COMMUNICATION Systems

COMMUNICATION Systems
Chapter 3: Baseband Pulse and Digital Signaling

Cyprus International University

Cyprus International University

Asst. Prof. Dr. Burçin ÖZMEN
bozmen@ciu edu tr
bozmen@ciu.edu.tr
ws(t) =w(t)s(t)
Generating Natural Sampling
g p g
¾ The PAM wave form with natural sampling can be generated using a CMOS 
g g
circuit consisting of a clock and analog switch as shown.
 Spectrum of Natural Sampling
∞
sin((π nd )
∞
Ws ( f ) = F[ws (t )] = ∑ cnW ( f − nff s ) = d ∑ W ( f − nff s )
n =−∞ n =−∞ π nd

• The duty cycle of the switching 
waveform is d = τ/Ts = 1/3.
• The sampling rate is fs = 4B.

∞
sin(π nd )
Ws ( f ) = d ∑
n =−∞
∞ π nd
W ( f − nf s )

sin(π nd )
d
π nd
 Recovering Naturally Sampled PAM
Recovering Naturally Sampled PAM 
¾ At the receiver, the original analog waveform, w(t), can be recovered 
from the PAM signal, ws(t), by passing the PAM signal through a low
from the PAM signal, w (t), by passing the PAM signal through a low‐
pass filter where the cutoff frequency is:   B <fcutoff < fs ‐B

¾ If the analog signal is under sampled fs < 2B, the effect of spectral 
overlapping is called Aliasing. This results in a recovered analog signal 
that is distorted compared to the original waveform. 

LPF Filter
B <fcutoff < fs ‐B
Demodulation of PAM Signal
Demodulation of PAM Signal
¾ The analog waveform may be recovered from the PAM signal by 
using product detection, 
gp ,
• This type of PAM signal 
This type of PAM signal
consists of instantaneous 
samples.

• w(t) is sampled at t = kTs .

• The sample values w(kTs ) 
determine the amplitude of
determine the amplitude of 
the flat‐top rectangular pulses.
LPF Response
Note that the recovered signal 
g
has some distortions due to 
the curvature of the H(f).
Distortions can be removed by 
b db
using a LPF having a response 
1/H(f).
Some notes on PAM
Some notes on PAM
ƒ The flat‐top PAM signal could be generated by using a sample‐and‐
hold type electronic circuit.
yp
ƒ There is some high frequency loss in the recovered analog 
waveform due to filtering effect H(f) caused by the flat top pulse 
shape.
ƒ This can be compensated (Equalized) at the receiver by making the 
transfer function of the LPF to 1/H(f)
f f f h / (f)
ƒ This is a very common practice called “EQUALIZATION”
ƒ The pulse width τ is called the APERTURE since τ/Ts determines the 
gain of the recovered analog signal

¾ Disadvantages of PAM
• PAM requires a very larger bandwidth than that of the original signal; 
• The noise performance of the PAM system is not satisfying.
 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
¾ DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is essentially analog‐to‐
digital conversion of a special type where the information
contained in the instantaneous samples of an analog signal is
represented by digital words in a serial bit stream.

¾ The advantages of PCM are:

• Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively.
extensively
• PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources may be merged with
data signals and transmitted over a common high‐speed digital
communication system.
system
• In long‐distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a clean PCM
waveform can be regenerated at the output of each repeater, where the
input consists of a noisy PCM waveform.
waveform
• The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that of an
analog system.
• The probability of error for the system output can be reduced even further
by the use of appropriate coding techniques.
 Sampling Quantizing and Encoding
Sampling, Quantizing, and Encoding
¾ The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic operations: 
1. Sampling 
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
1. Sampling operation generates a flat‐top PAM signal.
p g p g p g
2. Quantizing operation approximates the analog values by using a 
finite number of levels. This operation is considered in 3 steps
finite number of levels. This operation is considered in 3 steps
a) Uniform Quantizer 
b) Quantization Error 
Quantization Error
c) Quantized PAM signal output
3
3. PCM signal is obtained from the quantized PAM signal by encoding 
PCM i l i bt i d f th ti d PAM i l b di
each quantized sample value into a digital word.
A/D Conversion
A/D Conversion ¾ The Analog‐to‐digital Converter (ADC)
Analog to digital Converter (ADC)
performs three functions:
Analog
Input
ƒ Sampling
p g
Signal Makes the signal discrete in time. 
Sample If the analog input has a bandwidth of W 
g p
Hz, then the minimum sample 
frequency such that the signal can be 
reconstructed without distortion.
ADC
Quantize
111
ƒ Quantization
110
101
100
Makes the signal discrete in amplitude. 
g p
011
010
Round off to one of q discrete levels.
001
Encode 000
ƒ Encode
Maps the quantized values to digital 
words that are ν bits long.
Digital Output
Digital Output ¾ If
If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem
the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is satisfied, 
is satisfied
Signal
then only quantization introduces distortion to 
111 111 001 010 011 111 011
the system.
 Quantization
¾ The output of a sampler is still continuous in amplitude.
ƒ Each sample can take on any value e.g. 3.752, 0.001, etc.
Each sample can take on any value e g 3 752 0 001 etc
ƒ The number of possible values is infinite.

¾ To transmit as a digital signal we must restrict the number of possible 
values.
values

¾ Quantization is the process of “rounding off” a sample according to 
some rule.
ƒ E.g. suppose we must round to the nearest tenth, then:
3.752 ‐‐> 3.8       0.001 ‐‐> 0
Illustration of the Quantization Error
Uniform Quantization
Q
Dynamic Range: ƒ Most ADC’s use uniform 
(-8, 8)
quantizers.
Output sample 7
XQ
5
ƒ The quantization levels of a 
3
uniform quantizer are 
if ti
1
equally spaced apart.
‐8 ‐6 ‐4 ‐2 ‐1 2 4 6 8
Input sample X
ƒ Uniform quantizers are 
‐3
optimal when the input 
‐5
distribution is uniform. 
‐7
When all values within the 
Q
Quantization Characteristic
i i Ch i i
Dynamic Range of the 
Example: Uniform ν =3 bit quantizer
q=8 and XQ = {±1,±3,±5,±7} quantizer are equally likely.
Quantization Example

Analogue signal

S
Sampling TIMING
li TIMING

Quantization levels. 
Quantized to 5‐levels

Quantization levels
Quantized 10‐levels 
PCM encoding example

Levels are encoded 
using this table

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

M=8

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.
Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal.  PCM encoded signal in binary form:
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization segments.
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization segments 101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
Encoding
ƒ The output of the quantizer is one of M possible signal levels.
ƒ If
If we want to use a binary transmission system, then we need to map 
bi i i h d
each quantized sample into an n bit binary word.

M = 2n , n = llog 2 ( M )

ƒ Encoding is the process of representing each quantized sample 
is the process of representing each quantized sample
by an ν bit code word.
ƒ The
The mapping is one‐to‐one so there is no distortion introduced by 
mapping is one to one so there is no distortion introduced by
encoding.
ƒ Some mappings are better than others.
pp g
A Gray code gives the best end‐to‐end performance.
The weakness of Gray codes is poor performance when the sign bit 
The weakness of Gray codes is poor performance when the sign bit
(MSB) is received in error.
Gray Codes
y
ƒ With gray codes adjacent samples differ only in one bit position.
ƒ Example (3 bit quantization):
XQ Natural coding Gray Coding
+7 111 110
+5 110 111
+3 101 101
+1 100 100
-1 011 000
-3 010 001
-5 001 011
-7 000 010

ƒ With this gray code, a single bit error will result in an amplitude 
error of only 2.
Unless the MSB is in error.
 Waveforms in a PCM system for M=8
M=8

(a) Quantizer Input output characteristics

(b) Analog Signal, PAM Signal, Quantized PAM Signal

M = 2n n = log 2 ( M )
M is the number of Quantization levels
(c) Error Signal n is the number of bits per sample

(d) PCM Signal
PCM Transmission System
PCM Transmission System
 Bandwidth of PCM Signals
Bandwidth of PCM Signals
ƒ The spectrum of the PCM signal is not directly related to the spectrum of the 
input signal.
ƒ The bandwidth of (serial) binary PCM waveforms depends on the bit rate R and 
the waveform pulse shape used to represent the data.
ƒ The Bit Rate R is
The Bit Rate R is 
R=nfs
Where n is the number of bits in the PCM word (M=2n) and fs is the sampling 
rate.
ƒ For no aliasing case (fs≥ 2B), the MINIMUM Bandwidth of PCM Bpcm(Min) is:

Bpcm(Min) = R/2 = nfs /2

The Minimum Bandwidth of nfs//2 is obtained only when sin(x)/x pulse is used to 

generate the PCM waveform. 
ƒ F PCM
For PCM waveform generated by rectangular pulses, the First‐null Bandwidth
f t db t l l th Fi t ll B d idth is: i
Bpcm = R = nfs
Effects of Quantizing Noise
Effects of Quantizing Noise
ƒ If Pe is negligible, there are no bit errors resulting from channel noise and no ISI, the Peak 
SNR resulting from only quantizing error is:

ƒ The Average SNR due  to quantizing errors is: 

ƒ Above equations can be expresses in decibels
q p as,,
Where, M = 2n
α = 4.77 for peak SNR
4.77 for peak SNR
α = 0 for average SNR
DESIGN OF A PCM SIGNAL FOR TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
ƒ Assume that an analog audio voice‐frequency(VF) telephone signal occupies a band from 
300 to 3,400Hz. The signal is to be converted to a PCM signal for transmission over a digital 
telephone system. The minimum sampling frequency is 2x3.4 = 6.8 ksample/sec.
ƒ To be able to use of a low‐cost low‐pass antialiasing filter, the VF signal is oversampled with 
a sampling frequency of 8ksamples/sec. 
ƒ This is the standard adopted by the Unites States telephone industry.
s s t e sta da d adopted by t e U tes States te ep o e dust y
ƒ Assume that each sample values is represented by 8 bits; then the bit rate of the binary PCM 
signal is

• This 64‐kbit/s signal is called a DS‐0 signal (digital signal, type zero).
/
• The minimum absolute bandwidth of the binary PCM signal is

R nf s
BPCM ≥ =
2 2

This B is for a sinx/x type pulse sampling
 DESIGN OF A PCM SIGNAL FOR TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
• If we use a rectangular pulse for sampling the first null bandwidth is given by

ƒ We require a bandwidth of 64kHz to transmit this digital voice PCM signal, whereas the 
We require a bandwidth of 64kHz to transmit this digital voice PCM signal whereas the
bandwidth of the original analog voice signal was, at most, 4kHz.

ƒ We observe that the peak signal to quantizing noise power ratio is

We observe that the peak signal‐to‐quantizing noise power ratio is:

Note: 
1. Coding with parity bits does NOT affect the quantizing noise,
2
2. However  coding with parity bits will improve errors caused by channel 
However coding with parity bits will improve errors caused by channel
or ISI, which will be included in Pe ( assumed to be 0).
 Non uniform Quantization
Non‐uniform Quantization
¾ Many signals such as speech have a nonuniform distribution.
ƒ The amplitude is more likely to be close to zero than to be at higher levels.
¾ Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels
ƒ The spacing can be chosen to optimize the SNR for a particular type of signal.
Output sample
XQ 6

2 Example: Nonuniform 3 bit quantizer

‐8 ‐6 ‐4 ‐2 2 4 6 8

‐2
2
Input sample
p p
X
‐4

‐6
 Companding
p g
ƒ Nonuniform quantizers are difficult to make and expensive.
ƒ An alternative is to first pass the speech signal through a 
nonlinearity before quantizing with a uniform quantizer.
y q g q
ƒ The nonlinearity causes the signal amplitude to be 
Compressed.
Compressed
ƒ The input to the quantizer will have a more uniform distribution.

ƒ At the receiver, the signal is Expanded
h i h i li d d by an inverse to the 
b i h
nonlinearity.
ƒ The process of compressing and expanding is called 
Companding.
p g
 μ‐Law
μ Law Companding
Companding

ƒ Telephones in the U.S., Canada and 
J
Japan use   μ‐law companding:
l di
Output |x(t)|

ln (1 + μ | x ( t )|)
| y ( t ) |=
l n (1 + μ )
ƒ Where μ = 255 and |x(t)| < 1

0 1
Input |x(t)|
 Non Uniform quantizing
q g
ƒ Voice signals are more likely to have amplitudes near zero than at extreme peaks.
ƒ FFor such signals with non‐uniform amplitude distribution quantizing noise will be 
h i l ith if lit d di t ib ti ti i i ill b
higher for amplitude values near zero.
ƒ A technique to increase amplitudes near zero is called Companding.

Effect of non linear quantizing can be 
can be obtained by first passing the 
analog signal through a compressor 
g g g p
and then through a uniform 
quantizer.
x x’’ x’’ y
Q(.)
C(.)
Compressor Uniform Quantizer
Q
Example: μ‐law
Example:  law Companding
Companding
1

0 .5

x[n]=speech /song/
x[n]=speech /song/ 0

- 0 .5

-1
0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 .5

y[n]=C(x[n]) 0

- 0 .5

Companded Signal -1
0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 .5
Close View of the Signal
Segment of x[n]
Segment  0

- 0 .5

-1
2 2 0 0 2 3 0 0 2 4 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 6 0 0 2 7 0 0 2 8 0 0 2 9 0 0 3 0 0 0

Segment of  y[n]
Segment of y[n]
0 .5

Companded Signal - 0 .5

-1
2 2 0 0 2 3 0 0 2 4 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 6 0 0 2 7 0 0 2 8 0 0 2 9 0 0 3 0 0 0
A‐law and μ−law Companding
ƒ These two are standard companding methods
These two are standard companding methods. 
ƒ u‐Law is used in North America and Japan
ƒ A‐Law is used elsewhere to compress digital telephone signals
p g p g
 SNR of Compander
p
• The output SNR is a function of input signal level for uniform quantizing.
• But it is relatively insensitive for input level for a compander
But it is relatively insensitive for input level for a compander
 SNR Performance of Compander
SNR Performance of Compander

• The output SNR is a function of input signal level for uniform quantizing.
• But it is relatively insensitive for input level for a compander.

• α = 4.77 ‐ 20 Log ( V/x for Uniform Quantizer

rms)      
V is the peak signal level and xrms is the rms value

• α = 4.77 ‐ 20 log[Ln(1 + μ)] for μ‐law companding

• α = 4.77 ‐ 20 log[1 + Ln A] for A‐law companding
 Digital Signaling
¾ How do we mathematical represent the waveform of a digital signal?
¾ How do we estimate the bandwidth of the waveform?
N
w ( t ) = ∑ wkϕ k ( t ) 0 < t < T0
k =1

wk Digital Data, w ( t ) Waveform of PCM word,

ϕk (t ) k=1, 2, 3" N N Orthogonal functions,
N Number of dimensions required to describe w(t )
T0 Message time span
¾ Example: Message ‘X’ X for ASCII computer keyboard - code word “0001101”
0001101
¾ What is the data rate?
 Digital Signaling
¾ Baud (Symbol Rate) :
D = N/T0 symbols/sec ; N- number of dimensions used in T0 sec.

¾ Bit Rate :
R = n/T0 bits/sec ; n- number of data bits sent in T0 sec.
sec

Binary (2) Values Binary signal

wk
More than 2 Values Multilevel signal

¾ How to detect the data at the receiver?

1
w ( t )ϕk* ( t ) dt ; k = 1,2.
T0
wk =
Kk ∫ 0
1 2 ..N
N Matched Filter Detecti
Detection
on

w ( t ) − Waveform at the receiver input ϕk* ( t ) − Orthogonal function

 Vector Representation
¾ Orthogonal function space corresponds to orthogonal vector space :
N
w ( t ) = ∑ wkϕk ( t ) 0 < t < T0 Orthogonal Function Space
k =1
N

w= ∑ w ϕ = ( w , w , w ,..., w )
j j 1 2 3 N
Orthogonal Vector Space
j =1

w is an N-dimensional vector, w = ( w1 , w2 , w3 ,..., wN )

{ϕ } Orthogonal
j
O th l sett off N-dimensional
N di i l vectors
t
Vector Representation of a Binary Signal
¾ Examine the representation in next slide for the waveform of a 3‐bit (binary) 
signal. This signal can be directly represented by,
⎡ ⎛
N =3
1 ⎞ ⎤ N =3 Δ ⎛ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎞
s ( t ) = ∑ d j p ⎢t − ⎜ j − ⎟ T ⎥ = ∑ d j p j (t ) p j (t ) = p ⎜ t − ⎜ j − ⎟ T ⎟
j =1 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦ j =1 ⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠
The Pulse Shape p(t )), { p (t )} is not normalized
j

Vector d = {d1 , d 2 , d3 } = (1, 0,1) .

¾ Orthogonal function approach

M =3
s(t ) = ∑ s ϕ (t ) j j {ϕ ( t )} is the set of Orthonormal functions
j
j =1
⎧ 1
p j (t ) p j (t ) p j (t ) ⎪ , ( j − 1))T < t < jT
j
ϕ j (t ) = = = Or ϕ j (t ) = ⎨ T j =1, 2, 3
p 2j ( t ) dt ⎪ 0,
T0
∫
Kj 25T
0 ⎩ t Otherwise

The Orthonormal series coefficients are: {s1 , s2 , s3} = ( 5 T , 0, 5 T )

 Bandwidth Estimation
¾ The lower bound for the bandwidth of the waveform w(t)
( ) is ggiven by
y the Dimensionality
y
Theorem
N 1 ⎛ sinx ⎞ N 1
B≥ = D (Hertz) Lower Bound for ⎜ ϕk (t) → ⎟ , B = = D
2T0 2 ⎝ x ⎠ 2T0 2
¾ Binary Signaling:
N
Waveform: w(t ) = ∑ wkϕ k (t ) 0 < t < T0 wk takes only BINARY values
takes only BINARY values
k =1

Example: Binary signaling from a digital source: M=256 distinct messages

M = 2n = 28 = 256 Î Each message ~ 8-bit binary words
T0=8 ms – Time taken to transmit one message; Code word: 01001110
w1= 0, w2= 1, w3= 0, w4= 0, w5= 1, w6= 1, w7= 1, w8= 0

¾ Case 1 Rectangular Pulse Orthogonal Functions:
Case 1: R t l P l O th l F ti
{ϕ k (t )} : unity‐amplitude rectangular pulses;
T0
Tb = = 1 msec Time taken to send 1 bit of data
n
 Bandwidth Estimation (Binary Signaling)
¾ Receiver end: How are we ggoingg to detect data?
Orthogonal series coefficients wk are needed. Sample anywhere in the bit interval
1
w ( t )ϕk* ( t ) dt ; k = 1,2...N
T0
wk =
Kk ∫
0
Matched Filter Detection

w ( t ) − Waveform at the receiver input ϕk* ( t ) − Orthogonal fu

function
nction

n N
Bit Rate R = = 1 Kbits/s Baud Rate (Symbol Rate) D = = 1 Kbaud
T0 T0
Same as BINARY Signaling

1
The Lower Bound : B = D = 500 Hz
2
1
The actual Null Bandwidth: B = = D = 1000 Hz
Ts

Bandwidth: Î Null BW > lower bound BW

 Binary Signaling
¾ Case 2: sin(x)/x Pulse Orthogonal Functions
Minimum Bandwidth
⎧ ⎡π ⎤⎫
⎪ sin ⎢ (t − kTs )⎥ ⎪
⎪ ⎣ Ts ⎦ ⎪
{ϕ k (t )} = ⎨ π ⎬ Where Ts=Tb for the case of Binary signaling.
⎪ (t − kTs ) ⎪
⎪⎩ Ts ⎪⎭

¾ Receiver end: How are we going to detect data?

Orthogonal series coefficients wk are needed. Sample at MIDPOINT of each interval
n N
Bi Rate
Bit R R = = 1 Kbits/s
Kbi / Baud
B d Rate
R (Symbol R ) D = = 1 Kbaud
(S b l Rate) Kb d
T0 T0
Same as BINARY Signaling
1
The ABSOLUTE Bandwidth: B = = 500 Hz LOWER BOUND bandwidth
2Ts
N
Lower bound BW: B = For N=8 pulses, T0=8 ms => B=500Hz.
2T0
 Multilevel Signaling
¾ B Reduces,
R d if N Reduces:
R d S
So wk should
h ld take
t k more than
th 2 values
l ( 2-
2 binary
bi signaling)
i li )
¾ If wk’s have L>2 values Æ Resultant waveform – Multilevel signal
¾ Multilevel data : Encoding l-bit binary data Æ into L-level : DAC
 Multilevel Signaling (Example)
M=256-message source ; L=4; T0=8 ms

Encoding Scheme:  A 2‐Bit Digital‐to‐Analog Converter
Binary Input Output Level
(l=2 bits)                            (V)
11 +3
10 +1
00 ‐1
01 ‐33
Binary code word - 01001110

w1= ‐3,
3, w2= ‐1,
1, w3= +3, w4= +1

n
Bit rate : R = =1 k bits/second
T0
Different
N 1
Baud ( symbol rate): D= = = 0.5 k baud
T0 Ts

Relation : R = lD Where l = log 2 ( L)

Binary-to-multilevel polar NRZ Signal Conversion
¾ Binary to multilevel conversion is used to reduce the bandwidth required by the binary
signaling.
i li
• Multiple bits (l number of bits) are converted into words having SYMBOL durations
Ts=lTb where the Symbol
y Rate or the BAUD Rate D=1/Ts=1/lTb.
• The symbols are converted to a L level (L=2l ) multilevel signal using a l-bit DAC.

• Note that now the Baud rate is reduced by l times the Bit rate R (D=R/l).
• Thus the bandwidth required is reduced by l times.
Ts: Symbol Duration L: Number of M ary levels
Tb: Bit Duration l: Bits per Symbol
L=2l D=1/Ts=1/lTb=R/l
Binary-to-multilevel Polar NRZ Signal Conversion

(c) L = 8 = 23 Level Polar NRZ Waveform Out
 Line Codes in PCM
ƒ The output of an ADC can be transmitted over a baseband channel.
• The digital information must first be converted into a physical signal.
• The physical signal is called a line code. Line coders use the terminology mark to 
mean binary one and space to mean binary zero.
Analog
Input
Signal
Sample
X
Quantize
Q ADC
XQ
Encode

Xk
Line
Code
x(t) PCM signal
 Line codes
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 BINARY DATA

( ) Punched Tape
(a) Mark Mark space Mark space space Mark
(hole) (hole) (hole) (hole)
Volts
A

0
(b) Unipolar NRZ
Tb Time

(c) Polar NRZ 0

-A

0
(d) Unipolar RZ

A
(e) Bipolar RZ 0
-A
A

A
(f) Manchester
M h t NRZ 0
-A

Binary Signaling Formats

Goa s o
Goals of Line Coding
e Cod g
ƒ A line code is designed to meet several goals:
ƒ Self‐synchronization.
The ability to recover timing from the signal itself.
Long series of ones and zeros could cause a problem.

ƒ Low probability of bit error.
The receiver needs to be able to distinguish the waveform associated 
with a mark from the waveform associated with a space, even if there 
ith kf th f i t d ith if th
is a considerable amount of noise and distortion in the channel.

ƒ Spectrum that is suitable for the channel.
In some cases DC components
p should be avoided if the channel has a DC 
blocking capacitance.
The transmission bandwidth should be minimized.
Line Coder ∞
Digital
Data ak
Line Coder
Physical x (t ) =
Waveform
∑
k =−∞
ak p (t − kTb )

ƒ The input to the line encoder is a sequence of values ak that is a 
function of a data bit or an ADC output bit
function of a data bit or an ADC output bit.
ƒ The output of the line encoder is a waveform:
∞
x(t ) = ∑a
k =−∞
k p (t − kTb )

ƒ Where p(t) is the Pulse Shape and Tb is the Bit Period

ƒ Tb =TTs/n for n
/ f bi
bit quantizer (and no parity bits).
i ( d i bi )
ƒ Rb =1/Tb=nfs for n bit quantizer (and no parity bits).
ƒ The operational details of this function are set by the particular 
type of line code that is being used.
Types of Line Codes
ƒ Each line code is described by a symbol mapping function ak and 
a pulse shape p(t):
∞
x(t ) = ∑a
k =−∞
k p (t − kTb )

ƒ Categories of line codes:
ƒ Symbol mapping functions (a
Symbol mapping functions (ak).
)
Unipolar
Polar
Bipolar (a.k.a. alternate mark inversion, pseudoternary)

ƒ Pulse shapes p(t).
NRZ (Nonreturn‐to‐zero)
RZ (Return to Zero)
Manchester (split phase)
 Unipolar NRZ Line Code
ƒ Th
The unipolar nonreturn‐to‐zero
i l t t li
line code is defined by the 
d i d fi d b th
unipolar mapping: 
⎧+ A when X k = 1
ak = ⎨
⎩ 0 when X k = 0

ƒ where Xk is the kth data bit.
ƒ In addition, the pulse shape for unipolar NRZ is:
⎛ t ⎞
p (t ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ NRZ pulse shape
⎝ Tb ⎠
ƒ Where T
Where Tb is the bit period.
is the bit period
Hard to recover symbol timing
Note the DC component when long string of 0s or 1s.
Thi means wasted
This t d power!!
1 0 1 1 0 1
A

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

 Unipolar RZ Line Code
p
ƒ The unipolar return‐to‐zero line code has the same symbol 
mapping but a different pulse shape than unipolar NRZ:
pp g p p p

⎧+ A when X k = 1
ak = ⎨
hen X k = 0
⎩ 0 when

⎛ t ⎞
p (t ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ RZ pulse
l shape
h
⎝ Tb / 2 ⎠
Long strings of 1’s no longer a problem.
Pulse of half the duration of NRZ
H
However strings
ti off 0’s
0’ still
till problem.
bl
requires twice the bandwidth!
1 0 1 1 0 1
A

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

 Polar Line Codes
ƒ Polar line codes use the antipodal mapping:
⎧+ A when X k = 1
ak = ⎨
⎩ − A when X k = 0
ƒ Polar NRZ uses NRZ pulse shape.
ƒ Polar RZ uses RZ pulse shape.
P l RZ RZ l h
No DC component,
so more energy efficient
efficient.
1 0 1 1 0 1
A

Polar NRZ
Now we can handle
long strings of 0’s
0 s, too
too.
A
Polar RZ

−A
Manchester Line Codes
ƒ Manchester line codes use the antipodal mapping and 
the following split‐phase pulse shape: p(t )
⎛ t + Tb / 4 ⎞ ⎛ t − Tb / 4 ⎞
p (t ) = Π ⎜ ⎟ − Π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b T / 2 ⎠ ⎝ b T / 2 ⎠

1 0 1 1 0 1

• Easy synchronization and better spectral characteristics than polar RZ

RZ.
Bipolar Line Codes
p
ƒ With bipolar line codes a space is mapped to zero and a mark is 
a te ate y apped to a d
alternately mapped to ‐A and +A:
⎧ 0 when X k = 0
⎪
ak = ⎨ − A when X k = 1 and last mark → + A
⎪
⎩+ A when X k = 1 and last mark → − A

• Also called pseudoternary signalling and alternate mark 
inversion (AMI).
• Either RZ or NRZ pulse shape can be used.
1 0 1 1 0 1
A

Bipolar (RZ)

−A