PHILOSOPHY OF MAN

WITH LOGIC AND CRITICAL

THINKING
The Self in the Eastern World
keithfeliz.banania@ama.edu.ph
HINDUISM
 Hinduism

 Hindu philosophy is a vast

philosophical system which highlights
the inner man and his reality
IMPORTANT TEXTS:
(besides epics)
The Vedas – the oldest extant literary
works of the Aryan mind; Veda means
“knowledge” in Sanskrit.
– reveal a subtle combination between
idealism and naturalism, of gods and of
nature.
The Upanishads – Mostly meditations
and deeper reflections on the Vedas.
– “Upanishad” is derived from the word
“sad,” which means “to sit down;” “Upa”
means “near by;” “ni” means
“devotedly.”
– ‘to sit down near the teacher in a
devoted manner to receive instruction
on the highest reality.”
Monistic Idealism or Idealistic Monism
– a doctrine which upholds the
existence of only one reality: The
Consciousness
Brahman – the ultimate reality; the
supreme reality which transcends all
things and yet underlies all things as
the ground of all things.
– It is the Universal Self, the Absolute, the
ultimate cause of this universe.
– Objective

Atman – the individual mind, soul, and

spirit which feels; it is the “Life-Breath”
of man which comes and goes in a
single breath.
– Subjective
 Differences in depiction in the Upanishads:
Brahman Atman
Presented as the older Seen as the later

The less intelligible The more significant

The unknown that needs to The known through which
be explained the unknown (Brahman)
finds its explanation

The first principle so far as it The first principle so far as it

is comprehended in the is known in the inner self of
universe man

The cosmic principle of the The psychical principle

universe
Five Types of Self – Five Sheaths
(Kosas):
1. Annamayatman – the self which
consists of flesh and blood and is
dependent on food, and therefore is
changeable. This is the physical self.
(body)

2. Paranamayatman - The Self that

consists of the vital breaths in man and is
dependent on vital breath. This is the self
as the principle of natural life, It is
contained in the Annamayatman. (vital
brain)
3. Manumayatman – The self that is
dependent on volition. It is the principle
of the will. It is within the
Pranamayatman. (volition, will)
4. Vijnamayatman – the self that is the
principle of intellection. (intellect)
5. Annandamayatman – the self that is
dependent on bliss. It is the innermost
kernel of man and of nature as a whole. It
is in contrast with the reality of
experience, that which lies beyond the
other side, unutterable, unfathomable.
(bliss)
The Development of the concept
of the self from the States of
Consciousness (Mandukya
Upanishad)
 1. Vaisvanara or Vishva – The Waking
State – This is a state common to all men.
It is directed to the objects of the external
world, thus to gross objects. It has
consciousness of the external world. Here
we find a subject-object duality.
 2. Taijasa – The Dreaming State – This is
a state where the mind has for its objects
phantasms or images of objects of the
external world. thus here we find a
subject-object duality.
3. Prajna - The Deep Sleep State – This
is the state that has no dream image;
hence no objects. This has no subject-
object duality. there is a shadow because
we see here a shadow of supreme bliss,
not positive bliss.
4. Turiya – The Fourth State – This is the
suppression of the consciousness of
objects and union with the eternal
knowing subject. This is the state of pure
consciousness.
 The Brahman is described in two ways
in the Upanishads:
 Saguna Brahman – “Lower Brahman”
 Nirguna Brahman – “Higher Brahman”
Saguna Brahman Nirguna Brahman
Cosmic Acosmic
All Comprehensive Indeterminate
Full of qualities Qualityless
Describable Indescribable
Knowable Unknowable
Regarded as the cause of The Transcendental
production, maintenance Absolute
and destruction of this
universe
 Brahman is one, but we view it in two
ways.
 Saguna Brahman is the one we know
while Nirguna Brahman is the extreme
abstraction.
 E.g. The lower part of the ballon as
Saguna while the upper, invidible part is
Nirguna Barhman
 All beings arise from Brahman, live in
Him, and are absorbed in Him. (Chand.
3.14.1)
 Brahman is the foundationless
consciousness, the fundamental
postulate of all knowledge.
 Atman = Brahman (Tat Tvam Asi) –
Read the story of Uddalaka and Svetaketu
in the Chandogya Upanishad below.
 Our innermost individual being is the is
the innermost being of universal nature
and of all her phenomena.
Maya
Maya – specifically refers to the illusion
superimposed upon reality as an effect pf
ignorance.
1. Atman is the knowing subject within us.
2. Atman, as the knowing subject, is itself
unknowable, for as a subject it can never be
an object.
3. Atman is the sole reality, for it is the
metaphysical unity which is manifested in all
empirical plurality. This unity, however, is not
to be found elsewhere than in ourselves, in
our consciousness.
 The two functions of Maya:
 Concealment – it hides the atman
 Projection – it manifests the atman as
the world which we perceive (the
accidents or phenomena)
 (2 ways of viewing the same thing)
The Early Philosophical Systems
Sankhya – Metaphysical framework of
the origins of reality.
Yoga – Experiencing the levels of one’s
Being and consciousness
Vaishesika – Systematic and realistic
view of the metaphysical and
cosmological elements of reality.
Nyaya – Logical and Epistemological in
focus concerning the objective
exposition of the right knowledge of
reality.
 Mimamsa – means revered thought; the
systematic investigation of actions, rituals
and sacrifices and principles according to
which the Vedas are interpreted. (Earlier
portion of the Veda)
 Vedanta – Guided by the belief of an
underlying unity of the world, it is a self-
inquiry into the underlying nature of
man’s experience and his knowledge of
reality. (Later portion of the Veda)
◦ Pre-Shankara
◦ Shankara
◦ Post-Shankara
BUDDHISM
Buddhism

 "I teach suffering, its origin, cessation

and path. That's all I teach", declared
the Buddha 2500 years ago.
The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths contain
the essence of the Buddha's
teachings. It was these four
principles that the Buddha came
to understand during his
meditation under the bodhi tree.
1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
2. The truth of the origin of suffering
(Samudāya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering
(Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of
suffering (Magga)
 The Buddha is often compared to a
physician. In the first two Noble Truths
he diagnosed the problem (suffering)
and identified its cause. The third Noble
Truth is the realisation that there is a
cure.
 The fourth Noble Truth, in which the
Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the
prescription, the way to achieve a
release from suffering.
 The three roots of evil
(Samudāya)
These are the three ultimate causes of
suffering: (Attachments)
1. Greed and desire, represented in art
by a rooster
2. Ignorance or delusion, represented by
a pig
3. Hatred and destructive urges,
represented by a snake
 Nirvana
 Nirvana means extinguishing. Attaining
nirvana - reaching enlightenment - means
extinguishing the three fires of greed,
delusion and hatred.
 Someone who reaches nirvana does not
immediately disappear to a heavenly realm.
Nirvana is better understood as a state of
mind that humans can reach. It is a state of
profound spiritual joy, without negative
emotions and fears.
 Someone who has attained enlightenment is
filled with compassion for all living things.
 Path to the cessation of
suffering (Magga)
 The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's
prescription for the end of suffering.
This is a set of principles called the
Eightfold Path.
 The Eightfold Path is also called the
Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence
and severe asceticism, neither of which
the Buddha had found helpful in his
search for enlightenment.
The eight divisions/ The Noble
Eightfold Path:
1. Right Understanding - Sammā ditthi
Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The
Buddha never intended his followers to
believe his teachings blindly, but to
practise them and judge for themselves
whether they were true.)
2. Right Intention - Sammā san̄ kappa
A commitment to cultivate the right
attitudes.
3. Right Speech - Sammā vācā
Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander,
gossip and abusive speech.

4. Right Action - Sammā kammanta

Behaving peacefully and harmoniously;
refraining from stealing, killing and
overindulgence in sensual pleasure.
5. Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva
Avoiding making a living in ways that
cause harm, such as exploiting people
or killing animals, or trading in
intoxicants or weapons.
6. Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma
Cultivating positive states of mind;
freeing oneself from evil and
unwholesome states and preventing
them arising in future.
7. Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati
Developing awareness of the body,
sensations, feelings and states of
mind.
8. Right Concentration - Sammā samādhi
Developing the mental focus necessary
for this awareness.
The eight stages can be grouped
into:
 Wisdom (right understanding and
intention),
 Ethical Conduct (right speech, action and
livelihood) and;
 Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and
concentration).

The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a

means to enlightenment, like a raft for
crossing a river. Once one has reached the
opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft
and can leave it behind.
 Two major schools of
Buddhism:

1. Hinayana – literally means “Lesser

Vehicle;” dubbed by the Mahayana
school.
2. Mahayana – literally means “Bigger
Vehicle.” (The imported Buddhism of
China)
 Two major schools of Buddhism:
Hinayana Mahayana
No God Buddha was made god
The End was Nirvana taken The end is Nirvana, taken as
as Extinction of suffering Positive Bliss
Highest Ideal is the Arhat Highest Ideal is Bodhisattva
The Means to an end is The Means to an end is the
Contemplation and Middle Path
Meditation on the Four
Noble Truths
Believes in a Self-help Salvation is with the help of
salvation others
Exhibits dry asceticism Exhibits loving interest in
the world
Negativistic and Egoistic Positivistic in outlook
outlook
CONFUCIANISM
 Main Concepts of Confucianism:
the twin concepts of jen and li are often
said to constitute the basis of
Confucianism.
A. Jen (wren): human heartedness;
goodness; benevolence, man-to-man-
ness; what makes man distinctively
human (that which gives human beings
their humanity).

1. The virtue of virtues; Confucius said he

never really saw it full expressed. The other
virtues follow from it. He never gives and
defends a definition of it although he does
characterize it.
2. It is dearer than life itself--the man of jen
will sacrifice his life to preserve jen, and
conversely it is what makes life worth
living.
3. Jen is a sense for the dignity of human
life--a feeling of humanity towards
others and self-esteem for yourself.
4. We should seek to extend jen to others.
B. Li (lee): principle of gain, benefit,
order, propriety; concrete guide to
human action.
1. Two basic meanings to li: (1) concrete
guide to human relationships or rules of
proper action that genuinely embody jen
and (2) general principle of social order or
the general ordering of life.
2. Confucius recognized that you need a
well ordered society for wren to be
expressed.
3. First Sense: the concrete guide to human
relationships.
a. The way things should be done or
propriety: positive rather than negative
("Do's rather than Don'ts).
b. The main components of propriety
emphasize the openness of people to each
other.
4. Second Sense of li: principle of social
order; ritual; ordering of life; conforming to
the norms of jen (the limits and authenticity
of li).
 First Sense of Li: Concrete Guide to
Human Relationships (propriety )
(1) The reification of names: language used in
accordance with the truth of things.
(2) The Doctrine of the Mean: so important
that an entire book is dedicated to it in the
Confucian canon: the proper action is the
way between the extremes.
(3) The Five Relationships: the way things
should be done in social life; none of the
relationships are transitive. (Note that 3 of
the 5 relations involve family; the family is
the basic unit of society).
C. Yi (yee); righteousness; the moral
disposition to do good (also a necessary
condition for jen or for the superior
man).
1. Yi connotes a moral sense: the ability to
recognize what is right and good; the
ability to feel, under the circumstances
what is the right thing to do.
a. Not chih, moral wisdom per se, but
intuition.
b. Most of us live under the sway of
different kinds of "I's." In this case, the
identification is with an impersonal ego.
(In Freudian terms, almost like the
super-ego.)
c. The impersonal ego is the assimilated or
appropriated values of our culture--the
Confucian true self.
2. Some actions ought to be performed for the
sole reason that they are right--regardless of
what they produce; not for the sake of
something else.
a. The value in the act is the rightness of the
action regardless of the intention or the
consequences of the act.
b. Hence, yi is a different way than either
stoicism (intention with soft determinism) or
utilitarianism (consequences with free will).
c. Confucianism is similar to Kant's ethics of
duty: the action is done as a good-in-itself,
not as a means to an end.
3. Acting from yi is quite close to practicing jen.
Compare the two situations:
a. A person does all actions for the sake of yi
because they are the right thing to do (i.e., the
behavior forms the disposition). This example
is the way we learn; it is not an example of yi.

b. A person does all actions for the sake of jen

because respect for humanity implies the right
human way to act (i.e., be concerned about
who you are, not the individual things you do).
This example is practiced until it becomes
second-nature, then it is right.
D. Hsiao (showe): filial piety; reverence
1. Parents are revered because they are
the source of your life. They have
sacrificed much for you.
2. One should do well and make the
family name known and respected:
bring honor to your family.
3. Consider someone you respect and
admire who saves your life or someone
who has sacrificed his life for you--as,
indeed, your parents did. Hence, the
reverence.
4. Hsiao implies that you give your
parents not only physical care but also
emotional and spiritual richness. When
the parents die, their unfulfilled aims
and purposes should be the purposes of
the children.
5. What do you do if your values are
different from your parents? I.e., in a
changing society?
6. The beginnings of jen are found in
hsiao (family life).
E. Chih (chee): moral wisdom; the
source of this virtue is knowledge of
right and wrong. Chih is added to
Confucianism by Mencius (muhn
shoos) who believed that people are
basically born good.
1. Since we draw the difference between
right and wrong from our own mind,
these ideas are innate.
2. Man is a moral animal for Mencius. Man
has the potential to be good for
Confucius.
3. How, then, does Mencius account for the
origin of evil?
a. From external circumstances: nature and
the needs for survival.
b. From society and culture being is
disarray: it would be to our disadvantage
to be moral.
c. From lack of knowledge: we do not seek
to find out the options we have. We fail
to develop our feelings and senses.
F. Chun-tzu (choon dzuh): the ideal
man; the superior man; gentle
person in the most significant sense.
1. He is at home in the world; as he needs
nothing himself. He is at the disposal of
others and completely beyond personal
ambition.
2. He is intelligent enough to meet anything
without fear.
3. Few people can attain this ideal; the
central virtue is, of course, jen.
a. Personal relationships come before
anything else (i.e., before thinking,
reasoning, studying).
b. The five virtues come from within the
impersonal ego: (1) kindness, (2)
rectitude, (3) decorum, (4) wisdom, and
(5) sincerity.
G. Te (day): power by which men are
ruled; the power of moral example
(the whole art of government consists
in the art of being honest).

1. The patterns of prestige are used in the

service of governance of the country.
2. Government is good if it can maintain
(1) economic sufficiency, (2) military
sufficiency, and (3) confidence of the
people.
The Key Terms in Confucianism form an
intricate web of concepts.
A. jen: human heartedness; humaneness
B. li: principle of gain, benefit; in general,
"principle," propriety, ritual, social order.
C. yi: righteousness; the moral disposition to
do good.
D. hsiao: filial piety, reverence; familial love
E. chih: moral wisdom
F. chun-tzu: the ideal person; the superior
man
G. te: virtue; power; power by which people
are ruled; power of moral example
DAOISM
Daoism
 Daoism, Chinese philosophical and
religious system, dating from about the
4th century BC. Among native Chinese
schools of thought, the influence of
Daoism has been second only to that of
Confucianism.
Basic Tenets of Daoism
 The essential Daoist philosophical and
mystical beliefs can be found in the
Daodejing (Tao-te Ching, Classic of the
Way and Its Power) attributed to the
historical figure Laozi (Lao-tzu, 570?-
490? BC) and possibly compiled by
followers as late as the 3rd century BC.
Basic Tenets of Daoism
 Whereas Confucianism urged the
individual to conform to the standards of
an ideal social system, Daoism maintained
that the individual should ignore the
dictates of society and seek only to
conform with the underlying pattern of
the universe, the Dao (or Tao, meaning
“way”), which can neither be described in
words nor conceived in thought.
 But this mystical way is what leads to the
moral “virtue” the De.
Basic Tenets of Daoism
 To be in accord with Dao, one has, in the
negative sense, to “do nothing”
(wuwei)—that is, nothing strained,
artificial, or unnatural, but also, in the
positive sense, follow the flow of nature,
in its “spontaneity” (ziran) – that is,
naturalness.
 Basic Tenets of Daoism
 Through spontaneous compliance with
the impulses of one's own essential
nature and by emptying oneself of all
doctrines and knowledge, one achieves
unity with the Dao and derives from it a
mystical power. This power enables one
to transcend all mundane distinctions,
even the distinction of life and death.
 At the sociopolitical level, the Daoists
called for a return to primitive agrarian
life.
 PHILOSOPHY OF MAN
WITH LOGIC AND CRITICAL
THINKING
The Self in the Eastern World
keithfeliz.banania@ama.edu.ph