serve the direction of transfer of
training in one or another type of exercise used. In some cases, the greatest increase in sports
results was observed in the speed exercises and others, in the exercises for speed endurance and
SO on.

In experimental studies with throwers, we tried more than 250 different weekly cycles of
training. They were distinguished from one another by the composition of the means, volume,
and intensity of the training loads. It was found that only 12 of them Sewed to transfer the
training effect to the competitive exercise (event). In all other cases, the sport results increased
in just about all of the other exercises, but not in the competitive.

One of the 12 weekly cycles which serve to transfer the training to the competitive exercise,
consisted of three technical and three strength training sessions and only one day of passive rest.
Strength exercises followed the technical training. In tables 140 and 141, the content of this
cycle is presented.
I Table 140

Content of technical training sessions, used during the weekly cycles in one of the periods of sports
form development--in regard to number of throws

Table 141

Content of strength training sessions used during the weekly cycles in one of the sports form
development periods

Exercise Training load (zones of intensity, sets, repetitions)

Snatch from the hang 85%~4~2;90%~3~2;95%~2~2

Jerk pull 12O%x3x4

Rotation with 60kg weight barbell on the shoulders 60kg x 10 x 4

Half squat, barbell on the shoulders 8 0 % lOx3;90%x5x2

~

Jumps with dumbbells in the hands 16kgxlOx4

Exercises for the abdominal muscles 4 series of 10 reps

Note that in the process of the experimental study we fixed the dynamics of the changes in
results over all the periods of development of sports form in all the exercises used in the 250
weekly cycles. It was shown that in some exercises, sports results increased while in others they
remained on the previous level and in still others they decreased.

All of this gives us the right to substantiate that the process of training transfer takes place over
many years of sports improvement in each individual. During the periods of sports form
development, the athletes always use not one, but several exercises. The body, at the conclusion
of long term adaptation restructuring, answers with a definite type of increase, stabilization or
decrease in the level of sports results in the exercises used.

The end reaction of the body systems, in view of the dynamics of the training transfer, begins to
form even at the beginning of the sports form development periods. After several weekly cycles
some kind of "mosaic" of self feeling is worked out during execution of the exercises. It is
relatively stable as it is repeated from one training session to another. Here we are talking about
the use of standard, according to definite parameters of weekly cycles of training used over the
periods of sports form development. Each "entry" (system of training influences) has its "exit"
(response reaction in the dynamics of the training transfer). It is suggested that athletes use each
of the 250 approved weekly cycles of training to know in advance whether the sports results wil'
increase, be stabilized, or decrease from the exercises.

As can be seen, the reflected mechanisms for getting ahead of what is reflected, appear even in
sports practice. It cannot be otherwise, as they demonstrate the basic form of accommodation of
living material to the spatial-temporal structure of the inorganic world, where the sequence and
repetitiveness appear as the basic temporal parameters. They reflect the basic principles OF
accommodation to surrounding conditions (7).
 reflection of outstripping (getting ahead) oversees first of all, the ability of different material
ects to take on the influence of external means, and rework it later, and then maintain and use
in the following interactions with the surrounding reality (63,87). And so, S. Vasiliev (46)
ound eight levels of reflection:

--The ability of material objects to use the results ofthe past trials in the process of
interaction;

--accumulation of trials (after effects) in corresponding material objects;

--response reaction;

--more or less precise perception of the essentials of one object to another;

--process the result of the reflected activity of man;

--result of the interaction;

--internal changes taking place in objects as a result of the interaction;

--the action of the reflected object on other objects.

We constantly see most of the noted levels of reflection in training transfer. The end reaction of
the body is seen in a sports result increase in some exercises, stabilization in others and a
decrease in still others or there is nothing different in the form of the reflected outstripping. This
is the ability of the brain to "run ahead into the future, in response to the stimulus of the action
which is in the present (6,88). There is not one judgment, not one thought that is not constructed
as something new every time; it carries with it the experiences of the past.

Even when a relationship to the external situation is not yet formed, but is only taking on the
appearance in the direction of the influence, the "hints" tell us of the end result. These "hints"
appear as forerunners of the end reactions. They always have a barely inaudible outline (63). In
the process of training transfer their essence is reflected in the dynamics of definite subjective

101
self feelings from one training session to the following. Only in those exercises, where this self
feeling has the highest point value, is it possible to await an increase in spofis achievements.

Standardization of loads over separate sessions, micro-, meso- and macro cycles
of sports training

The theoretical and experimental material put together at the beginning of this chapter shows that
adaptation appears as a result of the interaction of two systems-the system of training
influences and the body of the individual. The fust appears in the role of an enabling factor and
the second, as a reformer (changer) of an object. By the way, in constructing the systems of
training influences, it follows to take into consideration the general and specific principles of
sports training that oversee the regularities of sports form development. If not, long term
adaptation restructuring will not take place and the level of adaptation already possessed may be
maintained or even be decreased. Over the yearly cycles of training, we can create conditions for
the flow of adaptation and consequently, for development of sports form-this is the main rule in
the process of sports improvement. The noted processes are united since without long term
adaptational restructuring, the athlete cannot enter into the sports form state.

Consequently, adaptation in the process of sports improvement appears as a necessary and

important condition for raising sports results. Advancing to address the charge that it somehow
or other impedes the increase in sports results, inasmuch as the adaptation decreases the response
reaction of the body, is that it does not have a basis of support. The increase in sports
achievements, after ending each consecutive period of sports training, is not observed in those
cases where the strength of the complex of training loads used does not constantly increase.
Adaptation does not to any degree, reflect the ability of using standard, according to definite
parameters of training influences over the duration of separate sessions, micro-, meso-, and
macro cycles of sports training, in as much as they serve to display different types of reactions
over given periods of time.
 king at the problem of standardization of the above noted structures, it is necessary for us
ve our response to questions such as-what is standardization and why is it necessary to use
er separate training sessions, micro-, meso-, and macro cycles of training with standard
s according to definite parameters of the training complexes? We will begin with
ization of training sessions, which appear as the first link in the system of constructing

s system oversees the use of definite complexes of different exercises which should change
er the following periods of development or maintenance of sports form. In this way, the
ngth of their influence, because of the newness and effectiveness should increase all the time,
ut the use of the exercises should follow one another in a strict sequence. Also used is a
e f i t e alternation of different kinds of different parts of the training sessions (technical and
ngth) in those situations, where they consist of different types of exercises.

Also becoming standardized is the intensity of the training loads by keeping in mind that the
athlete, from day to day, has a steady relationship with the intensity zones used. We will use an
example of constructing separately taken training sessions in the hammer throw, during which
they fulfill 30 throws of different intensity. One of the possible ways is that the first 10 throws
by the athlete that will be executed in the 85%-90% maximum zone, that is, at the given moment,
the second in the 90%-95% zone and the third in the 95-100% zone.

But according to the degree of development of sports form, the worthiness of these zones will
increase all the time increase. Consequently, standardization will be observed only in the
number of loads executed in one or another zone, while the total intensity has a tendency to
increase according to the degree of entry into the state of sports form. In the periods of
maintaining sports form, the training load intensity, according to all of its parameters
(corresponding zones and likewise their value) remain unchanged.

103
During periods of sports form development, the use of definite amounts of training load volume
is also stipulated. Inescapable here, is that the dynamics change. For example, in the first two
weekly cycles the volume of training loads can gradually increase, especially in the training of
athletes in cyclical events that require the display of endurance. This does not exclude their
decrease during several unloading training sessions or weekly cycles. However, in the greater
part of this period, the volume of training loads should reach the planned maximum amounts.

The volume of training loads used during periods of sports form development likewise has a
tendency towards standardization, but it, depending on various reasons, can temporarily be
decreased.

Standardization of the training load complexes used over separate training sessions during
periods of sports form development (especially the exercises) serve:
';I
'!

--to shorten the limits of entry into the state of sports form;

--to direct the training transfer;

--the flow of the restorative processes on the central nervous system level (which has
exceptional significance in the speed-strength events) and other body systems;

--learning and improvement of technical mastery in the complex-coordination events.

Shortening the limits of entry into the state of sports form takes place because the same
complexes are used. This allows for an easier flow of the long term adaptation restructuring that
takes place in different body systems. From the general theory of adaptation, it is known that the
more constant and uniform the irritants, and the longer they have an influence, the faster the
body becomes accustomed to them, that is, the more quickly it restructures its functions. By
changing the complexes over short periods of time, we so to speak jump over them with one

104
I)structuring" over another. As a result, without fully succeeding to restructure one, we get to

direction of the training transfer oversees the formation of such systems of interrelationships
e centers in the brain, that serve to increase sports results. In sports
first of all, in transfer to the competitive exercise. Here with sorrow, it
ascertained that in the theory and methods of physical education there has not been an
es of formation of the above mentioned system of interrelationships.
a sufficient number of studies on the ability to direct hsi process
e, as for example, the influence of one part of the training system on
ise the mechanisms of their inter-influences between separate
gs over weekly cycles.

During each training session there is a mosaic of excitatory processes formed in the brain. It is
fixed in the memory of the individual and maintained as a residual effect over a specific period
of time. Inductional interrelationships between the excitatory-inhibitory processes are very
labile. Their dict ion depends on many factors. The most important ones are: repeatability of
the action, sequence of their alternation and strength of the external irritants.

The mosaic of the excitatory-inhibitoryprocess can be presented as a musical score recorded on

note paper. Each composition, depending upon its type and content, has its own structure of
musical marks. In a similar manner, over the duration of training sessions, in specific groups of
brain nerve centers, the scheme of the system of irritants used is recorded. By repeating this
schematic from one training session to another during the periods of sports form development, it
leads to their solidification in regard to definite functional and other changes in the above noted
structures of the CNS. The essence of the mosaic worked out of the excitatory-inhibitory
processes, is always reflected in the dynamics of the training transfer.
Serving in the flow of short term and long term adaptation restructuring is the use of one and the
same (specific) complexes of training loads. By this we simultaneously create conditions for the
flow of the restorative processes. First, we save the body systems from reactions that have
different orientations by means of which, the body always readjusts to any change in the training
influence complex. Second, according to the adaptation between definite body systems,
relatively steady interrelationships are worked out, the establishment of which is easier with
uniform training.

In events that have complex coordination patterns, standardization serves not only the processes
of learning but also improvement of technical mastery. In the psychology of sport it has been
shown that the greater the joining of new material that is being learned with the old, then the
more expressed is the transfer (189). Otherwise, any type of existing factor has a negative
influence on the execution of movement. Standardization and stabilization of the carried out
activity serves in the process of improving and strengthening coordination (119, 121). When
using uniform irritants and observing a definite number of their repetitions, we create the best
conditions for working out a definite motor scheme of movement (27,90).

Standardization of the methods and means of learning and improvement of motor skills
according to all parameters, is a direct path to easier presentation of technical mastery of the
athletes in different sports (39,77,81, 126). According to R. Eshbi (253), adding new tie-ins
removes the system from the integrated form and increases the time necessary for
accommodation. He writes that we should once and for all toss out the idea that is propagated in
almost all books on the brain that were written in the last 100 years, that the greater the tie-ins
with the brain the better. Many functions can be realized only when specific variables do not
have the ability to influence another, or else the resulting influence will be limited.

With a change in the means of training, a redistribution of the accented muscular efforts takes
place which affects different body reactions. Only the steadiness of different changes serves the
perception of different temporary characteristics (19,86, 175,286) and the lengthy states of
multi systems (16,246). The more similar the actions of the initants on the body systems, the
greater is the validity that dispersion leads to activation of general variables and to general step-
wise mechanisms (7,86).

Related to this is an example from learning technique in the hammer throw. Sports practice has
shown that it is easier to teach a beginner than a high level athlete, who before throwing the
hammer, specialized in other throw events. This is explained by the fact that the consecutiveness
(sequence) of including separate body limbs of the hammer thrower (arms, legs) is different from
those in the other track and field throw events.

Thus, in the entry into the hammer throw, after assuming the initial position, they begin to
accelerate the implement with the arms while in the shot put, discus and javelin, the thrower
begins with help from the muscular effort of the legs. The learned consecutiveness of including
separate body links in the latter three track and field throw events is very stable. As a result, it
becomes necessary to lose several years of training in order to get rid of the developed
coordination. Beginners learn this movement in a period of several months.

Standardization of the complexes of training influences, used over weekly cycles of training in
periods of sports form development, are the same as in the standardization of sepatate training
sessions. This serves to shorten the time for entry into the given state. The mechanisms of their
shortening are the same--uniform and gradual influences of one and same irritants create
conditions for the flow of short term and long term adaptation restructuring. Any change in the
system of exercises used increases these time limits.

With standardization of weekly cycles of training between separate sessions, a definite system of
interrelationships is worked out. In can serve to increase sports achievement in the training used
over one of the cycles, stabilization in others and a decrease in still others. The direction of
training transfer depends on many factors. In the speed-strength events it predetermines the
stimulating or extinguishing influence of certain training sessions on another. In the cyclical
events the end result depends on whether the cycle begins with restoration or if it begins with
some other training session. Alternating training sessions having different dictions can serve
to show different stimulatory effects.

When discussion is of the stimulatory influence of certain training sessions on others, we have in
view alternation over the weekly cycles of training during which some sessions create the
optimal activating background due to their aftereffects on others. In these situations the athletes
know early on that an increase in sports achievements will only take place in those means of
training that are used in the stimulatory training sessions. In the training of throwers, jumpers
and sprinters, this example of the role of stimulatory training sessions can be fulfilled by strength
training, prior to technique or speed exercises and so on. It is only natural that the stimulating
training session always precedes the stimulatory one. One of the possible variants of alternation
of the given types of training sessions in the throws, is for example, as follows: on Monday,
Wednesday and Friday -- strength training and on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday - throw
exercises.

In regard to standardization of weekly cycles, they create optimal conditions not only for the
flow of long term adaptation restructuring in the corresponding body systems, but also for the
restorative processes. First, according to the degree of adaptation, there is an easier flow of body
system reactions on all levels, including the restorative ones. Second, using a definite structure
of weekly cycles, during which there is alternation of different sessions according to content and
direction of affects, it is possible to manage different cumulative training effects.

Standardization of weekly cycles of training during periods of development and maintenance of

sports form, oversees the use of definite throwing structures. Depending upon the problem to be
resolved over these periods, it changes. During uniform and varied forms of training sessions,
definite complexes of different exercises are once again used. They are changed at the beginning
of each consecutive period of development or maintenance of sports fonn.

During the weekly cycles of training definite amounts of volume and intensity of training loads
are used. The correlation between different intensity zones that are used will be maintained
during the entire period of sports form development. According to the degree of entry into the
state of sports form, the value of these zones will change, that is their amounts will increase.
Once again, it is necessary to turn our attention to the fact that the discussion is of the steady use
of a definite correlation of intensity zones in which the athlete executes a particular amount of
work. Suspending or stopping the process of increasing sports form during the phase of its
acquisition would be very unwise.

n standardizing meso- and macro cycles of training, we create conditions for the flow of long
erm adaptation restructuring in the body systems and likewise, the restorative processes. All of
his serves to shorten the periods of time for entry into the state of sports form. Any change in
he complexes of the exercises used, will increase them. Standardization of these meso- and
nacro cycles of training oversees the use of the necessary amount of what is standard, according
o definite parameters--over the course of the weekly cycles of training. Here, most attention
should be given to the complexes of exercises used, in as much as from them, the amount of time
for the flow of long term adaptation restructuring depends and consequently, the time for entry in
the state of sports form, not even considering the direction of the training transfer.

In regard to standardization of the amounts of volume and intensity used, according to several
subjective and objective factors, they can change. In all track and field disciplines over the
periods of development of sports form which follow the periods of rest, the volume of training
loads and their intensity has a tendency to increase. The duration of this stage in speed-strength
event athletes is significantly shorter than in athletes in the cyclical events that require
endurance.

In reaching the end of the accustomization stage with planned amounts of volume and intensity
of training loads, sprinters, jumpers, throwers and multi-event athletes use them for the entire
period of sports form development. For athletes in the cyclical events requiring the display of
endurance, after the third or fourth week of such loads, the volume and intensity over one weekly
cycle can be somewhat decreased, thanks to the stimulation of the recovery processes. Such
changes in the dynamics of volume and intensity of training loads can also be carried out in the
speed-strength events.

When discussing the dynamics of volume and intensity of training loads used during sports form
development periods, it is always necessary to recall that for the greater portion of training, it is
expedient to use the maximum amounts planned for, as this helps the body systems improve to a
new qualitative level of adaptation. This creates the pre-conditions for increasing achievements
after ending each consecutive stage of sports improvement. By not rising up to the new level of
adaptation it is difficult to calculate the increased level of personal sports achievements.

In concluding this section, I must bring out that the use of standard--according to definite
parameters of the weekly training cycles during periods of maintenance of sports form, serves to
reveal individual reactions of the body systems in view of the dynamic changes in sports results.
For example, in the track and field jumps, throws and sprints, one group of athletes show their
best sports results on the first day after rest, that is on Monday. The second group on Tuesday
and the thud group on Thursday. On the following days of the weekly cycle the results seen in
the sports form maintenance zone have a tendency to decrease by 1-3%. These types of
reactions are maintained over the duration of the entire period of sports form maintenance.
After a change in the complex of training used, there is a change in the individual reactions. If
the athletes use a weekly training cycle in which after 2 training days there is a day of rest, then
in the majority of cases the athletes show the best sports achievements on the second day of the
training sessions.

Knowing the individual reactions by looking at the dynamics of sports results over separate days
of the weekly cycles of training, makes it possible to optimally prepare for competitive activity.
If the athletes demonstrate their best sports achievements after a day of passive rest (the first
example) then it would be wise for them to rest before competition. If it is on the second day
(the second example), then the system of preparation for competition should change somewhat.
In this case, after a day of pasive rest, they should take a day to train and after this, enter into
competition. ,

The theory of general adaptation is in agreement with the existence of living substances. It is
ensured by means of accommodation to different internal and external influences that appear
even in sports practice. The adaptive changes that take place in the body systems always appear
as the reason behind the creation of different types of short and long term pedagogical type
reactions, when viewing the sports results over particular periods of time.

The first of them is characterized by the duration of one or several training sessions in which the
sports results can be increased, stabilized or decreased in comparison with the previously
established level. We constantly come up with similar dynamics over any of the periods of
sports training regardless of the adaptive changes that have taken place. They are fully regulated
and explained by the heterochronicity (not at the same time) of the adaptation process in regard
to the flow and restoration of different functional abilities of the body systems.
Short term reactions reflect the dynamics of sports results over weekly cycles of sports training.
They are characterized as being wave like-n separate days sports results can be increased,
stabilized or decreased. However, the general tendency of the achievements depend upon
changes that take place during the phases of acquiring, maintaining and losing sports form, the
periods of their maintenance and periods of rest. When we speak of the general tendency of
sports results in the weekly cycles of training, we have in mind changes that take place in the
best sports achievements during each period in comparison to each of the previous.

It is natural that long term body system reactions are characterized by definite dynamics of sports
results over the periods of development and maintenance of sports form, as well as over periods
of rest. In the first case, discussion is of the individual alternation of the phases of acquisition,
maintenance and loss of sports form. In the second-f the maintenance of the sports form level
achieved and in the third, about its loss.

Of the number of long term reactions, we distinguish those that reflect the general tendency to
increase the level of sports achievement at the end of each consecutive period of sports f o m
development. The system of exercises used serve for entry into the state of sports fonn and
consequently, the beginning and ending of the flow of long term adaptation restructuring in the
corresponding body systems. These two processes are united and condition each other inasmuch
as without the action of the irritants, the adaptation changes would take place but the athlete
would not enter into the state of sports form. An increase in the level of personal achievements
at the end of each consecutive period of development of sports form depends upon the strength
of the influence of the complex of training loads that are used.

In the opposite case, athletes entering into the state of sports form "draw" on the earlier
possessed level of adaptation and level of sports achievement. Because of this, the adaptation
restruchuing makes it possible to enter into the above noted states, but the system of training
influences used predetermine the quality of these changes which reflect a definite level of sports
achievement. Thus, adaptation in the process of sports improvement should be looked at not as a
specific "evil" that prevents an increase in sports achievements at the end of the periods of sports
form development or that slows down their increases in the multiyear process of sports
improvement. It should be used as an enabling "blessing" which serves for the entry into the
state of sports form (the first and foremost general biological reaction). In addition, it serves in
the display of quality changes (second reaction) that reflect the corresponding level of sports
results in each individual.

Inasmuch as we have already spoken of the multiyear reactions of the body systems in view of
the increase in sports achievements over a definite number of sports form development periods,
we see that the sports result in one case depends on the use of the multiyear system of
preparation and in another, on the individual talents of the athlete. The system of multiyear
preparation oversees the use of new complexes of training loads during each consecutive period
of sports form development. The strength of their influence should increase all the time. This is
the main position in the multiyear preparation system. Only by observing it, is it possible to
achieve an increase in sports achievements over a definite number of sports form development
periods are limited by the genetics of each athlete. After exhausting his genetics, the athlete
cannot increase his level of sports results any further through natural means.

Standardization of training loads over separate training sessions, micro-, meso- and macro cycles
of sports training, does not hinder but does the opposite--it serves to display different short term
and long term response reactions of the body systems in regard to an increase, stabilization or
decrease in the level of results. It makes the process of improvement easier, inasmuch as it
makes it possible to direct the processes of development, maintenance and loss of sports form. It
can foresee (taking into consideration the individual characteristics of the athletes) the dynamics
of the results over the duration of the above mentioned periods of time.
Standardization of training loads makes it possible to direct the training transfer since it creates
favorable conditions for the flow of the necessary adaptation restructuring in those systems of the
body which automatically participate in the activity. The data and the changes are very specific
and correspond strictly to the system of training influences used.

,
,
Chapter 4
influences, acquire a significant advantage over those in which this given ability to develop is no
as great. F i t they slowly react to the ensuing influence that strives to disturb the earlier balance
achieved (254) by maintaining some kind of shift in the body systems.

Acquired in the process of evolution are mechanisms for "forestalling" definite changes
proposed for the future that give the body systems the ability to mobilize themselves in time for
counteractions against the externally arising irritants (170,254). After this, the systems return to
a state of balance which interferes with any adaptive changes even if they serve to establish a
new level of adaptation (170).

The defense reactions of the body systems are conditioned by definite functional regularities
acquired in the process of evolution. We will now look at several of them.

Minimization of information

It is generally known that the process of development of living things is realized by means of
acquiring information in corresponding structural systems of the body. The level of development
of the individual depends on its qualitative and quantitative content, which is limited by the
corresponding body systems by genetic avoidance, optimizing the encroaching information (7).
Its maximum significance is in the unsteady state of the population. At its minimum, it takes on
mastery of the "norm" as a consequence of which, conditions for the display of different variants
of accommodation are created. Becoming the "norm" is accompanied by not only an unsteady
state of the population, but also different unfavorable changes (248).

The "cunning intelligence" of the body allows it to significantly realize its aims in the process of
change, as it is always directed to the "extinguishing", "suppressing" process of learning and
improvement of different capabilities of the body systems (251,254). Because of this,
116
ninimization of information appears as one of the many means of maintaining the life of the
ndividual, acquired by its living nature in the process of evolution. Minimization-this is a
counteraction to the informational avalanche, which acts gradually on the body systems. From
here, the limited character of biological evolution, and the diiculty of increasing the genetic
information, in the end result, maintains the process of development. Going beyond the limits of
what is allowed cames with it the destruction of everything living (170, 171,247).

The process of information minimization not only decreases the amount of information but also
allows one to limit it in total. The more complex and stronger the influences acting on the body
systems by the irritating complexes, the more expressed is the striving of specific structures in
the brain to change this source of information to another direction (149). We have in view
"transference" of the activating impulses from the specific structures in the brain to the non-
specific.

The property of non-specific reorganization in response to a specific influence was already

established at the end of the nineteenth century. In sports practice, this display appears when the
results are increased in the general developmental exercises, the same as in the special-
preparatory exercises, but not in the competitive.

It has been noted that stimuli, identical in all ways and including local ones, can bring about
reflex movements in the brain that are distinguished from one another, even those that are
counter to the character and direction of movement (48, 151). It was found that the "correcmes~"
or "incorrectness" of the flow of conditional reflex activity is determined not by the nature of the
irritants, but the specific interrelationships in which they find themselves with other processes (7,
155). This first of all, shows the influence of the previous activity on the following. It does not
exclude, but also assumes reverse actions.
In sports practice, we frequently meet up with the fact that there is "avoidance" by the body
systems to further quality restructuring in one or another of its structures when following it there
should be an increase in sports results. Here the body more or less "throws" onto its "neighbors"
a stream of specific impulses, from the arising afferent pathways, that is, its redistribution takes
place in nerve centers which do not assume or take on immediate participation in one or another
movement. From here, there are "unintelligible" increases in sports results in those exercises
which were not used in the training process. Most frequently the "throwing on" takes place in
those exercises that are rarely used in training and apparently, as a consequence of this, they are
"open" for development.

In classic physiology, studies constantly come up with non-identical reactions by the body
systems in response to the use of the same irritants according to all parameters. The reactions
can be extinguished, change their sign to the opposite or, even be totally absent (170). The
changes in the reactions observed are the same in simple as in complex movements, based on
their coordination structure.

For many decades it was believed that after the warm up there is an increase in the activity of the
neuromuscular system, that there is an above-the-initial-level state of the body that accompanies
better results (64, 139). In the last decade quite a few studies have shown the presence of
perfectly opposite reactions (159).

We have recorded many cases of inadequate reactions when using training session complexes
consisting of several parts (as for example, technical, strength and jump). Here an increase in
sports results took place not in those exercises which were executed with high intensity (90-
100%)but in others, where the strength of the training influence varied between 70-80% of
maximum. The increase in sports achievements was very significant -- from 10-20%.
In training high level athletes, we constantly come up with the fact that at the moment of entry
into the state of sports form, the self feeling of the athletes is significantly worse than it was
during the periods of its maintenance. It would have been possible to not pay any attention to the
subjective feelings if, at the moment of entry into the state of sports form, the athletes achieved
their personal best results. But here, discussion relates to the fact that during the phase of
stabilization, which follows the phase of acquisition, the level of sports results are lower than
during the period of sports form maintenance, which follows the periods of its development.

About inhibition

Even in the 20dhalf of the 19" century, studies came to the conclusion that each reflex act is
always accompanied with inhibition. 1.M.Sechenov was one of the first to reveal the
mechanisms of inhibition underlying the central (spinal brain) and above lying central (the head
brain). Even LP. Pavlov (170) constantly collided with "the cursed question of inhibition". We
were even reminded of this by S. Sherrington, N.Vvendenskii, A.Ukhtomskii and other foremost
physiologists.

At the beginning, inhibition was looked at as one of the factors that made up coordination of the
higher nervous activity. Right after activation, inhibition followed. It was noted that the
excitatory-inhibitory process mosaic changed all the time even when working out simple
behavioral reflexes when using different irritants (different strengths of irritants) (171). It was
found that peak irritants bring about weak irradiation of the excitatory-inhibitory processes while
maximum irritants make irradiation much stronger and moderate ones, concentrate them (170).
Establishment of new coordination is a complex and labor intensive process of development. It
always begins with irradiation of excitation, that is limited by the inhibitory "shoreline" by
means of which, the excitation is directed in a definite channel (170).
Tn the beginning, the processes of excitation and inhibition were considered non-dependent upon
one another. They were different by their own nature, where the first balanced the second.
However, with time it was shown that they do not appear as two opposites or unrelated
"demons". They have a general nature-an active state of living tissu-d can transition into
one another depending upon the changes in the amounts of excitation and lability (47). With
constant interaction they reflect both sides of a coin, each of which has its own function.

The process of inhibition appears as a precursor to maintaining form. It is the result of the
excitatory influences (7, 170). With its help, the body can always strive to maintain its existing
changes from those that threaten it, since any changes assume the distribution of a portion of the
resources (253).

Higher nerve activity, to a great extent, characterizes the interrelationship between the
excitatory-inhibitory processes, where there is a "struggle" between them, maintaining some and
holding back others (302). This appears as one of the important principles of coordination of
motor activity. These processes are always dynamic and plastic (13,115) during which one state
can transition into another. It is also possible to have the absence of a reaction (38).

The process of inhibition in some way inhibits the spread of excitation to some of the nerve cell
ensembles that should not participate in the activity. They have the ability to lower the
immediate excitation, "minimizing it", precisely "dosing" it, and by this "stopping" it if there is a
necessity for this. With the help of inhibitory processes, the brain activity becomes systemic and
integrally regulated because of the chaos. Thanks to it, the continuation of excitation summation
cannot increase the activity of living structures without limits. J f not, the higher level allowed
leads not to mastery of the given rhythm and formation of a reflex system, but to the contra-
positional effect-lowering the excitation and functional activity tied in with the beginning of
exhaustion (170).
Excitation in its turn, can also have an influence on inhibition-changing it, strengthening it,
weakening or diffusing it (47, 171). The mechanisms for switching nerve structures from an
active state to a reactive (inhibitory) state depend upon many factors. One of the most important
ones is the strength of the influencing irritants. During repeated moderate intensity irritants,
signs of mastery of the rhythm of increased excitation and lability of specific nerve structures in
the brain are displayed. Intense irritants do not serve to further increase excitation and lability
but the opposite, they decrease them (47). Frequency of irnpulsation has an influence on them,
not just the intensity of the excitatory irritants (201).

In the brain as well as in other parts of the CNS, there is uninterrupted qualitative and
quantitative change, depending on very different factors and regulated specifics and still not very
much studied-regularities of the functioning of these structures. The integrated activity of the
GNS is presented as some kind of functional system working according to definite principles (7).

During the transition from one state to another, the extraction of information from the individuals
memory takes place. In order to strengthen it and to have a successful reproduction, the brain
should be maximally close to that state at the time of its memory. If not, the mechanisms of its
perception and fixation are interfered with (3, 170).

A change in the phase of excitation to the phase of inhibition and vice versa, always takes place
when there is conditioned reflex activity (7,47). In some cases the reactions can have a neutral
effect on one another and in others be completely absent. Interactions are observed when the
nerve centers are exposed to weak irritants that influence them (228,302). The change of one
sign of the reaction to another shows not only the strength of the encroaching irritants, but the
initial state of one or another of the nerve structures in the CNS. Thus, in some cases, phases of
inhibition can appear immediately after finishing the work, while in others, it appears after a
certain amount of time, as for example, after several hours or even on the following day (170).
Two types of inhibition are distinguished: unconditional and conditional. The first appears to be
innate, worked out over many millions of years of evolution. The second is acquired in definite
conditions of life activity. Each of these is sub-divided into many sub divisions. For example, in
specialized literary sources, they write of protective abilities that are characteristic of
unconditional inhibition or of their maximum or above maximum reactions which can be
extinguishing, temporary or even constant. Conditional inhibition is called differential, delaying,
inidiational, concentrated and so on.

We will not look at all the sub-divisions of unconditional and conditional inhibition as this is not
the aim of our study. Standing before us is a concrete task-in a general discussion, to examine
one of the ways of defending the body systems from the influence or the action of irritants. In
this, we can give ourselves an answer that from the accumulated material, we can not open up
the essence of the integrated activity of the CNS. Doing this would only give us a general and
superficial picture of the complex interrelationships and inter-influences of the excitatory-
inhibitory reactions with which we constantly come up against in sports practice.

In many cases, inhibition is identified with fatigue (energy expenditure), after which restoration
follows. However, it appears that in the foundation of integrated activity there are more complex
mechanisms of inductional interrelationships between the excitatory-inhibitory processes, than
between processes of fatigue and restoration, even if this is so only to a certain extent. Because
of this, in our further discussions related to inhibitory reactions in sports practice, we will stay
away from the fact that they appear as a result of nervous activity at the beginning and only later
reflect the energy of body systems. Or we say that the CNS fatigues significantlysooner than
other body systems [171).

Inhibitory reactions appear not only after the end of training sessions but also during its separate
parts in the complex method. They are accompanied with poor self feeling, worse coordination
in complex type exercises, decreased sports results, loss of the feel of rhythm, the equipment,
tempo and others.

The duration of the inhibitory reactions depends on many factors but the most important is the
system of training influences that are used. As a rule, after excessively intense training sessions
(use of a large amount of training loads with maximum intensity) the phase of inhibition begins.
It can last from one to several training sessions. It can be lengthened even more if the athlete
continues to use training loads of maximum intensity by disregarding the poor self feeling,
decreased levels of sports results and so on.

In sports practice, there are ways of dealing with the dampened activity of living structures. In
one case, as for example, in the sprints and middle and long distance running, after high intensity
training sessions a number of trainings follow over which weak and moderate intensity loads are
used. In other instances, they use an optimal correlation between training loads of weak,
moderate and maximum intensity, where the portion of the latter is not greater than 10-15%. The
use of different training emphases has a favorable influence on the processes of distribution and
alternation of training sessions.

It appears to us that the second and third means (moderate and 10-15% maximum intensity) are
preferred. With their use, we do not bring the body systems to the stressed state after which it is
necessary to deal with later, losing several training sessions and using weak and moderate
intensity training loads.

Many leading physiologists have written about the favorable influence of weak irritants on
changing the phase of inhibition to the phase of excitation (170). They have the ability to
abrogate definite brain structures (171). Recommended for use is the phenomenon of active rest
(204,241), the essence of which consists in the switching of one activity to another (204,247).
With specialized training sessions it is possible to strengthen the excitatory phase and weaken the
inhibitory or to transform the latter onto the nerve centers which do not take on immediate
participation in one or another conditioned reflex activity (7,47).

Inhibitory reactions always have a counter action to the excitatory. Because of this, in sports
practice, it is now possible to escape them, or they will be reflected on a definite level of activity
in the nerve structures, which should be optimal for each level of sports mastery. In this regard,
the training sessions could be constructed in a manner that it counteracts in every way possible,
the appearance of long term inhibition, especially in the periods of sports training over which the
development of sports form takes place. In other words, the number of training sessions
executed in the phase of excitation during sports form development periods, will be significantly
less than the phases of inhibition which in the end result, show up negatively on the increase in
spom achievements.

For example, we will look at periods of development of sports form lasting eight weeks which
begin after periods of rest. If the athlete has six training sessions a week, two of them will be
constructed so that after each of them, it becomes necessary to recover in the next two sessions,
using low zones of intensity. From here it follows that during the entire period of sports form
development, they execute only 16 trainings with the use of high zones and two times more with
the low zones.

In our practice, with each year we have become more convinced that the stronger our desires to
significantly increase the level of achievement over a certain period of sports form development,
by using what appears to be adequate, according to the strength of the influence of the training
load complex, then the less the effect that is received. More often, the increase in sports results
is generally absent in similar situations.
This is explained by the fact that the stronger the complex of training effects, then the more
harmony there is in the defense functions in the body system. This in every way possible,
creates barriers or prevents a new level of adaptation, where in the process of restructuring it is
necessary to expend a significant amount of energy resources. As is known, this is strictly
limited for each individual and in every way possible, cannot surpass that allowed by the genetic
program.

The level of coordination of conditioned reflex activity

For many decades it was thought that all impulses travelling along the afferent (ascending)
pathways, reach the brain. However, it appears that the defense mechanisms of the body systems
are already met in the spinal column (195, 196). The nature of the spinal reflex acts have been
written about by many authors when looking at the mechanisms of early and late responses.

On this level of (spinal) coordination there is a strict and thorough selection of impulses: in some
cases they achieve the end objective and in others, they inhibit and block (195). The primary
reworking of the rising impulsation is accompanied with differentiation of functionally different
currents (159). Blocking of the impulses has a selective character. Under definite conditions,
part of the impulses reach the brain while others are blocked or inhibited on the segmental level
(25,90). Also obsemed are situations that show a significant decrease in the amplitude of the
action potentials (115). It was shown that maximum intensity initants have a greater chance of
reaching the brain than weak or moderate ones (213). Similar conclusions were reached by
specialists in the area of psychology.

The results of impulse redistribution between the spinal and higher levels of the CNS depend on
many factors that disturb the nerve centers (strength of the rising irritants, frequency and
amplitude of the acting currents, their duration, and structure). Having an influence on this
process is the summation of early and late response waves, the distance of the neurons from the
125
nerve centers that rework the initial state that the individual had at the moment of action.
Redistribution is realized with the help of two- sided tie-ins between the spinal and higher
centers of the CNS, as well as separate groups of the nerve centers (229,302).

Changes can be single or double phased. In some cases, the excitatory processes are
strengthened because of weakening inhibition (42,126), and in other cases the opposiGthe
inhibitory are strengthened and the excitatory are extinguished (302). The appearance of either
of these phases depends first of all on the initial state of the nerve centers at the moment of
action, and likewise the needs of the body systems. We have in view the "permitting" function
which regulates the extraction of genetic information. If the rising impulses do not reach the
allowable limits of body development, they are then mastered by the higher sectors of the brain.
In the opposite case, they do not reach the higher level of CNS functioning and "wander" to the
segmental (spinal) level (7, 170,246,302).

In forming motor acts, a change is observed on each of the levels which finalizes the
establishment of a definite inter-level subordination. Each of the levels has its own localization
and function. The entire complex system of working out movements should be looked at not
only as a simple reaction to an irritant, but as a functional system that works on the principle of
long term body requirements. Naturally, just as each system, it has its own strncture,
specialization, essentials of development and specificity of reactiveness (7,27).

The reflex reaction of a late response, appearing from the joint part of any functional system, has
basically a spinal nature (280). Even in separate cases it can be realized in the medulla of the
brain (298). Different levels of "locking" are obsewed even in the process of studying the
mechanisms of the higher central and other systems (135, 193).
 Taking into consideration all of the above, it is possible to propose that in the training of high
I level athletes, in exhausting their genetic capabilities or coming close to them, the process of
I
sports improvement to a great extent, takes place on the spinal level. This is explained by the
fact that the defense function of the body systems in high level athletes is more "trained" than in
low level athletes. From here a very "bold" conclusion follows, that the process of increasing
sports mastery takes place at the same time as the process of developing defense functions. In
the end result, the defense functions prevail over most of the time of sports development.

It is difficult to suppose that the body of man, appearing as a highly organized system, as well as
being "super intelligent", allows itself to be loaded with the work of the higher brain centers, if
this coordinated activity can be dealt with in the lower sections.

It is very possible that one part of the body's work is "reworked" on the brain level and the other
on the spinal. Apparently, the initial state of the nervous centers of the brain and the strength of
the rising initants do not play the last role here.

Up to this time, all of this is a "superbold" hypothesis, giving food for very "fantastic"
propositions, but there is something in all of this. We hope that sooner or later it will be studied
so that it will help us understand everything on a higher level of cognition. Today it is only
sufficiently clear that in the process of sports improvement, the body always defends itself
against the initants acting upon it. And the stronger the defense functions of the body systems of
the individual are, the less talented he is. From here, it appears that the following conclusion is
not natural and contradictory-the bodies of champions are sicker than the bodies of middle
level abilities.
Some mechanisms of the defense systems on the brain level

When using different means of constructing training sessions, using one or another structure of
weekly cycles, we constantly come up against the fact that athletes feel good when executing one
form of exercise and poorly when executing another. For example, we can look at the training of
throwers using the complex method of constructing the training session, which oversee the use of
technical and strength portions. In one situation, the athlete feels good when executing the
technical part and poorly during the strength part. In another situation, the athlete feels poorly
when executing the technical parts and good during the strength parts. In a third situation, the
athlete feels good when executing both parts of the training.

Combinations of one or another self feelings can last for relatively long periods of time--from
several training sessions to several weekly cycles and even to the entire period of sports form
development. It is observed most often when using stable parameters of weekly cycles of
training during periods of development or maintenance of sports form. With a change in the
complex of exercises used, there is a change in the self feeling of the athletes when executing
one or another part of the training session.

The self feelings in the overwhelming majority of cases are accompanied by corresponding
levels of sports results. For example, during the period of maintaining sports form, the athletes
show the best sports results in throwing the competitive and heavier weights, but do not achieve
an increase of several meters when throwing the lighter weight.

Alternation of the dominant states is observed over the entire process of sports improvement in
one or another individual. Most often in sports practice, the alternation of good and poor self
feeling is explained by the process of restoration and insufficient restoration, the expenditure of
energy and other factors. We can agree with this but to not consider the facts indicating that the
athlete can feel poorly during the fmt part of the training session and good or outstanding over
the second or third part of the training we cannot agree.

The theory of insufficient restoration is not always in harmony here, as we constantly come up
against the fact that when the athlete feels poorly in the first (morning) training session be shows
outstanding sports results in the second (evening) session In considering all of this, we can
propose that in speed-strength events, the mechanisms for changing the body state during
separate training sessions is explained at the beginning by the inductional interrelationship of the
excitatory-inhibitory process, and later, only by the flow of the restorative processes on the
energy level.

Integrated activity of the brain is corrected by the "allowable" defense mechanisms of the body
systems. By means of switching, throwing off, and overflow of the rising irritants from one
nerve center onto others the body is defended against the external influences. With such means
it can ensure its existence, maintaining the genetic background, leaving it in reserve for posterity.
By means of throwing off, overflowing onto close and far "neighbors" (nerve centers in the
motor area), it averts the influence of excessive (according to their strength) irritants.

The hypothesis of overflow and switching has its own theoretical basis lying in the experimental
material found in classical and sports physiology. The revelations by I.P.Pavlov at the
beginning of the previous century uncovered two sided tie-ins (excitatory can move from center
A to center B and the reverse). This to a great extent, explains the essence of different single
and two directional reactions. Thus, according to the data of A. A. Ukhtomsko (228), if reflex A
calls for irradiation of reflex B, then reflex B in turn can provoke reflex A. These appearances
are explained by the principle of direct and reverse tie-ins (170). They lie in the foundation of
the inter-central interrelationships in the brain when working out the dominant states. They
appear as a consequence of the summation in the dominant sphere of excitation that enter from
other parts of the CNS.
Dominant states which have the ability to spring up in one or other nerve centers are observed
when working out simple temporary ties, as well as in the establishment of complex coordination
(7, 12, 171). They, as a result of the formation of definite inter-relationships and inter-
influences, have a definite structure, each of which has its own inherent content. They are
expressed in activation or in the inhibition of some nerve centers or even their groups (120,228).

The formation of simple temporary tie-ins begins with the establishment of corresponding
conditioned reflexes (170), which have the ability to appear even in cases of using conditioned
reflexes that are close to them. If the first tie-in was worked out with the use of several irritants,
then sometimes it has a sufficient effect on one of the close ones in order to bring about a
conditioned reflex. Formation of complex temporary ties have a dominant base. At the
beginning of their formatiod the selective activation in one hotbed of excitation can be thrown
over to another or even have water summation in the fmt (7,13 1,229).

What is of interest to us in sports practice are those views of switching, in which the rising
hotbed of excitation in certain nerve centers are rearranged, according to earlier worked out and
maintained pathways, onto others, free from the body defense systems. Tied in with these, it is
hard not to recall situations when athletes, over long periods of time feel great, as for example, in
execution of the strength portion of complex training sessions or in strength training and feeling
poorly when doing the technical. Better or poorer self feeling is always accompanied with a
corresponding level of sports results. It is rare when the athlete feels equally well in several
aspects of the training sessions. Most frequently, better self feeling alternates with the poorer
and vice versa.

In order to change the negative state to the positive it is necessary to change the complex of
training exercises. If this, for some reason is not possible, then it is necessary to decrease the
volume of training loads in one type of exercise and increase it in others. At the same time the
athlete should transition to the use of lower zones of intensity.

Proving the existence of switching, and the throwing off onto "neighbors" on the afferent
pathways of activization, can be judged by the level of sports results during the period of
maintaining sports form and after ending the transitional period. During the period of
maintenance, athletes demonstrate a high level of sports achievements not only in exercises that
are used every week in the training sessions, but in those which have not been used over several
months. After ending the transitional period, the level of sports achievement decreases from 8-
10% in all types of exercises.

The process of forming complex inter-central coordination involves not only separate nerve
centers or their analyzer groups (as for example, the motor area), but their spread onto others. It
was established that according to many parameters of bioelectrical activity of the central and
occipital areas of the right and left hemispheres, when working out complex conditioned reflex
tie-ins, they change at the same time and are in agreement with one another (68, 178). Changes
in the functional state in these or other portions of the brain are evidence not only of their
topographical mutual tie-ins, but of the existence of specific functional regularities and spacial
organization of electrical activity in the brain (83, 166, 196,222).

Oscillation of the functional state in relation to the strength and frequency of the rising external
irritants, can be accompanied by synchronized or unsynchronized electrical activity. In this
process specific differentiation takes place which has an influence on its redistribution (166,
196). The basis for the spontaneous macro activity is the summation of the synchronized activity
of a relatively small portion of the neuron population of the brain tissues. If the population of the
generators work independently of one another, then in this situation the synchronized tie-in is
absent (166).
The functional state of specific brain structures has the ability to constantly change not only in
the process of formation and functioning in complex coordination acts,but in working out simple
tie-ins. On different stages of specialization of the dominants, using two different irritants,
always shows a structuring of corresponding nerve centers. A change in the frequency spectrum
of the electrical activity finds its expression in the unification of centers into one functioning
constellation with the formation of reverse temporary ties between the dominant centers and the
testing imtants (7,228).

The principle of "switching" in conditioned reflex activity in the presence of two sided tie-ins is
considered basic (7, 170,229). The changes taking place during this in the functional systems
depend on the combination of imtants in each separately taken situation. It can be accompanied
by changes in excitation in corresponding grey matter representations of those or other parts of
the living body (174, 186). Situations are also possible where there is origination of activity in
two neighboring neurons in the motor area, where the activity of one correlates with one reaction
and the other, with another reaction (250). By switching, several different tonic functional states
an:formed that are specifio for each situation in their individuality (68,252,253).

In the interrelationship and inter-influentid processes, several imtants are observed on the effect
of the conjugate excitation and inhibition (7,228). Understood by conjugate inhibition is not
"destruction" of any activity "in place" but the reworking of it, transforming it to the dominant
activity (229).

Perhaps more important in integrated brain activity, is the process of "ovefflowing" of the
surplus electrical activity from one working zone to another. This leads to the formation of a
new mosaic of activity of the nerve network (13,170). Deep polarization of these or other nerve
centers is conditioned by the effects of the previous work (131). These effects appear in the
change once again of inter-neuron tie-ins where, in this locked chain of excitation, there is a
transfer fromneuron to neuron (170).
Any change in the direction in the inter-neuron tie-ins is expressed by weakening in one zone
and switching excitation to another (221). Here, strengthening one of them shows different
behavior on the spatial synchronization of the sum total activity between them (222). The body
can respond to the activation in an excitatory or inhibitory manner. "Obstmcting" definite brain
structures does not serve to develop the function, but to negate it (148).

Any "switching" of activity is first accompanied by an increase in the work of specific neuron
groups of the motor and other areas; second, it changes their activity. Coming after them are
other changes in the flow of the conditioned-reflex activity and naturally, this shows up in the
sports result changes in the exercises used during sports improvement.

The direction of the "switching", "throw off', "ovefflow", "correctness" or "non-correctness" of

the flow of the reactions is determined to a great extent not by the natural irritants (strength,
frequency), but defmite interrelationships in which they are found with other processes (14, 170).
Having an influence on the structure of the response reactions are many other actions or
influences (186,201), beginning with frequency of the impulse and its intensity and ending with
its amplitude (186).

In sports practice, the acting agents bring abwt one or another reaction, or more quickly than
anything, their specific quantity and number. This is not only the volume of training loads and
zones of intensity used, but the structure of separate training sessions, weekly cycles and so on.
The body responds to each training effect in a practical manner with definite reactions, after
which there immediately follow specific adaptive changes, as well as changes in the self feeling
of the athletes, All of this in the end result, has an immediate influence on the dynamics of
sports results, the moment of entry into the sports form state and the transfer of training.
In analyzing the above material it becomes obvious that the switching, throwing off, overflowing
and others to a great extent determine the d i c t i o n of !mining transfer. In this, we in no way are
"opening gp America" but simply contrasting the facts. When in agreement with these
conclusions we should give ourselves an answer, to degree, to three questions:

1. How does hindering the throwing off of activity from the competitive exercise onto
another take place?;

2. If the appearance of throwing off seems to be a law of reaction, then by which

mechanisms is it possible to hold back the flow of the activated irritants for a period of
time that is sufficient for development;

3. How is it possible to achieve a state in which the throwing off of activity would take
place from the supplementary exercises onto the competitive?

We will try to fmd answers to these questions leaning to a great extent on hypothetical
discussions, rather than on concrete facts tied in with what is found in the theory and methods of
physical education, where we did not find any studies revealing the essence of the questions that
are of interest to us. To what extent is it possible to use the material at hand in mixed areas of
scientific study?

If the throw off appears as a natural reaction in response to the use of extreme complexes of
training effects, as a way of defending the body systems from unfavorable adaptation changes,
then it follows that the proposed training loads during each consecutive period of development of
sports form should not be significantly different from the ones used earlier. But they should
nonetheless have a sufficiently strong effect for establishing a new level of adaptation.

If there is an appearance of throwing off the working activity from groups of nerve centers that
answer to the coordination of motor activity in the competitive exercise, then there should also
exist a definite means of "holding them back" for a sufficiently long period of time. Apparently,
understanding the essence of this is only possible with a full picture of the formation of the
dominant relationships that take place in the brain.

Let us recall that the base working principle of domination in classic physiological studies, is
considered by some to be the inter-central interrelationships that play a real role in organizing its
conduct. It comes about as a result of the summation of the rising irritants in the dominant
hotbed of excitation, coming from different parts of the CNS. It is usually looked at as a process
of tying together such hotbeds of excitation in the brain which are strengthened by other irritants.
As a result of this, there is a transformation of the electrical activity in the corresponding brain
structures (174,228).

The presence of dominant appearances was established in the process of studying the principles
of motor activity coordination in general and especially in sports (117, 126). In working out
simple and complex conditioned reflex coordination, motor acts, dynamic stereotypes and others,
always show themselves as definite characteristics of domination (126,170).

It is only natural that not all of the laws affecting the flow of the dominant appearance can be
automatically transferred to the process of sports improvement. This is explained by the fact that
we are dealing with not one, not two, but with multi-sided tie-ins. In sports practice, whole
complexes of different exercises, according to their strength and coordination complexity, have
an interaction. They are used in different sequences over separate training sessions as in weekly
cycles with the use of different volumes and zones of intensity.

In this case, discussion can only be about the fact that in sports practice, we constantly come up
against the appearance of dominants. First of all, the presence, as for example, a poor state in
one part, and good in another part, of the complex training session, over several weekly cycles of
training. It also pays to give attention to the alternation of one or another self feeling when using
training sessions having different aims. In the training of throwers and jumpers we constantly
see examples of athletes who feel great at the time of technical training and poorly at the time of
strength training and vice versa. Such alternation of states can take place over the entire period
of sports form development.

For forming the dominant it is necessary to have summation of the rising irritants in the
dominating hotbed of excitation or the presence of a hotbed of excitation which is strengthened
due to other irritants over which it should be dominating (120). From this, it is possible to
propose that for creating dominance in those groups of nerve centers which answer to the work
in the competitive exercises, it is necessary to have sufficiently strong imtants that dominate
over others. They will not only dominate, but also take upon themselves part of the excitation
from neighboring zones.

In the theory and methods of physical education when we speak of the strength of the training
effect, we basically refer to the volume of training loads, the intensity zones and only now and
then on other parts of its composition (exercises, regimes, compactness of the training sessions
and so on). But even they have a direct relation to the strength of the training effect. It has been
shown that exercises with statically contracted and tensed muscles, activate specific structures of
the brain more and at the same time raise the lability of the excitatory-inhibitory processes than
exercises for relaxation of the muscles (16) or dynamic type exercises (2).

We meet up with similar facts when studying the regularities of training transfer. It has been
shown that in all cases, when using any isometric exercises in the training in the weekly cycles of
training, there is no training transfer to the competitive exercise. This gives us a basis upon
which to propose that the isometric exercises took upon themselves the activeness, creating a
dominant hotbed. There was a negative influence on training transfer to the competitive exercise
and exercises with an elastic "braid".
 We call such exercises "harmful", because they do not serve in transfer of training to the main
form of activity. If in the foundation of training transfer there are mechanisms for creating the
dominant hotbed, then it follows that it should be upheld in definite structures of the brain for
I
1 some optimal time sufficient for development. It is also known that the prolonged accumulation
of excitation leads to inhibition and transfers the dominant to a hotbed of the parabiotic state,
after which there is deconcentration of the nerve processes (1 13, 121), disturbance in the rhythm
of activity and so on (113, 119).

In studying the influence of different intensity training loads on the increase in sports results in
the training of throwers, we came to the conclusion that the optimal number of maximum
intensity training loads in daily use is from 5-15%--in each training session. This is more
effective than using only weak and moderate zones or only maximal on separate days of the
weekly cycle. Right after the training loads, during which only maximum and near maximal
throws were used, in all cases, over several training sessions, for restoration of the optimal state
of the body system and the level of sports results that they had, it was necessary to use training
loads of only weak and moderate intensity.

Using only maximum intensity training loads as for example, over one weekly cycle, leads to a
decrease in sports results over the following weekly cycles. Once again restoration can take
place with the use of low intensity training loads. If these prophylactic measures are absent in
the process of sports training, then the athletes body becomes "dead" and is found in this state up
until that time when it recovers.

We boldly take it upon ourselves to state that the use of a large number of maximum intensity
training loads over one or several trainings, leads to a change from the excitatory dominance to
inhibitory. In order to not see this happen, is necessary to systematicallyuse training loads of
maximum intensity in "small" portions. If not, the defense systems of the body throw the hotbed
that they possess onto the "neighbors" or they change the positive sign of the dominance to a
negative one. 'Throwing off' can even take place when, between two hotbeds of excitation
there is a big difference in the bioelectrical activity. In this case the body, for the sake of
defense, can "throw off' from the strong hotbed of activization onto its "weak" one and thus
achieve a state of equilibrium.

Let us recall once again that the discussion is only of hypothetical talk and propositions. They
are, naturally, up to this point, naive and abstract. However, this does not confuse us inasmuch
as we find ourselves on a long and prickly path to seeking the truth. And this fully justifies us.

About talent

By reading the name of this section the reader can come up with a fully carrect and natural
question: what relationship does the talent of the individual have to the appearance of defense
mechanisms of the body systems? According to our presentation-a very direct one. F i t of all,
the pfesence of talent is determined mainly by the genetic capabilities of the body systems.
Second, it can help us understand the reasons for each individuals--achievement of a definite
level of sports rasdts and likewise a decrease in the tempo of his growth over the duration of
each consecutive period of sports form development. Third, it is possible to propose that the
more talented the athlete is, then the "weaker" are his body defense functions or he includes
them sigtrificantly later than the less talented ones.

It is generally known that the sum qualitative and quantitative reactions of accommodation take
place over the individuals entire life and depend mainly on the innate ability of the body systems
that determine their genetics. The latter appear as individually formed channels of tie-ins from
one generation to another. The genotype predetermines the development of the individual in the
process of his life activity and this serves in leaning and in the evolution of a definite amount of
information and so on. It is always reflected in the sum of the zig-zagged succession of signs,
that determine the pathway of the development of the people in one or other conditions that
accompany the hereditary deposits (genes) that reflect the person. The aptitude is the deposit
toward development (2 19).

Developmental functions, just as the defense mechanisms, are recorded in the genetic code. The
genes are protected on the cell structure level where the genetic information is hidden in the
nucleus but its realization comes about in the protoplasm (254). The protected information
makes it small-and difficult to reach in the process of different transformations (254). From
this comes its specific "inertness" in the development of the individual, difficulty in the
extraction of the innate abilities and the steady striving toward maintaining the already possessed
level of development. This comprises the essence of the limitations of the reflected increase in
external information in the process of accommodation (125). This does not take into
consideration the "yearning" for originality and naturality, which is passed on from generation to
generation. The process of knowing ones self implies the maintenance of "limits" of the
individual and all the "sides" of excessiveness (169).

The innate abilities make it possible to achieve success in one or another activity (114), and
serve to achieve a definite level (219). Depending upon how close one comes to it, the body of
the individual all the more resists any increases and in the end result, comes to such a state when
it can only "bring in", and "repeat" a level of adaptation.

In similar situations we can say that the body of the individual withstands its genetic resources
and its further development is no longer possible. It hinders his existence (253), inasmuch as
entry up to the allowed limit signifies the loss of maintenance of continuity of the life form of the
individual (198). Any locked in system can exist up to that time when it is balanced by the
surrounding conditions every time. As soon as this ability is seriously interfered with, the body
stops to exist. This is related not only to a simple rock but to a complex chemical substance
(170).
It is only natural that in the process of accommodation, the body mobilizes its defense functions
which do not allow it to reach the given limit that it strives to achieve (170). The defense
functions of the body regulate the appearance of the innate capabilities and to the extent that they
approach the allowed level of development, they all the more defend against further qualitative
and quantitative adaptive changes.

We constantly come up against counter-actions in the process of sports improvement of each

individual athlete in the development of his physical abilities. In the beginning stage of taking
up sports, the results increase quickly. Usually this stage of great growth lasts two-three years.
After this, the tempo of increase slows down and in the end, that moment comes when the results
are stabilized. Even significant improvement in technical and complex coordination exercises,
accompanied with an increased level of preparation in all the supplementary means of training do
not serve to improve the main event.

From all of the above infonuation it becomes clear that an individuals' talent is determined not
only by his anthrophometrical data, even though it without question, plays a significant role in
achievement of a definite level of spo& results, but as much from the innate abilities for
development. Related to this is not only the sports activity of the individual, but other spheres of
his activity.

Each athlete over his entire sports career undergoes a brutal struggle between the body systems
and the systems of training effects. At the beginning, we win this dual and with this ''permit'' the
defense systems to not resist. According to how close the athlete is to genetic limitations of his
maximum possible development, he all the more includes the defense mechanisms and there
comes about a moment when the "yielding of the palm" belongs entirely to him.
I
I
1
,
Earlier we looked at several defense mechanisms of the body on the macro system level. Now
we will look at the micro level. It is known that genetic information found in the molecules of
the DNA can be realized by means of synthesis of specific protein structures (17). Main place
among them are the neuropeptides. According to its composition, they are very specific for each
motivational conduct (214). On the f m t stages of extracting genetic information there is a
process of synthesis of the nerve cells of different neuropeptides. It takes place regardless of the
strength of the rising external and internal irritants.

However, the time comes when the body blocks working them out as a consequence of which,
the extraction of genetic information from the DNA molecules appears to cease (1 11, 159). A
decrease in motivational excitation is observed as a consequence of which it becomes more
difficult (for example) to conduct the process of training (61), and sometimes even the ability to
reproduce a single-directed behavioral act (305). Besides this, defense takes place on the cell
permeability level where the defense mechanisms do not allow passage through its membrane of
the increasing and necessary protein structures (247).

All of this immediately shows up on not only the increase in sports results but on the self feeling
of the athletes. Thus, if after the phases of rapid increases in results at the moment of entry into
the state of sports form, when the athletes always feel an emotional lift, then with the
approaching sports "aging" it as a rule, is absent. In my sports practice we repeatedly observe
cases where the self feeling of the athletes over periods of maintaining sports form was
significantly better than over periods of development during the phases of its acquisition.

"Talent" of athletes is determined not only by the level of results achieved at the end of his sports
career, but the number of periods of development of sports form over which his increases can be
observed. In champions, it is significantly greater than in athletes in which an increase in sports
achievements stopped at the level of his first sports classification.
Analysis of the multiyear dynamics of sports results of more than 500 high level athletes showed
that the number of periods of development of sports form over which there was an increase in
sports achievements in Masters of Sport, most frequently did not go beyond 8-12. In Masters of
Sport International Class, from 12-16 and in champions 16-20. Let us recall that in this case,
discussion is of those periods of development of sports form in which the athletes entered into
this state in the competitive exercises.

Over the course of these specialized preparation stages, there is an increase in sports results and
in the specialized-preparatory exercises, when they are used systematically during many years of
sports improvement. We have in view means of constructing periods of sports form
development that use, during the first half of such training, specialized-preparatory exercises and
over the second half, specialized-developmentaland competitive exercises.

A coinciding number of periods of sports form development are also seen in those athletes who
for some reason change their sport or track and field event. For example, in the first case, an
increase in results was observed over ten periods of sports form development the same as in the
second case. This does not apply to those athletes who specialized in one of the track and field
sprint events or in one of the endurance events and then later changed to a contiguous distance.

The theoretical and experimental material presented in this chapter substantiate the fact that the
defense reactions of the body systems, in response to external and internal initants, appear on all
levels of the body systems. They regulate the qualitative and quantitative changes in the process
of sports improvement, beginning with the amount of genetic information extracted and ending
with minimization of the rising impulses on the afferent pathways. The defense functions of the
body always appear where there is interaction of interacting agents. Consequently, they reflect
only one side of the life activity of living organisms from which it is not possible to escape.
According to our material, by knowing the mechanisms of the defense functions and the
direction of their actions, we should, in the process of sports improvement, come as close to
them as possible. For example, an insignificant increase in the strength of the training effect,
from one period of development of sports form to the next, can minimize the counteraction of the
body defense functions. This is done by giving special attention to training loads of maximum
intensity and strictly regulating them, according to the individual essentials of the athlete.

If not, any even insignificant over-increase in the strength of the training effect immediately
carries with it a major defense reaction. At the beginning it shows up on the self feeling of the
athletes, the dynamics of sports results, and later on the increase in sports results. In this
situation, it is most important to 'hot excite the dragon" but as much as possible "entertain" him
and if at all possible, "fool" him. For example, construct the process of sports improvement in
such a manner so that the activated information thrown off would take place from the
supplementary exercises to the competitive. Of course, in order to do this, it is necessary to
study the regularities of the CNS functioning, mainly, to explain the mechanisms of creating
excitatory dominant hotbeds and likewise their transfer from certain nervous centers to others.

In sports practice, we already know several means of anticipating encroachment of the

"inhibitory" phase and saving ourselves from it. In the f i t case, we have in mind the use of an
optimal number of maximal intensity training loads over separate training sessions and even
weekly cycles. The cancelation of inhibition is achieved by using means of weak intensity
training loads or even using different complexes of exercises.

Sufficient material has been accumulated to substantiate that the use of steroid type preparations
help extract genetic information from the corresponding cell structures. Besides this they have a
positive influence on the permeability of the cell membrane and this, in the end result, shows up
positively on the increase in sports achievements.
We are far from the idea that this book looks fully at the problem of training transfer. Even in its
justification, it should be noted that to a great extent, this book is the fust dealing with transfer in
the theory of track and field. In the early days they studied basic questions related to finding
more effective means of training, We were able to widen this circle of information. We were
the fmt in the theory and methods of physical education to show that the process of training
transfer is tightly tied in with development of sports form. Without the process of development,
there cannot be any discussion of transfer.

Earlier, no one looked at the interrelationships between separate training sessions, weekly cycles,
the use of exercises, etc. to such a great extent. The first contribution explained the problem of
standardization of training loads, and it opened up the true role of adaptation in the process of
sports improvement and showed the reasons for the slow down in the tempo of increases on each
consecutive level of sports improvement. It appears that what is responsible for this is not
adaptation, but the system of training effects used over the periods of sports form development.
The slow down and stoppage of increases in sports results is explained to a great extent by the
fact that the system of effects used did not serve to raise the body systems to a new, qualitatively
better level of adaptation. We will take note also that a fist in the theory and methods of
physical education was the attempt to illuminate the defense mechanisms of the body that
impede the increase in achievements on each consecutive level of sports improvement.

This doesn't bring up the fact that all the questions on training transfer that were looked at in this
(and the previous) book will be studied in the near future. This is especially so for those
questions that will be raised to the foremost position in the theory and methods of physical
education. Undoubtedly, in order to rise up to the new level of understanding of the problem of
training transfer, it is necessary first of all, to study the mechanisms of the interrelationships
between separate exercises used over the training sessions, parts of sessions and so on. Only in
this case will we be able to direct the process of guiding training transfer to activate those nerve
centers in the brain (the motor area), which respond to the activity of the competitive, and close
to competitive, exercises.
This problem will be resolved in two stages. On the first of them, it will be necessary to show
the strength of the training effect of the exercises, the volume of loads, the intensity zones, the
methods, regimes of training used and so on. On the second stage, will be the study of the
mechanisms of the interrelationships between those that are identical, or different, according to
the strength of the training effect. This in the end result, will help us construct the training
process in such a manner that, for example, the strength part of the complex training session will
create conditions for an increase in sports results in the throwing portion. With such an
understanding of the mechanisms of training transfer, we will be able to free ourselves from the
naive and abstract type of deduction: in order to throw the hammer a certain distance, it is
necessary to squat a certain number of times, execute cleans and so on. The stage of
primitiveness has already passed and the time for looking at the problem more seriously has
arrived.

Note that at the present time, strength of training effects is looked at basically from the point of
view of the intensity zones used. Only after this do we speak of the volume of training loads, the
methods, regimes and so on. According to our deep conviction, training loads in the 95-100%
maximum zone are significantly stronger than those in the 75-80% zone (we are not speaking of
their effectiveness). If we take into consideration strength of the training effect from the point of
view, as for example, lifting the weight in barbell exercises, then without argument, it is more
effective. If we look at this from the point of view of the duration of the effect of the 95-100%
zone on the neuromuscular system and compare it to the 75-80% zone, then here it can be seen
that the second zone is stronger than the first.

This is not a rare example as we have accumulated a sufficiently large amount of experimental
material which gives evidence of the fact that the duration of the training effect in one barbell set
with the use of low zones of intensity can to a full degree compete with and surpass the strength
of the effect of the higher zones of intensity. We have in mind that exercises, executed, as for
example, in the 75-80% zone, where the number of repetitions in each set varies from 8-10, the
strength of the effect can be greater than the effect received in the 95-100% zone, with 1-2
repetitions. All of this once again shows that the problem of training transfer should be looked at
first on the nervous system level and only later on the "functional".

We believe that the theoretical and experimental material put together in this book can be used
by athletes of various sports qualifications but especially high level athletes during the training
process. Besides this, we feel certain that it will bring forth a stormy discussion among
specialists that will not always end on a positive note to the author. We foresaw this early on and
in our defense we will say that we were thinking not of a positive evaluation but strove to show
the pathway of our search over the last 20 years of experimental and scientific activity. In doing
this, we were not thinking of how our conclusions compared to those already written up in the
theory and methods of physical education. Because of this, we once again recommend carefully
reading our hypothetical discussion and strive to find in it a rational seed. Then, ask yourself:
suppose there is something here that I do not understand and do not know?

According to our thinking, this book appears as a sequential step in recognizing the problem of
training transfer. Its author will be fully content if in time it appears that he did his part in its
understanding. Many thanks to the reader who read this multiyear work and with this, paid
attention to the author.