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Carlos Sabín
Instituto de Física Fundamental, CSIC, Serrano, 113-bis, 28006 Madrid, Spain
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.99.025008
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DIRAC EQUATION IN EXOTIC SPACETIMES PHYS. REV. D 99, 025008 (2019)
it would move FTL—as compared with c, the speed of light between the ðt; rÞ and ðt̄; r̄Þ coordinates by performing the
in flat-spacetime vacuum. following integration:
The Alcubierre metric inside the “bubble” created by the Z
space-temporal contraction/dilation, under the limit σ → ∞ dr
r̄ðrÞ ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
[18], and taking a spatial section y ¼ y0 and z ¼ z0 (with r 2
1 þ ð2a Þ
constant y0 , z0 ), acquires the form [18,19]
ds2 ¼ −ð1 − v2s Þdt2 þ dx2 − 2vs dxdt: ð3Þ whose solution—setting r̄ðr ¼ 0Þ ¼ 0—is
As expected, Eq. (3) becomes the Minkowski metric −1 r
when vs ¼ 0. Now we make a coordinate change ðt; xÞ → r̄ðrÞ ¼ 2a sinh :
2a
ðt̄; x̄Þ, such that
With these new coordinates, the conformal factor becomes
dt ¼ dt̄
Ω2 ¼ 1, and the Minkowski spacetime solution will be the
dx ¼ dx̄ þ vs dt̄: same as the curved spacetime solution, as in the case of
the Alcubierre metric. Thus, the only difference between the
The Alcubierre metric, using those new coordinates,
Gödel and the Alcubierre metric is the relationship between
acquires the form ds2 ¼ −dt̄2 þ dx̄2 , which is simply the
the original coordinates and the new coordinates.
Minkowski metric, so the conformal factor will be Ω2 ¼ 1, Now, if we assume that the wave function has a Gaussian
and the solution of the curved spacetime Dirac equation, initial form:
ψðt̄; x̄Þ, will be equal to the Minkowski spacetime solution,
ϕðt̄; x̄Þ. Now, due to the big similarity—regarding to the
−
ðx̄−x̄0 Þ2 1
application of our techniques—between the Alcubierre ϕðx̄; 0Þ ¼ Ne σ2 ;
and Gödel metric, we first discuss the latter case and then 1
we compare both results. It is relevant to mention that,
where x̄ is the conformally flat coordinate and N is a
although the Dirac equation in a Gödel universe has already
normalization constant, the solution for the Dirac equation
been considered in the study of tachyon’s stability [20], our
in Minkowski’s spacetime will be [11,17]
objective is to find explicit analytical solutions for this
equation in the Gödel’s background, using our procedure.
−
ðt̄−ðx̄−x̄0 ÞÞ2 1
Gödel, in 1949, found a solution of the Einstein equations ϕðx̄; t̄Þ ¼ Ne σ2 : ð6Þ
[21] corresponding to a homogeneous mass distribution that 1
rotates at each point of the space [22]. That distribution of
matter causes unusual effects, such as the existence of CTC. Since ψ ¼ ϕ, to find the curved spacetime solution we only
In cylindrical coordinates [22], the metric is given by the have to apply the coordinate change for each metric. In the
following expression: Alcubierre case we have
2
dr2 r −
ðt−ðx−vs t−x̄0 ÞÞ2 1
ds2 ¼ dt2 − r 2 − r2 1− dϕ2 − dz2 ϕðx̄ðxÞ; t̄ðtÞÞ ¼ Ne σ2 ; ð7Þ
1 þ ð2aÞ 2a 1
2r2
þ pffiffiffi dtdϕ; ð4Þ while, for the Gödel metric
a 2
where a is a parameter with units of length, which represents −
ðt−ð2asinh−1 ðr=2aÞ−x̄0 ÞÞ2 1
ϕðr̄ðrÞ; t̄ðtÞÞ ¼ Ne σ2 : ð8Þ
a characteristic distance. In particular, rG ¼ 2a represents 1
the critical radius from which CTC can exist [22].
Now, taking a radial section with ϕ ¼ ϕ0 and z ¼ z0 Both solutions are represented in Fig. 1.
[19], the Gödel metric becomes For (a), (b) and (c), as the parameter vs increases, the
slope of the Gaussian wave packet’s “trajectory” decreases.
1
ds2 ¼ dt2 − 2
r 2 dr :
In other words, the particle’s velocity increases as vs is
1 þ ð2aÞ bigger. In fact, if we take a look to the expression (7), we
By making the coordinate change ðt; rÞ → ðt̄; r̄Þ, with can see its equivalence to the solution of the Minkowski
spacetime Dirac equation (6) if we substitute t with
1
dr̄2 ¼ r 2 dr
2 ð1 þ vs Þt. This means that, physically, the particle moves
1 þ ð2aÞ with a FTL velocity c̄ ¼ 1 þ vs, as expected for a massless
dt̄2 ¼ dt2 ð5Þ particle since this is precisely the speed of light in this
spacetime.
the previous metric transforms into the Minkowski metric For (d), (e) and (f), we can see that the particle velocity is
ds2 ¼ dt̄2 − dr̄2 . Furthermore, we can find the relationship no longer constant. This variation is inversely proportional
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JAVIER FABA GARCÍA and CARLOS SABÍN PHYS. REV. D 99, 025008 (2019)
with
2Mr
Ω2 ðrÞ ¼ 1 − :
ΣðrÞ
FIG. 1. Spacetime diagrams for the probability density of Dirac
equation solutions in (a)–(c) Alcubierre metric with (a) vs ¼ 0
Due to the conditions (9), r will be a function of x̄, whereas
(equivalent to Minkowski spacetime), (b) vs ¼ 0.5 (subluminal
spacetime bubble), (c) vs ¼ 2 (superluminal spacetime bubble);
t ¼ t̄, so the conformal factor ΩðrÞ will be a function
(d)–(f) Gödel metric with (d) a ¼ 2, (*e) a ¼ 1, (f) a ¼ 0.5. of rðx̄Þ:
Please note that the wave function is not normalized.
2Mrðx̄Þ
Ω2 ðrðx̄ÞÞ ¼ 1 − : ð10Þ
Σðrðx̄ÞÞ
to the value of a, as expected, since in the limit a → ∞ the
Gödel metric (4) becomes the Minkowski metric in To find the conformal factor Ωðrðx̄ÞÞ we need to obtain
cylindrical coordinates. In addition, the slope decreases rðx̄Þ. Using the first equation in (9) and, after doing some
with the propagation of the particle, implying FTL algebraic manipulations, we obtain that x̄ðrÞ is given by
velocity. Of course, in general the existence of CTC—
which is the most genuine feature of Gödel spacetime—is Z sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
intimately linked with the possibility of FTL (see, for x̄ðrÞ ¼ drΣðrÞ þ C: ð11Þ
instance, [23]). ΔðrÞðΣðrÞ − 2MrÞ
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DIRAC EQUATION IN EXOTIC SPACETIMES PHYS. REV. D 99, 025008 (2019)
Finally, there is a region of the space in which the C ¼ −iMπ if r − < r < rþ
>
>
conformal factor is an imaginary number. This occurs if : −i pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
πM 2
if rþ < r:
2 2
M −a
ΣðrÞ − 2Mr < 0:
In Fig. 2, we plot x̄ðrÞ for different values of M and a.
This second-degree inequality is verified for r− < r < rþ, Finally, assuming again that our particle is character-
namely, within the ergosphere. ized by a Gaussian wave packet, the solution in Kerr
spacetime is
1. Radial section with θ0 = 0 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ΣðrÞ
Let us consider θ0 ¼ 0. Then ΣðrÞ ¼ r2 þ a2 , ΔðrÞ ¼ jψðx̄ðrÞ; tÞj2 ¼ jϕðx̄ðrÞ; tÞj2
ΣðrÞ − 2Mr
Σ − 2Mr, and the integral becomes
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z Z ΣðrÞ 2ðt−ðx̄ðrÞ−x̄¯ 0 ÞÞ2
ΣðrÞ r2 þ a2 ¼ 2N 2 e
−
σ2 :
x̄ðrÞ ¼ dr þ C ¼ dr 2 þC ΣðrÞ − 2Mr
ΔðrÞ r þ a2 − 2Mr
whose solution is This solution is represented in Fig. 3 for several values of
a and M.
2M2 r−M Naturally, when we set M ¼ a ¼ 0, the metric becomes
x̄ðrÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tan−1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a2 − M2 a2 − M2 the Minkowski one, Ω2 ¼ 1, and the expression (15)
þ M logða − 2Mr þ r2 Þ þ r þ C:
2 reduces to x̄ðrÞ ¼ r. In other words, the solution corre-
sponds to a free particle in flat spacetime, as it is observed
Bearing in mind that, for a rotating black hole, M 2 > a2 is in Fig. 3(a). If we slightly increase the value of M (with
satisfied (otherwise, it would not be a black hole, but a ¼ 0, thus we are in Schwarzschild spacetime), we see
a highly rotating body [27]), and using the relationship that the free solution is slightly disturbed, increasing the
tan−1 ðixÞ ¼ i tanh−1 ðxÞ, we can write the solution as probability density near the horizon, as can be seen in
Fig. 3(b). As the mass increases, the probability density
2M2 −1 M−r accumulates nearby the horizon, placed in r ¼ 2M. In
x̄ðrÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tanh pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
M2 − a2 M 2 − a2 addition, we see that the width of the wave packet is
þ M logða − 2Mr þ r2 Þ þ r þ C:
2 ð15Þ drastically reduced (the particle is more localized in space),
and the particle’s speed diminishes, vanishing in the
The constant of integration can be chosen in such a way that horizon. Finally, if we set the mass to a constant value
the constant imaginary part of Eq. (15) cancels out in each and we change a [Figs. 3(e)–3(h)], we see that, as a
of the three spacetime regions defined by the apparent increases, the inner horizon is generated, around which,
singularities r . Thus, again, the probability density accumulates in the same
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JAVIER FABA GARCÍA and CARLOS SABÍN PHYS. REV. D 99, 025008 (2019)
FIG. 3. Dirac equation solution for Kerr metric and different values of the parameters a and M. (a)–(d), a ¼ 0 (no rotation,
Schwarzschild metric) and M ranging from 0 to 2. The horizon is at r ¼ 2M. (e)–(h) M ¼ 2 and a ranging from 0 to 2, two singularities
appear according to Eq. (14) with θ0 ¼ 0 giving rise to an ergosphere which splits the full spacetime into three separate regions. Notice
that as a increases rþ , r− move from 2M and 0, respectively, to M, where they would merge in the limit M ¼ a. Please note that the wave
function is not normalized.
way as before. In addition, in the region between both IV. NONSTATIC SPACETIMES
singular points—the ergosphere—we see how the particle
tends to be expelled towards the interior or exterior So far, we have only analyzed static metrics, that is,
horizon. _
Ω ¼ 0. We now show that our techniques are also valid
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DIRAC EQUATION IN EXOTIC SPACETIMES PHYS. REV. D 99, 025008 (2019)
for the case of nonstatic metrics (Ω _ ≠ 0). Performing the change ðx; tÞ → ðx̄; t̄Þ, such that in the new coordinates, the
−1=2
substitution ψ ¼ Ω ϕ in Eq. (1) and with a little algebra, metric is conformally flat. We have applied this technique
we find to three different metrics: 1 þ 1 dimensional sections of
Alcubierre, Gödel and Kerr metrics. For Alcubierre and
_
Ω −1=2 Ω0 Gödel, the conformal factor turns out to be Ω2 ¼ 1, so the
i ∂t þ ðΩ ϕÞ ¼ −iσ x ∂ x þ ðΩ−1=2 ϕÞ only difference between both solutions is the coordinate
2Ω 2Ω
_ transformation employed in each case. Setting a Gaussian
−1=2 Ω −1=2 −1=2 Ω0 −1=2 solution in Minkowski spacetime, and after undoing the
∂ t ðΩ ϕÞ þ Ω ϕ ¼ −σ x ∂ x ðΩ ϕÞþ Ω ϕ :
2Ω 2Ω coordinate transformation, we obtain the solutions (7)
and (8), for Alcubierre and Gödel spacetimes, respectively.
Notice that In this way, we have been able to analyze the FTL behavior
of massless particles in these exotic spacetimes. In the case
1 _ þ Ω−1=2 ∂ t ϕ:
∂ t ðΩ−1=2 ϕÞ ¼ − Ω−3=2 Ωϕ ð16Þ of the Kerr metric, the conformal factor is nontrivial
2 Ω2 ðrÞ ¼ 1 − 2Mr
ΣðrÞ. We find an analytical solution in a spatial
Therefore the terms not containing ∂ t ϕ cancel out. The same section with θ0 ¼ 0. We have discussed the dependence of
thing happens with the spatial partial derivative: the terms this solution on the black-hole mass and rotation, as well
without ∂ x ϕ cancel out. Thus, putting everything together we as the behavior of the particle near the singularities and
recover the equation: within the ergosphere. Finally, we have shown that our
technique is valid also for nonstatic spacetimes.
i∂ t ϕ ¼ −iσ x ∂ x ϕ Our results might, in principle, be useful in the context of
quantum simulations of the Dirac equation. In particular,
which is the Dirac equation for Minkowski spacetime. following the spirit of [11], notice that our technique entails
Therefore, our techniques could be also applied to nonstatic that curved spacetimes can be encoded into a transforma-
spacetimes, such as Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker tion realized onto a flat-spacetime Dirac wave packet.
spacetime, as in [10]. Therefore, in principle, our results could be tested in
already existing quantum simulators of the Dirac equation
V. CONCLUSIONS in flat spacetime.
Following [11], we have shown that is possible to obtain
solutions of the Dirac equation in curved spacetime by ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
means of a transformation ψðx̄; t̄Þ ¼ Ω−1=2 ðx̄Þϕðx̄; t̄Þ,
where ψðx̄; t̄Þ is the curved spacetime solution, ϕðx̄; t̄Þ C. S. has received financial support through the Junior
is the Minkowski spacetime solution and Ωðx̄Þ is the Leader Postdoctoral Fellowship Programme from “la
conformal factor. Then, in order to be able to apply this Caixa” Banking Foundation and Fundación General
transformation, it is necessary to perform first a coordinate CSIC (ComFuturo Programme).
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