ACCIDENT DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEM WITH

ACCIDENT CONTROL AND BLACK BOX

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
Mohankumar R 111714106093
Mukkesh P 111714106099
Gowtham S 111714106308

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

R.M.K. ENGINEERING COLLEGE,

KAVARAIPETTAI – 601 206

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2018
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “ACCIDENT DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEM

WITH ACCIDENT CONTROL AND BLACK BOX” is the bonafide work of

“Mohankumar(111714106093),Mukkesh(111714106099),gowtham(111714106308)” who

carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. R. SIVAKUMAR M.E.,Ph.D Mr.A.DarwinNesakumar M.E.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Electronics & Communication Electronics & Communication

Engineering Engineering

R.M.K Engineering College R.M.K Engineering College

Kavaraipettai – 601206 Kavaraipettai – 601206

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

I
 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

We convey our thanks to our Chairman Mr. R.S. Munirathinam and Vice
Chairman Mr. R.M. Kishore who took keen interest on us and encouraged
throughout the course of study and for their kind attention and valuable
suggestions offered to us.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. Elwin Chandra Monie, Principal of

our college for his blessings throughout our course.

We take immense pleasure in thanking Dr. R. Sivakumar, Head,

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, who has permitted us
to carry out this project.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to our Supervisor

Mr.A.Darwin Nesakumar,Asst.Professor, for her able guidance and useful
suggestions, which helped us in completing the project work in time.

We are extremely grateful to all teaching faculty of Electronics and

Communication Engineering for teaching us the importance of self-learning and
the essence of keeping our self with emerging technology.

Finally, yet importantly, we would like to express our heartfelt thanks to our
beloved parents for their blessings, our friends, for their help and wishes for the
successful completion of the project.

II
 PREFACE

PROJECT WORK IMPORTANCE

Project work plays an important role in technical education. With working through
the project, students are exposed to different fields in production.

Thus the students get an opportunity to make use of his knowledge, skill and
ability in the design, fabrication and erection of the project.

He even learns new subjects and practical works as well. He gains great experience
in getting ideas in organizing the work and putting them into practice.

He learns to approach various problems systematically, thereby constructing a

project and improving his knowledge.

III
 ABSTRACT

Nowadays the mortality ratio has been increasing due to accidents and delay

in rescue system. The main goal of this project is to increase the road

safety by reducing the number of accidents by predetermining the cause and

avoiding it. The key work of this Project is to detect the buffer zones and

control the speed of the vehicles automatically using RF transceiver by

using RFID. This project also detects the obstacles and controls the speed of the

vehicle. We use eye blink sensor to detect the drowsiness and drunken drive by

comparing the blinking rate with the assigned threshold value. In our work, we use

a triple axis accelerometer to detect the occurrence of accident event and track the

location. The GPS and GSM module is used for such an action and sends

notification to the rescue system and the preconfigured mobile numbers. A

pressure sensor is used in order to avoid damage to the tyres. The main purpose of

the Black Box For vehicle diagnosis that can be installed into any vehicle. This

prototype can be designed with minimum number of circuits. This can contribute

to construct safer vehicles, improving the treatment for crash victims, helping

insurance companies with their vehicle crash investigations, and enhancing road

status in order to decrease the death rate. This work is very simple, less expensive

and a compactive one which can be applied to our real time systems .

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. LITERAURE REVIEW 4

3. PROJECT DESCRIPION 6

3.1 AIM 6

3.2 WORKING 6

4. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION 9

4.1 INTRODUCTION 9

4.2 ARDUINO MEGA MC 9

4.3 IR BASICS 15

4.4 RFID READER 17

4.5 RFID TAG 18

4.6 ULTRASONIC SENSOR 18

4.7 VIBRATION SENSOR 19

4.8 GAS SENSOR 21

4.9 GAS INDICATOR 23

4.10 GSM 24

4.11 GPS 32

4.12 LCD DISPLAY 36

V
 4.13 DC MOTOR 46

4.14 7298MOTOR 50

4.15 MATRIX KEYBOARD 58

4.16 BATTERY 59

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE 60

SCOPE

REFERENCES 61

VI
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

According to the World Health Organization, more than a million people in the

world die each year because of transportation-related accidents . In order to react to

this situation, the black box system draws the first step to solve problem. Like

flight data recorders in aircraft, "Black Box” technology can now play a key role in

motor vehicle crash investigations. A significant number of vehicles currently on

the roads contain electronic systems that record in the event of a crash. That is why

it is so important to have recorders that objectively track what goes on in vehicles

before, during and after a crash as a complement to the was used. Subjective input

that is taken usually from victims, eye witnesses and police reports. This system is

mainly committed to two sections. The first one is how to detect and collect the

information from the vehicle. The second is how to present the data to the user in a

simplified way.

To implement the first section many components and various

types of sensors are used. While the second section was implementing by using the

Embedded C programming. This programming helps in not only recording the data

but also retrieving the data from microcontroller memory to an LCD to display it.

In order to know which type of sensors to be installed into the vehicle various

types of research are done and following ones are considered as the most important

data that is needed after the accident: Belt status, Break status,

1
Lane detection and CAN Failures. In this section we describe in section II the hard

ware resources and in section III the software resources followed by the conclusion

in section IV.

Modern vehicles equipped with driver assistance

system can “feel” (by sensors), “see” (by cameras) and in future – “speak” (by

communication systems). Services subjected to improved road safety by avoiding

accidents and reducing injury severity. The efficiency of our project is to support a

foresighted driving and enhanced driving comfort. The primary objective of this

project is to provide innovative services relating to transport which enables users to

be better informed and make safer and ‘smarter’ use of transport system. Road side

unit provide information to the vehicle unit which helps the driver to control the

vehicle. The use of image processing techniques has a main drawback of requiring

a large memory to store the processed image, inaccuracy and the image cannot be

captured in all the axes [1]. The use of Raspberry Pi will make the programming

complex. The memory space of Raspberry Pi is very limited we cannot expand the

memory externally it also does not support the Windows OS with is user friendly.

These drawbacks are overcome by our proposed system by using RFID which does

not need large memory space and provide accurate results. The Existing system

contains Individual modules which have their own advantages but an integrated

system would provide to be much more effective.

2
 This paper proposes the TADD technology of the new

possibilities for enhancing for active safety and driver assistance system such as

integrated system along with an Intelligent Driver Assistance System that uses

RFID. The memory of this system can be expanded externally. It is superior to

existing technologies. Using this system we can detect the Obstacles that may not

be noticed by the user leading to crash and the vehicle speed is reduced gradually.

In case if the Accident occurs that is sensed and intimated to the rescue services in

order to save the user’s life. This system also detects the pressure load in the wheel

of the vehicle and intimated to the user and the vehicle speed is reduced slowly. If

the user in the drowsy mode that is intimated via signal transmission thereby the

speed of the vehicle is reduced stage by stage. When the vehicle enters into the

Zone region that is detected by the controller and it controls the speed of the

vehicle automatically.

3
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section gives a comparative study of the formerly developed algorithms for

accident detection. The survey throws light on the key aspects of the papers studied

and also highlights their positive and negative points.

Reference [1] proposed a Mobile Application for automatic accident detection and

multimodal alert which uses an Accident Detection Algorithm. It uses eCall system

to automatically detect Vehicle accidents along with Collisions and Roll-overs.

The Acceleration Severity Index (ASI) evaluates the potential risks for occupants.

In [2], a Communication Flow Algorithm has been proposed in which Backend

Systems interact with IoT using Database Management Systems and Web sites.

Gateways inter-connect the end devices to the main communication infrastructure

of the system. IoT peripheral nodes produce the data that is to be delivered to the

control center.

[3] proposed an Incident Detection Algorithm to identify incidents, verify the

nature of incidents and provide emergency services based on the nature.

4
In [4], a WreckWatch Approach has been introduced in which the device

accelerometer detects wreck utilizing device sensors to detect traffic accidents and

notify first responders. Users utilize map to view wreck information and other

motorists can view accident locations immediately and avoid accident locations.

Also, users can upload or view images of the wreck to the server to provide first

responders with additional information related to the accident.

5
 CHAPTER 3
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1 AIM

 ADAS are vehicle-based intelligent safety systems which could improve

road safety in terms of crash avoidance, crash severity mitigation and

protection and post-crash phases or, indeed, integrated in-vehicle or

infrastructure based systems which contribute to more than one of these

crash-phases or all.

 Vehicle safety is a key strategy to address ambitious long-term and interim

goals and targets as part of an integrated Safe System approach.

 Secondary safety or crash protection technologies continue to deliver large

savings; in the last few years primary safety or crash avoidance technologies

have started to contribute to casualty reduction and hold potentially large

future promise.

3.2 WORKING

All the sensor values are stored in the Micro-controller

which has been sensed by the sensors that are attached to the vehicle unit. Then

these sensor values are used for further processing. Once the sensor detects the

accident then microcontroller will make the GPS to locate the accident spot and

an SMS is sent to the preconfigured mobile numbers and rescue system via

6
GSM. Once the obstacle is detected which may not be noticed by the driver, the

controller will slow down the vehicle slowly. When the user is found to be in

drowsy mode by the sensor, the controller will slow down the vehicle

automatically. If the pressures of the tyres are found to be overloaded the

vehicle is slow down by the controller. This system can also be implemented in

the two wheelers to save the life of the user by slowing down the vehicle stage

by stage.

FLOWCHART

Figure 3.2.1

7
3.3 MAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3.3.1

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ACCIDENT DRIVER ASSISTANCE WITH

ACCIDENT DETECTOR

8
 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The hardware used is PCB in which all input and output circuit
are corporated.

The Printed circuit board is designed for:

 Power Supply Board

 Analog To Digital Converter Board

 Microcontroller

 Interface Board

 Relay Driver Circuit Board

4.2 ARDUINO MEGA 2560

9
PRODUCT OVERVIEW

The Arduino Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on

the ATmega2560 (datasheet ). It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can

be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16

MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a

reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply

connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or

battery to get started. The Mega is compatible with most shields designed for the

Arduino Duemilanove or Diecimila.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

Microcontroller - ATmega2560
Operating Voltage - 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) - 6-20V

Input Voltage (limits) - 54

Digital I/O Pins - 16

Analog Input Pins - 40mA

DC Current per I/O Pin - 50mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin - 256 KB

Flash Memory - 8KB

10
 Figure 4.2.1

POWER

The Arduino Mega2560 can be powered via the USB connection or with an
external power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-
USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the
board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin
headers of the POWER connector.
The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be
unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage
the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
11
The Mega2560 differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI
USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a
USB-to-serial converter.

The power pins are as follows:

· VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other
regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
· 5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other
components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board
regulator, or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply.
· 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50 mA.
 GND. Ground pins.

MEMORY

The ATmega2560 has 256 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 8
KB is used for the bootloader), 8 KB of SRAM and 4 KB of EEPROM
(which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

INPUT AND OUTPUT

Each of the 54 digital pins on the Mega can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode() , digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up
resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have
specialized functions:

· Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX); Serial 1: 19 (RX) and 18 (TX); Serial 2: 17

(RX) and 16 (TX); Serial 3: 15 (RX) and 14 (TX). Used to receive (RX)
and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. Pins 0 and 1 are also connected to the
corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip .

12
 · External Interrupts: 2 (interrupt 0), 3 (interrupt 1), 18 (interrupt 5), 19
(interrupt 4), 20 (interrupt 3), and 21 (interrupt 2). These pins can be
configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or
a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
· PWM: 0 to 13. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
· SPI: 50 (MISO), 51 (MOSI), 52 (SCK), 53 (SS). These pins support SPI
communication, which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is
not currently included in the Arduino language. The SPI pins are also
broken out on the ICSP header, which is physically compatible with the
Duemilanove and Diecimila.
· LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin
is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
· I2C: 20 (SDA) and 21 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication using the
Wire library (documentation on the Wiring website). Note that these pins are
not in the same location as the I2C pins on the Duemilanove.

The Mega2560 has 16 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts,
though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin
and analogReference() function.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
· AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with
analogReference().
· Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to
add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.

COMMUNICATION

The Arduino Mega2560 has a number of facilities for communicating with a

computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega2560 provides
four hardware UARTs for TTL (5V) serial communication. An ATmega8U2 on
the board channels one of these over USB and provides a virtual com port to
software on the computer (Windows machines will need a .inf file, but OSX and
Linux machines will recognize the board as a COM port automatically. The

13
 Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be
sent to and from the board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when
data is being transmitted via the ATmega8U2 chip and USB connection to the
computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial communication on any of the Mega's
digital pins.
The ATmega2560 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the
documentation on the Wiring website for details. To use the SPI communication,
please see the ATmega2560 datasheet.

PROGRAMMING

The Arduino Mega2560 can be programmed with the Arduino software

(download). For details, see the reference and tutorials.

The Atmega2560 on the Arduino Mega comes preburned with a bootloader that
allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an external hardware
programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol (reference, C
header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these instructions for details.

14
4.3 IR BASICS

PHYSICAL BASIC

With our eyes we see the world in visible light. Whereas visible light fills only a small part of the
radiation spectrum, the invisible light covers most of the remaining spectral range. The radiation
of invisible light carries much more additional information

The Infrared Temperature Measurement System

Each body with a temperature above the absolute zero (-273.15°C = 0 Kelvin) emits an
electromagnetic radiation from its surface, which is proportional to its intrinsic tem-perature. A
part of this so-called intrinsic radiation is inf-rared radiation, which can be used to measure a
body’s temperature. This radiation penetrates the atmosphere. With the help of a lens (input
optics) the beams are fo-cused on a detector element, which generates an elec-trical signal
proportional to the radiation. The signal is amplified and, using successive digital signal
processing, is transformed into an output signal proportional to the object temperature. The
measuring value may be shown in a display or released as analog output signal, which supports
an easy connection to control systems of the process management

OBJECT OPTICS SENSOR ELECROTNICS DISPLAY

Figure 4.3.1

The advantages of non-contact temperature measurement are clear - it

supports:

· temperature measurements of moving or overheated objects and of objects in

hazardous surroundings
· very fast response and exposure times
· measurement without inter-reaction, no influence on the measuring object
· non-destructive measurement
· long lasting measurement, no mechanical wear

15
 The Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

A spectrum in the physical sense is the intensity of a mixture of electromagnetic

waves as the function of the wavelength or frequency. The electromagnetic
radiation spectrum covers a wavelength area of about 23 decimal powers and
varies from sector to sector in origin, creati-on and application of the radiation. All
types of electro-magnetic radiation follow similar principles of diffraction,
refraction, reflection and polarisation. Their expansion speed corresponds to the
light speed under normal con-ditions: The result of multiplying wavelength with
frequen-cy is constant:

λ·f=c
The infrared radiation covers a very limited part in the whole range of the
electromagnetic spectrum: It starts at the visible range of about 0.78 µm and ends
at wave-lengths of approximately 1000 µm.

Radiation Thermocouple Elements (Thermopiles)

If the joint between two wires of different metallic material

heats up, the thermoelectrical effect results in an electri-cal voltage. The contact
temperature measurement has been using this effect for a long time with the help
of ther-mocouple elements. If the connection is warm because of absorbed
radiation, this component is called radiati-on thermocouple. The illustration shows
thermocouples made of bismuth / antimony which are arranged on a chip round an
absorbing element. In case the temperature of the detector increases, this results in
a proportional vol-tage, which can be caught at the end of the bond isles.

Figure 4.3.2

16
4.4 RFID READER

Description:

RFId Tag reader is operated at 125 KHz with serial and Wiegand26 output
format. An on board switch is provied to select output format

Specifications:

• Easy interface to computer serial terminal through DB9 connector or direct

interface to microcontroller via onboard connectors.

• Onboard switch for selecting Serial / Wiegand26 output format.

• Supply Voltage: 7V ~ 15V DC

• Operating Voltage: 4.5V to 5V DC.

• Operating Frequency: 125 KHz.

• Read Distance: 10 cm.

• Onboard buzzer and LED for indicating card detection

Application:

• Security and access control.

• Product tracking.
• Inventory Tracking System
• Library Automation System
• Attendance management system....etc.

17
4.5 RFID TAG

Description:

RFID tag in clam shell card type. 125Khz EM4001 compatible. Works with
RFID reade modules RKI-1512 and RKI-1513. Range about 8-10 cm.

Specifications:
• 125kHz read frequency.
• EM4001 64-bit RFID tag compatible.
• 9600bps TTL and RS232 output.
• Magnetic stripe emulation output.
• 10 cm read range.
4.6 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic sensors (also known as tranceivers when they both send and receive)
work on a principle similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a target
by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic
sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is
received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between sending
the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object.

This technology can be used for measuring: wind speed and direction
(anemometer), fullness of a tank and speed through air or water. For measuring
speed or direction a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from
the relative distances to particulates in the air or water.

To measure the amount of liquid in a tank, the sensor measures the distance to the
surface of the fluid. Further applications include: humidifiers, sonar, medical
ultrasonography, burglar alarms and non-destructive testing.

Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic
range, above 20,000 hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon
receiving the echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be
measured and displayed.

The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency
of the material. For example foam on the surface of a fluid in a tank could distort a
reading.

18
4.7 VIBRATION SENSOR

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure

pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.

Electrical properties

Figure 4.7.1

Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor

A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be modeled
as a proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the source is
directly proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain.[2] The output signal is
then related to this mechanical force as if it had passed through the equivalent
circuit.

19
 Figure 4.7.2

Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force

Sensing materials

Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric
ceramics and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic)
have a piezoelectric constant / sensitivity that is roughly two orders of magnitude
higher than those of single crystal materials and can be produced by inexpensive
sintering processes. The piezoeffect in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately
their high sensitivity degrades over time. The degradation is highly correlated with
temperature. The less sensitive crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz,
tourmaline) have a much higher – when carefully handled, almost infinite – long
term stability.

A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction and
other non-idealities.[3] The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of
the sensor itself. Ce is inversely proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the
sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance of the transducer, resulting from an
inertial mass of infinite size.[3] Ri is the insulation leakage resistance of the
transducer element. If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, this also acts in
parallel with the insulation resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff
frequency.

In the flat region, the sensor can be modeled as a voltage source in series with the
sensor's capacitance or a charge source in parallel with the capacitance

20
 Figure 4.7.3

For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically used,
between the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage
resistance need to be large enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost. A
simplified equivalent circuit model can be used in this region, in which Cs
represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself, determined by the standard
formula for capacitance of parallel plates.[3][4] It can also be modeled as a charge
source in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge directly proportional
to the applied force, as above.[2]

4.8 GAS SENSOR

Figure 4.7.4

21
Gas Sensor

Ideal sensor for use to detect the presence of a dangerous LPG leak in
your car or in a service station, storage tank environment. This unit can be easily
incorporated into an alarm unit, to sound an alarm or give a visual indication of the
LPG concentration. The sensor has excellent sensitivity combined with a quick
response time. The sensor can also sense iso-butane, propane, LNG and cigarette
smoke.

Features:

• High Sensitivity
• Detection Range: 100 - 10,000 ppm iso-butane propane
• Fast Response Time: <10s
• Heater Voltage: 5.0V
• Dimensions: 18mm Diameter, 17mm High excluding pins, Pins - 6mm High

Circuit Description:

The gas sensor is the special sensor which designed for sense the gas
leakage. In the gas sensor the supply voltage is given to input terminal. The gas
sensor output terminals are connected to non inverting input terminal of the
comparator.

Here the comparator is constructed with operational amplifier LM 358. The

reference voltage is given to inverting input terminal. The reference voltage is
depends on the desired gas intensity. When there is no leakage the non inverting
input is grater then inverting input so the output of the comparator is positive
voltage which is given to the base of the switching transistor BC 547. Hence the
transistor is conducting. Here the transistor is act as switch so the collector and

22
 emitter will be closed. The output is taken from collector terminal. Now the
output is zero which is given to hex inverter 40106.

When there is gas leakage the inverting input voltage is grater than non
inverting input. Now the comparator output is -12V so the transistor is cutoff
region. The 5v is given to hex inverter 40106 IC. Then the final output data is
directly given to microcontroller to determine the gas leakage.

4.9 GAS INDICATOR

The combustible gas indicator is an instrument used to detect various flammable

gases and vapors. Combustible gas indicators are made by several manufacturers.
Although they all operate on the same general principles, they vary in certain
details. Each indicator is accompanied by a complete set of operating and
maintenance instructions. In addition, a condensed operating routine is attached to
the inside of the case cover. Before using any combustible gas indicator, read the
instructions carefully.

Figure 4.9.1

23
A combustible gas indicator employs a heated platinum-wire filament associated
with a Wheat-tone bridge or modified potentiometertype circuit. The combustible
gas indicator can quickly, safely, and accurately detect all combustible gases or
vapors associated with fuel oils, gasoline, alcohol, acetone vapors, illuminating
gas, fuel gas, hydrogen, and acetylene in mixtures with air or oxygen. The
indicator can detect small quantities of these gases or vapors up to the lower
explosive limit (LEL). It gives a reliable indication of the mixture if it is in the
upper explosive range or beyond the upper explosive limit. The higher and
lower explosive limits define the range of a concentration of a material, expressed
in the percent in the air, that will burn or explode if ignited. The LEL is the
minimum percent by volume of a gas that, when mixed with air at normal
temperature and pressure, will form a flammable mixture. The higher explosive
limit (HEL) is the point at which an explosion is certain. The combustible gas
indicator does not identify combustible gas or gases; it merely indicates that one or
more combustible gases are present in a certain proportion.

4.10 GSM

GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications: originally from Groupe Spécial
Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile telephony systems in the world.
The GSM Association, its promoting industry trade organization of mobile phone
carriers and manufacturers, estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses
the standard.[1] GSM is used by over 1.5 billion people[2] across more than 212
countries and territories.[3] Its ubiquity enables international roaming arrangements
between mobile network operators, providing subscribers the use of their phones in
many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that
both signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a
second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This also facilitates the wide-spread
implementation of data communication applications into the system.

24
The ubiquity of implementation of the GSM (Global System Market) standard has
been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to roam
and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators, who
can choose equipment from many GSM equipment vendors.[4] GSM also pioneered
low-cost implementation of the short message service (SMS), also called text
messaging, which has since been supported on other mobile phone standards as
well. The standard includes a worldwide emergency telephone number feature
(112).[5]

Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM
system. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities by
means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher
speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

History

In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications

Administrations (CEPT) created the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to develop a
standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe.[6] In
1987, a memorandum of understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a
common cellular telephone system across Europe.[7][8] In 1989, GSM responsibility
was transferred to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. The first GSM
network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint technical
infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson.[9] By the end of 1993, over a million
subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across
48 countries.

25
Technical details

Cellular radio network

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by

searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a
GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area
of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can
be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a
building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are
small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used
indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband
internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller
cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and
propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of
kilometres. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is
35 kilometres (22 mi). There are also several implementations of the concept of an
extended cell,[11] where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on
the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an

indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas
fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors
to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed

26
when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors; for example, in shopping centers or
airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided
by in-building penetration of the radio signals from any nearby cell.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind

of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated
onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed
to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring
channels (adjacent-channel interference).

GSM carrier frequencies

GSM networks operate in a number of different carrier frequency ranges (separated

into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G), with most
2G GSM networks operating in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Where these
bands were already allocated, the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands were used
instead (for example in Canada and the United States). In rare cases the 400 and
450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries because they were
previously used for first-generation systems.

Most 3G networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band.

Regardless of the frequency selected by an operator, it is divided into timeslots for

individual phones to use. This allows eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech
channels per radio frequency. These eight radio timeslots (or eight burst periods)
are grouped into a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the
same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the
frame duration is 4.615 ms.

27
Voice codecs

GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 6.5
and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they
were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (6.5 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s).
These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to
being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more
important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better
protect these parts of the signal.

GSM was further enhanced in 1997[12] with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a
12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of
UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband,
which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full rate
channels, and less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio
conditions on half-rate channels.

Network structure

Figure 4.10.1
28
The structure of a GSM network

The network is structured into a number of discrete sections:

 The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
 the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar
to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
 The GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based
Internet connections).
 The Operations support system (OSS) for maintenance of the network..

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly
known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's
subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her
information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change
operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators
will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM
issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking and is illegal in some
countries.

Phone locking

Sometimes mobile network operators restrict handsets that they sell for use with
their own network. This is called locking and is implemented by a software feature
of the phone. Because the purchase price of the mobile phone to the consumer is
typically subsidised with revenue from subscriptions, operators must recoup this
investment before a subscriber terminates service. A subscriber may usually

29
contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove
the lock, or make use of free or fee-based software and websites to unlock the
handset themselves.

In some territories (e.g., Bangladesh, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Pakistan,

Singapore) all phones are sold unlocked. In others (e.g., Belgium, Finland,
Germany, Singapore) it is unlawful for operators to offer any form of subsidy on a
phone's price.

GSM service security

GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. The system was
designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-
response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be
encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional Universal Subscriber
Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater
security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas
GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security
model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization
capabilities, and no non-repudiation.

GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2
stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was
developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United
States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been
found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-
only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and
plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table

30
attack.[13] The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that
cipher with a stronger one.

On 28 December 2009 German computer engineer Karsten Nohl announced that he

had cracked the A5/1 cipher.[14] According to Nohl, he developed a number of
rainbow tables (static values which reduce the time needed to carry out an attack)
and have found new sources for known plaintext attacks. He also said that it is
possible to build "a full GSM interceptor ... from open source components" but that
they had not done so because of legal concerns.[15]

In 2010, threatpost.com reported that "A group of cryptographers has developed a

new attack that has broken Kasumi, the encryption algorithm used to secure traffic
on 3G GSM wireless networks. The technique enables them to recover a full key
by using a tactic known as a related-key attack, but experts say it is not the end of
the world for Kasumi."[16] Kasumi is the name for the A5/3 algorithm, used to
secure most 3G traffic.

Although security issues remain for GSM newer standards and algorithms may
address this. New attacks are growing in the wild which take advantage of poor
security implementations, architecture and development for smart phone
applications. Some wiretapping and eavesdropping techniques hijack[17] the audio
input and output providing an opportunity for a 3rd party to listen in to the
conversation. Although this threat is mitigated by the fact the attack has to come in
the form of a Trojan, malware or a virus and might be detected by security
software

31
4.11 GPS

What is GPS?

GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes

location and time information in all climate conditions to the user. GPS is used for
navigation in planes, ships, cars and trucks also. The system gives critical abilities
to military and civilian users around the globe. GPS provides continuous real time,
3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing worldwide

How does GPS System Work?

The GPS system consists of three segments:

1) The space segment: the GPS satellites

2) The control system, operated by the U.S. military,

3) The user segment, which includes both military and civilian users and their
GPS equipment.

Space Segment:

The space segment is the number of satellites in the constellation. It comprises of

29 satellites circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in altitude. The
function of the space segment is utilized to route/navigation signals and to store
and retransmit the route/navigation message sent by the control segment.

These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks on the satellites.
The GPS Space Segment is formed by a satellite constellation with enough
satellites to ensure that the users will have, at least, 4 simultaneous satellites in
view from any point at the Earth surface at any time.

32
 Figure 4.11.1

Control Segment:

The control segment comprises of a master control station and five monitor
stations outfitted with atomic clocks that are spread around the globe. The five
monitor stations monitor the GPS satellite signals and then send that qualified
information to the master control station where abnormalities are revised and sent
back to the GPS satellites through ground antennas. Control segment also referred
as monitor station.

User Segment:

The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals from
the GPS satellites and determine how far away it is from each satellite.

Mainly this segment is used for the U.S military, missile guidance
systems, civilian applications for GPS in almost every field. Most of the civilian
uses this from survey to transportation to natural resources and from there to
agriculture purpose and mapping too.

33
 Figure 4.11.2
How GPS Determines a Position:

The working/operation of Global positioning system is based on

the ‘trilateration’ mathematical principle.

The position is determined from the distance measurements to

satellites. From the figure, the four satellites are used to determine the position of
the receiver on the earth.

The target location is confirmed by the 4th satellite. And three

satellites are used to trace the location place. A fourth satellite is used to confirm
the target location of each of those space vehicles.

Global positioning system consists of satellite, control station and monitor

station and receiver. The GPS receiver takes the information from the satellite and
uses the method of triangulation to determine a user’s exact position

34
 Figure 4.11.3

GPS is used on some incidents in several ways, such as:

1. To determine position locations; for example, you need to radio a helicopter
pilot the coordinates of your position location so the pilot can pick you up.
2. To navigate from one location to another; for example, you need to travel from a
lookout to the fire perimeter.
3. To create digitized maps; for example, you are assigned to plot the fire
perimeter and hot spots.
4. To determine distance between two different points.

3 Advantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and
commercial users
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with
turn by turn directions
 Very high speed

35
2 Disadvantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t
work as well indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.
 The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite, this
is why GPS doesn’t work very well in an urban environment.

Using a GPS Receiver:

There are several different models and types of GPS receivers. While working with
a GPS receiver it is important to have :

 A compass and a map.

 A downloaded GPS cable.
 Some extra batteries.
 Knowledge about the memory capacity of the GPS receiver to prevent loss of
data, decrease in accuracy of data, or other problems.
 An external antenna whenever possible, especially under tree canopy, in
canyons, or while driving.
 A set up GPS receiver according to incident or agency standard regulation;
coordinate system.
 Notes that describe what you are saving in the receiver.

4.12 LCD

Figure 4.12.1

36
INTRODUCTION:
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties
of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a
temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would
be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with
transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be
displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.

One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers
would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction

When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal

molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through
the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating /
highlighting the desired characters.

The LCD’s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCD’s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic
circuits, and can be powered for long durations.

37
 The LCD’s don’t generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By
using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a
wide operating temperature range.

Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes
the LCD’s more customer friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring

instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of
numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility,
more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have
resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV
applications.

POWER SUPPLY:
The power supply should be of +5V, with maximum allowable transients of
10mv. To achieve a better / suitable contrast for the display, the voltage (VL) at pin
3 should be adjusted properly.

A module should not be inserted or removed from a live circuit. The ground
terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that no voltage is
induced in it. The module should be isolated from the other circuits, so that stray
voltages are not induced, which could cause a flickering display.

HARDWARE:

Develop a uniquely decoded ‘E’ strobe pulse, active high, to accompany

each module transaction. Address or control lines can be assigned to drive the RS
and R/W inputs.

38
 Utilize the Host’s extended timing mode, if available, when transacting with
the module. Use instructions, which prolong the Read and Write or other
appropriate data strobes, so as to realize the interface timing requirements.

If a parallel port is used to drive the RS, R/W and ‘E’ control lines, setting
the ‘E’ bit simultaneously with RS and R/W would violate the module’s set up
time. A separate instruction should be used to achieve proper interfacing timing
requirements.

MOUNTING:

Cover the display surface with a transparent protective plate, to protect the
polarizer.

Don’t touch the display surface with bare hands or any hard materials. This
will stain the display area and degrade the insulation between terminals.

Do not use organic solvents to clean the display panel as these may
adversely affect tape or with absorbant cotton and petroleum benzene.

The processing or even a slight deformation of the claws of the metal frame
will have effect on the connection of the output signal and cause an abnormal
display.

Do not damage or modify the pattern wiring, or drill attachment holes in the
PCB. When assembling the module into another equipment, the space between the
module and the fitting plate should have enough height, to avoid causing stress to
the module surface.

Make sure that there is enough space behind the module, to dissipate the
heat generated by the ICs while functioning for longer durations.

39
When an electrically powered screwdriver is used to install the module, ground it
properly.

While cleaning by a vacuum cleaner, do not bring the sucking mouth near
the module. Static electricity of the electrically powered driver or the vacuum
cleaner may destroy the module.

ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS:

Operate the LCD module under the relative condition of 40C and 50%
relative humidity. Lower temperature can cause retardation of the blinking speed
of the display, while higher temperature makes the overall display discolor.

When the temperature gets to be within the normal limits, the display will be
normal. Polarization degradation, bubble generation or polarizer peel-off may
occur with high temperature and humidity.

Contact with water or oil over a long period of time may cause deformation
or colour fading of the display. Condensation on the terminals can cause electro-
chemical reaction disrupting the terminal circuit.

TROUBLE SHOOTING
INTRODUCTION:

When the power supply is given to the module, with the pin 3 (VL)
connected to ground, all the pixels of a character gets activated in the following
manner:

All the characters of a single line display, as in CDM 16108.

The first eight characters of a single line display, operated in the two-line
display mode, as in CDM 16116.

40
 The first line of characters of a two-line display as in CDM 16216 and
40216. The first and third line of characters of a four-line display operated in the
two-line display mode, as in CDM 20416.

If the above mentioned does not occur, the module should be initialized by
software.

Make sure that the control signals ‘E’ , R/W and RS are according to the
interface timing requirements.

IMPROPER CHARACTER DISPLAY:

When the characters to be displayed are missing between, the data read/write
is too fast. A slower interfacing frequency would rectify the problem.

When uncertainty is there in the start of the first characters other than the
specified ones are rewritten, check the initialization and the software routine.

In a multi-line display, if the display of characters in the subsequent lines

does’nt take place properly, check the DD RAM addresses set for the
corresponding display lines.

When it is unable to display data, even though it is present in the DD RAM,

either the display on/off flag is in the off state or the display shift function is not set
properly. When the display shift is done simultaneous with the data writa
operation, the data may not be visible on the display.

If a character not found in the font table is displayed, or a character is

missing, the CG ROM is faulty and the controller IC have to be changed

If particular pixels of the characters are missing, or not getting activated

properly, there could be an assembling problem in the module.

41
CRYSTALONICS DISPLAY

INTRODUCTION:

Crystalonics dot –matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available

in TN, STN types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller
and driver ICs result in low power consumption. These modules can be interfaced
with a 4-bit or 8-bit micro processor /Micro controller.

The built-in controller IC has the following features:

 Correspond to high speed MPU interface (2MHz)

 80 x 8 bit display RAM (80 Characters max)
 9,920 bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts. 208
character fonts (5 x 8 dots) 32 character fonts (5 x 10 dots)
 64 x 8 bit character generator RAM 8 character generator RAM 8 character
fonts (5 x 8 dots) 4 characters fonts (5 x 10 dots)
 Programmable duty cycles
1/8 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor

1/11 – for one line of 5 x 10 dots with cursor

1/16 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor

 Wide range of instruction functions display clear, cursor home, display

on/off, cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, display shift.

42
FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTROLLER IC

REGISTERS:

The controller IC has two 8 bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and a
data register (DR). The IR stores the instruction codes and address information for
display data RAM (DD RAM) and character generator RAM (CG RAM). The IR
can be written, but not read by the MPU.

The DR temporally stores data to be written to /read from the DD RAM or

CG RAM. The data written to DR by the MPU, is automatically written to the DD
RAM or CG RAM as an internal operation.

When an address code is written to IR, the data is automatically transferred

from the DD RAM or CG RAM to the DR. data transfer between the MPU is then
completed when the MPU reads the DR. likewise, for the next MPU read of the
DR, data in DD RAM or CG RAM at the address is sent to the DR automatically.
Similarly, for the MPU write of the DR, the next DD RAM or CG RAM address is
selected for the write operation.

The register selection table is as shown below:

RS R/W Operation

0 0 IR write as an internal operation

0 1 Read busy flag and address counter

1 0 DR write as an internal operation

1 1 DR read as an internal operation

43
BUSY FLAG:

When the busy flag is1, the controller is in the internal operation mode, and
the next instruction will not be accepted.

When RS = 0 and R/W = 1, the busy flag is output to DB7.

The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag is 0.

ADDRESS COUNTER:

The address counter allocates the address for the DD RAM and CG RAM
read/write operation when the instruction code for DD RAM address or CG RAM
address setting, is input to IR, the address code is transferred from IR to the
address counter. After writing/reading the display data to/from the DD RAM or
CG RAM, the address counter increments/decrements by one the address, as an
internal operation. The data of the address counter is output to DB0 to DB6 while
R/W = 1 and RS = 0.

DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM)

The characters to be displayed are written into the display data RAM (DD
RAM), in the form of 8 bit character codes present in the character font table. The
extended capacity of the DD RAM is 80 x 8 bits i.e. 80 characters.

CHARATCER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM)

The character generator ROM generates 5 x 8 dot 5 x 10 dot character

patterns from 8 bit character codes. It generates 208, 5 x 8 dot character patterns
and 32, 5 x 10 dot character patterns.

44
CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM)

In the character generator RAM, the user can rewrite character patterns by
program. For 5 x 8 dots, eight character patterns can be written, and for 5 x 10
dots, four character patterns can be written.

INTERFACING THE MICROPROCESSOR / CONTROLLER:

The module, interfaced to the system, can be treated as RAM input/output,

expanded or parallel I/O.

Since there is no conventional chip select signal, developing a strobe signal for the
enable signal (E) and applying appropriate signals to the register select (RS) and
read/write (R/W) signals are important.

The module is selected by gating a decoded module – address with the host –
processor’s read/write strobe. The resultant signal, applied to the LCDs enable (E)
input, clocks in the data.

The ‘E’ signal must be a positive going digital strobe, which is active while data
and control information are stable and true. The falling edge of the enable signal
enables the data / instruction register of the controller. All module timings are
referenced to specific edges of the ‘E’ signal. The ‘E’ signal is applied only when a
specific module transaction is desired.

The read and write strobes of the host, which provides the ‘E’ signals, should not
be linked to the module’s R/W line. An address bit which sets up earlier in the
host’s machine cycle can be used as R/W.

When the host processor is so fast that the strobes are too narrow to serve as the
‘E’ pulse

a. Prolong these pulses by using the hosts ‘Ready’ input

45
b. Prolong the host by adding wait states
c. Decrease the Hosts Crystal frequency.
Inspite of doing the above mentioned, if the problem continues, latch both the data
and control information and then activate the ‘E’ signal

When the controller is performing an internal operation he busy flag (BF) will set
and will not accept any instruction. The user should check the busy flag or should
provide a delay of approximately 2ms after each instruction.

The module presents no difficulties while interfacing slower MPUs.

The liquid crystal display module can be interfaced, either to 4-bit or 8-bit MPUs.

For 4-bit data interface, the bus lines DB4 to DB7 are used for data transfer, while
DB0 to DB3 lines are disabled. The data transfer is complete when the 4-bit data
has been transferred twice.

The busy flag must be checked after the 4-bit data has been transferred twice. Two
more 4-bit operations then transfer the busy flag and address counter data.

For 8-bit data interface, all eight-bus lines (DB0 to DB7) are used.

4.13 DC MOTOR

Figure 4.13.1 figure 4.13.2

46
A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a
linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed
can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by
changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in
tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is
a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC
motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives
for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of
DC motors with AC motors possible in many

Electromagnetic motors

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field

aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic
field produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the
current flowing through it.

A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature
with one or more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that
concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns around
the core, and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths. The ends
of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The commutator allows each
armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils with the
external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that
switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped
around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the
effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in

47
 sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic
fieldsinteract with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or
electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force on the
armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use
electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the
motor.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.

Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected
provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a
DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The
introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed
speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power electronics
systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into on and off
cycles which have an effective lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is
often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC
motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-
electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many
years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical grid system to run
machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution. DC
motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well
as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications
as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and
paper machines. Large DC motors with separately excited fields were generally
used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as well as smooth speed
control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC motors with
variable frequency drives.

If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo.

This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric
cars or to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric
powered train line when they slow down. This process is called regenerative
braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use
their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor.

48
Series connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a
common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of
load torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor
yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high
starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as trains,
elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such
as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but
slowly when carrying a heavy load.

A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the
series motor, the current is low, the counter-EMF produced by the field winding is
weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to
balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called
a runaway condition.

Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the
armature voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues
to be produced in the same direction. However they run at a lower speed with
lower torque on AC supply when compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in
AC which is not present in DC.[3]Since the speed is not related to the line
frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making
them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a
valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial
utility are usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However,
much larger universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special
low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation under
heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt
with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation
even as the load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC
motor.[4] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as
machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and tensioners.

49
Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a
series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC
motor.[5] This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good speed
regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements:
cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors connect the series
field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are
typically operated at constant speed.

4.14 7298 MOTOR DRIVER

Figure 4.14.1

The L298 Driver is a high voltage, high current

dual ful bridge driver designed to accept standard
TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads such
relays, solenoids, DC and stepping motors. Two
enable inputs are provided to enable or disable the
device independently of the input signals. The
emitters of the lower transistors of each bridge are
connected together the

corresponding external terminal can be used for the connection of an external

sensing resistor.
FEATURES

 Operating supply voltage up to 46 V

 .Total DC current up to 4 A

 .Low saturation voltage

 .Over temperature protection.

 .Logical "0" input voltage upto1.5 V (HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY)

 Two motor direction indicator LEDs



      50

 
 Schottky EMF-protection diodes

 Screw-terminals for power and motor connections.

 High quality PCB FR4 Grade with FPT Certified.

APPLICATION

 MCU controlled vehicle.

 Wheel robots

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 4.14.2

51
WORKING

The L298 integrates two power output stages (A,B). The power
output stage is a bridge configuration and its outputs can drive an inductive load in
common or differential mode, depending on the state of the inputs. The current that
flows through the load comes out from the bridge at the sense output : an external
resistor (RSA, RSB.) allows to detect the intensity of this current.

Figure 4.14.3

ARDUINO CODE
L298 MOTOR DRIVER
/*
· Project
name: DC
Moter

* Test
configuration:
MCU:
ATMEGA328
Dev.Board:
52
Arduino uno
Oscillator: 16
MHz Software:
Arduino

*/
int in1=2;
int in2=3; //pin connections from arduino to dc
motor driver
int in3=4;
int in4=5;

void setup()

pinMode(in1,OUTPUT);

pinMode(in2,OUTPUT);

pinMode(in3,OUTPUT);

pinMode(in4,OUTPUT);

void loop()

53
digitalWrite(in1, LOW);

digitalWrite(in2,LOW); //motor1 is on and motor2 is off

digitalWrite(in3, HIGH);

digitalWrite(in4, HIGH);

delay(500); // delay of 500ms

digitalWrite(in1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(in2,HIGH);

digitalWrite(in3, LOW); //motor2 is on and motor1 is off

digitalWrite(in4, LOW);

delay(500); // delay of 500ms

digitalWrite(in1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(in2,LOW);

digitalWrite(in3, HIGH);

digitalWrite(in4, LOW);

delay(500); // delay of 500ms

54
digitalWrite(in1, LOW);

digitalWrite(in2,HIGH);

digitalWrite(in3, LOW);

digitalWrite(in4, HIGH);

delay(500); // delay of 500ms

digitalWrite(in1, LOW);

digitalWrite(in2,LOW);

digitalWrite(in3, LOW);

digitalWrite(in4, LOW);

delay(500); // delay of 500ms

}
PWM SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR:
/*

* Project name:

PWM control of DC Motor

* Copyright

55
(c) Researchdesignlab.com

* Description:

* Test configuration:

MCU: ATMEGA328

Dev.Board: Arduino uno

Oscillator: 16 MHz

Software: Arduino

*/

56
int E1 = 5; //Enable Pin

int IN1 = 3;

int IN2=4;

void setup()

Serial.begin(9600); //Set Baud Rate

pinMode(IN1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(IN2, OUTPUT);

void loop()
{

int value;
for(value = 0 ; value <= 255; value+=5)

{
digitalWrite(IN1,HIGH);

digitalWrite(IN2, LOW);

analogWrite(E1, value); //PWM Speed Control

Serial.println(value);

delay(30);
}}

57
4.15 4X4 MATRIX KEYBOARD
This 16-button keypad provides a useful human interface component
for microcontroller projects.
Convenient adhesive backing provides a simple way to mount the keypad
in a variety of applications.

Figure 4.15.1

58
MATRIX CONNECION DIAGRAM

Figure 4.15.2

4.16 BATTERY
Structure and Operation

Most lead-acid batteries are constructed with the positive electrode (the anode)
made from a lead-antimony alloy with lead (IV) oxide pressed into it, although
batteries designed for maximum life use a lead-calcium alloy. The negative
electrode (the cathode) is made from pure lead and both electrodes are
immersed in sulphuric acid.
59
When the battery is discharged water is produced, diluting the acid and
reducing its specific gravity. On charging sulphuric acid is produced and the
specific gravity of the electrolyte increases. The specific gravity can be
measured using a hydrometer and will have a value of about 1.250 for a
charged cell and 1.17 for a discharged cell, although these values will vary
depending on the make of battery. The specific gravity also depends on the
battery temperature and the above values or for a battery at 15°C.

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPES

This system detects the Obstacles, Accident,

Pressure, Drowsiness of the user and the vehicle speed is reduced gradually. On
the occurrence of the accident a notification is sent via GPS and GSM to the
rescue services. This enhances the safety of drivers and saves human life. This
system can also be enhanced with IOT in order to monitor the vehicle from
wherever we present. The driver receives the information through voice. This
system can also be implemented in two wheelers as well as four wheelers for
better vehicular systems.
This paper has presented a new vision for the
vehicles industry, which is the Black Box system used for vehicles. A full and
detailed description was made for every part of this system. This paper has also
offered a user friendly embedded program to analyze the data of the accident.
The Black Box system built can be implemented in any vehicle. As soon as the
driver runs the motor, this system will begin saving the events of the
corresponding vehicle.

The last are always saved in the EEPROM of the

Black Box, and in case of an accident, an additional 10 seconds of events after
this accident will be saved. The data saved can be retrieved only after the
accident for privacy purposes. Using serial transmission the EEPROM and
display it to the user. In addition, a detailed report will be given to the user
containing the recorded data in the memory.

60
REFERENCE
1. Amir, M. Likun, X. and Tong Boon Tang, (2015) “Vehicle
Detection Techniques for Collision Avoidance Systems”, IEEE
Transactions On Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol. 16, No. 5.
2. Amruta, K. (2014) “Intelligent Driver Assistance System Using
Image Processing”, International Journal Of Engineering And
Computer Science,vol.3, no. 11.
3. Bruno, F. Vitor, G. Joaquim, F. and Arnaldo Oliveira, (2015)
“Mobile Application for Automatic Accident Detection and
Multimodal Alert” IEEE journal, vol. 8, no.15.
4. Gang, L. Boon, L.L. and Wan-Young, C. (2015) “Smartwatch-
based Wearable EEG System for Driver Drowsiness Detection”,
IEEE Sensors Journal.
5. Jegan, R. M. Gangadhar, N. D. and Viswanath, K. R. (2010) “A
Real-Time Video Processing Based Driver Assist System” SAS
tech, vol 9, no.1.

6. http://www.airbagcrash.com (General Motor Event Data

Recorders)
7. Thomas K. Kowalick, "Black Boxes: Event Data Recorders",
MICAH,summer 2005.
8. K. Kowalick, "Black Boxes: Event Data Recorder Rulemaking for
Automobiles", MICAH, summer 2006.
9. Thomas K. Kowalick, "Fatal Exit: The Automotive Black Box
Debate", Wiley, IEEE Press, Feb. 2005.
10.Available [online]: www.alldatasheet.com

61