MODULE 2 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

2. For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What

happens when the expected developmental task are not achieved at the corresponding
developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?

3. • John Santrock's research focuses on family processes and children's socioemotional

development. He conducted the first major research study on comparisons of children
in mother and father custody families.

4. ACTIVITY Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of pictures, then
answer the following questions Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of
pictures, then answer the following questions

5. 1. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages? 2. Symbolize each

developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands for the developmental task for each
stage. 3. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like to be in?
Why? Share your answers with your small group?

6. Prenatal Period

7. Infancy ( birth – 2 years)

8. Analysis:Analysis: 1. How many developmental stages were described? How do these

stages compare to Havighurst’s developmental stages given below? 1. How many
developmental stages were described? How do these stages compare to Havighurst’s
developmental stages given below?

9. 2. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage? 3.What task/s is/are

expected to each developmental stage? 4. Does a developmental task in a higher level
require accomplishment of the lower level developmental tasks? 5. Refer to Havighurt’s
Developmental Tasks given in the Table on the next page. Match the descriptions given
by Santrock. Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the same things? 2. What is an
outstanding trait or behavior of each stage? 3.What task/s is/are expected to each
developmental stage? 4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require
accomplishment of the lower level developmental tasks? 5. Refer to Havighurt’s
Developmental Tasks given in the Table on the next page. Match the descriptions given
by Santrock. Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the same things?

10. What is an outstanding behavior/trait of each stage? a. Infancy and early

childhood(birth till 6 years old) -in this stage, the child begins to learn different physical
activities like walking, crawling as well as starting to read and forming concepts. b.
Middle childhood (6-12 years old) -middle childhood is then where the child learns
different physical skills for simple games; as well as developing concepts for everyday
living. c. Adolescence (13-18 years old) -during the adolescence period, the child
achieves more mature relations with others. The child gets to knows oneself and
prepares himself for the coming years.

11. d. Early adulthood (18-30 years old) -here one is now ready to settle down and begin
a family as well as a new life. One looks for a career to help in raising himself and his
family; practicing as well socially. e. Middle age (30-60 years old) - the middle age, is
where one is able to see clearly to his future, here one is then able to help his children as
well as other teenagers to become more responsible. Here one also is able to adapt to
everything that is happening to him physically, emotionally even socially. f. Later
maturity (60 years old and over) - in this stage, one is adjusting to the happenings of his
life. Here, one needs to adjust to understand everything especially in death.

12. Infancy & early childhood (0-5) Middle Childhood (6-12) Adolescence (13-18) Early
Adulthood (19-29) Middle adulthood (30- 60) Later Maturity (61-and over) 1.Learning
to walk 1.Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games 1.Achieving mature
relations with both sexes 1.Selecting a mate 1.Helping teenage children to become happy
and responsible adults 1.Adjusting to decreasing strength and health 2.Learning to take
solid foods 2.Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself 2.Achieving a masculine or
feminine social role 2.Learning to live with a partner 2.Achieving adult social and civic
responsibility 2.Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3.Learning to talk
3.Learning to get along with agemates 3.Accepting one’s physique 3.Starting a family
3.Satisfactory career achievement 3.Adjusting to death of spouse 4.Learning to control
the elimination of body wastes 4.Learning an appropriate sex role 4.Achieving
emotional independence of adults 4.Rearing children 4.Developing adult leisure time
activities 4.Establishing relations with one’s own age group 5.Learning sex differences
and sexual modesty 5.Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
5.Preparing for marriage and family life 5.Managing a home 5.Relating to one’s spouse
as a person 5.Meeting social and civic obligations

13. 6.Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality
6.Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 6.Preparing for an economic career
Starting a occupation 6.Accepting the physiological changes of middle age
6.Establishing satisfactory living quarters 7.Readiness for reading 7.Developing
conscience,m orality, and a scale of values 7.Acquiring values and an ethical system to
guide behavior 7.Assuming civic responsibility 7.Adjusting to aging parent 8.Learning to
distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience 8. Achieving personal
independence 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior 9.Developing
acceptable attitudes toward society

14. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “ arises at certain period
in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later
tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later
tasks”.(Havighurst,1972).

15. Developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)Developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002) 1.

Prenatal period (from conception to birth)- it involves tremendous growth from a single
cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioural capabilities. 2.Infancy(from
birth to 18-24 months)- a time of extreme dependence on adults. Many Psychological
activities are just beginning – language , symbolic thought , sensorimotor coordination
and social learning.

16. 3.Early Childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years ( grade 1) – these are the preschool
years. Young children learn to become more self- sufficient and to care for themselves,
develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers. 4.Middle and
late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years)- the fundamental skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered.

17. The Child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement
becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5.Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age)- Begins with rapid
physical changes- dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the
development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development
of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice.

18. Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical,
abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family. 6.Early adulthood(from
late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30’s – it is a time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with
someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.

19. 7. Middle adulhood (40-60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding personal and
social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a
career. 8. Late Adulthood (60s and above)- It is time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health. Life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

Santrock.dev psych.chpt 10.keynote

1. A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT <ul><li>Chapter Ten:

</li></ul><ul><li>Emotional Development </li></ul>John W. Santrock
2. Exploring Emotion <ul><li>What are emotions? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Feeling or
affect in a state or interaction characterized by
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Behavior that reflects pleasure or displeasure
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Conscious feelings: specific, intense
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Physiological arousal </li></ul></ul></ul>

3. Exploring Emotion <ul><li>What are emotions? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Biological

roots…but shaped by culture and relationships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Facial
expressions of basic emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Biological nature;
same across cultures </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>When, where, and how to
express emotions are not culturally universal </li></ul></ul>

4. Exploring Emotion <ul><li>Regulation of emotion </li></ul><ul><ul><li>A key

dimension of development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Effectively managing
arousal to adapt and reach a goal
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Involves state of alertness or activation
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>States (e.g. anger) can be too high
for effective functioning </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

5. Exploring Emotion <ul><li>Regulation of emotion </li></ul><ul><ul><li>External

sources regulate in infancy, childhood </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Shift to internal,
self-initiated regulation with increasing age </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Better
at managing situations </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Selects more effective
ways of coping </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Wide variations in children’s
abilities; adolescents have difficulty managing emotions </li></ul></ul>

6. Exploring Emotion <ul><li>Regulation of emotion </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Parents’

roles in helping children </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Emotion-coaching
approach </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Monitor child’s emotions
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Negative emotion is a coaching
opportunity </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Emotion-dismissing
approach </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Deny, ignore negative emotions
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Linked to poor emotional
regulation in child </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

7. Emotional Competence Skills <ul><ul><li>Has awareness of own emotional state

</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Detecting others’ emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Using the vocabulary of emotional terms in socially and
culturally appropriate terms </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Having empathic,
sympathetic sensitivity to others </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Recognizing inner
emotions do not reflect outer ones </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Adaptively coping
with negatives; self-regulatory </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Aware of emotions’ major
impact on relationships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Seeing oneself as feeling the way
one wants to feel </li></ul></ul>

8. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Infancy </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Primary

emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Present in humans and animals
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Humans: appears in first six months of life:
surprise, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Self-
conscious emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Self-awareness; emerges at 18
mos. or earlier </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Empathy, jealousy, and
embarrassment </li></ul></ul></ul>

9. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Emotional expression and social relationships

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Infants: two types </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Crying –
most important for communication </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Basic
cry : rhythmic pattern </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Anger cry :
variation of basic cry </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Pain cry :
long, sudden initial loud cry </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Smiling:
has powerful impact on caregivers
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Reflexive smile : innate origins
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Social smile : response to external
stimuli </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

10. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Emotional expression and social relationships

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Fear: first appears about 6 mos.; peaks at 18 mos.
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Stranger anxiety : fear and wariness of strangers;
intense between 9 and 12 mos. </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Affected
by social context, stranger’s characteristics
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Individual variations
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Separation protest — crying when
caregiver leaves; peaks about 15 months of age </li></ul></ul></ul>

11. Separation Protest in Four Cultures Fig. 10.4

12. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Emotional regulation and coping

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Infants use self-soothing strategies for coping
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Controversy: how caregivers should respond
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>By age 2: language allows defining of emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Contexts influence emotional regulation
</li></ul></ul>

13. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Early childhood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Young

children experience many emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Self-conscious
emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>First appear about age 18 months
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Ability to reflect on emotions increases with
age </li></ul></ul></ul>

14. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Early childhood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Ages 2

to 4: increased number of ways and terms to describe emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Learn about causes, consequences of feelings
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Ages 4 to 5: increased ability to reflect on emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><li>Middle and late childhood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Marked
improvement in understanding, managing emotions </li></ul></ul>

15. Developmental Changes In Emotions During Middle and Late Childhood Improved
emotional understanding Marked improvements in ability to suppress or conceal
negative emotional reactions Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
Development of a capacity for genuine empathy

16. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Coping with stress </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Older

children have more coping alternatives and use more cognitive coping strategies
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Intentional shifting of thoughts
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>By age 10, most use cognitive strategies
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Unsupportive families, traumatic events may
lessen abilities </li></ul></ul></ul>

17. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Middle and late childhood

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Recommendations for helping children cope
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Reassure children of safety and security
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Allow retelling and discussion of events
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Encourage discussion of feelings
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Help children make sense of events
</li></ul></ul></ul>

18. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Adolescence </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Time of

emotional turmoil (“storm and stress”) but not constantly
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Emotional changes instantly occur with little provocation
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Girls more vulnerable to depression
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Adolescent moodiness is normal
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Hormonal changes and environmental
experiences involved in changing emotions </li></ul></ul></ul>

19. Self-Reported Extremes of Emotions by Adolescents and Their Parents Fig. 10.5
20. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Adulthood and aging
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Adapt more effectively when emotionally intelligent
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Developmental changes in emotion continue through
adult years </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Older adults have more positive emotions,
report better control of emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Feelings mellow;
fewer highs and lows </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Positive connections
with friends and family </li></ul></ul></ul>

21. Changes in Positive & Negative Emotion Across the Adult Years Fig. 10.6

22. Development of Emotion <ul><li>Adulthood and aging

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Older adults become more selective about their
social networks </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Emotional satisfaction is
highly valued, positive emotional experiences maximized
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More frequent association with neighbors
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More motivated to achieve; gain knowledge
</li></ul></ul></ul>

23. Model of Socio-emotional Selectivity Fig. 10.7

24. Temperament <ul><li>Temperament </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Tendencies

reflecting behavioral style and characteristic way of responding
</li></ul></ul><ul><li>Describing and classifying temperament
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Chess and Thomas: three basic types
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Easy child — generally positive mood
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Difficult child — negative reactions, cries
often </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Slow-to-warm — low intensity mood and
activity levels; somewhat negative </li></ul></ul></ul>

25. Temperament <ul><li>Describing and classifying temperament

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Kagan’s behavioral inhibition
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Inhibition to unfamiliar
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Shy/avoidance, subdued, timid child
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Extremely uninhibited
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Extraverted, social, bold child
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Inhibition shows considerable stability
from infancy through early childhood </li></ul></ul></ul>

26. Temperament <ul><li>Describing and classifying temperament

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Rothbart and Bates’ Classification
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Extraversion/surgency
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Positive anticipation, impulsivity
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Negative affectivity
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Easily distressed, fear and frustration
often </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Effortful control (self-regulation)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Attentional focusing, more cognition
used </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

27. Temperament <ul><li>Biological Foundations and Experience

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Physiological characteristics are associated with different
temperaments </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Heredity is aspect of temperament’s
biological foundations (twin and adoption studies)
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Attributes become more stable over time as self-
perceptions, behavioral preferences, and social experiences form personality
</li></ul></ul>

28. Developmental Connections Child Adult Easy temperament Usually well adjusted in
life Difficult temperament Poor adjustment, more likely to have problems socially, in
school and marriage Inhibition Low assertiveness, less social support, job and school
delays Good emotional control Good emotional control

29. Temperament <ul><li>Developmental contexts </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Gender

may be important factor that influences fate of temperament
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Many aspects of child’s environment encourage or
discourage persistence of temperament characteristics
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Goodness of Fit
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Match between child’s temperament and
environmental demands </li></ul></ul></ul>

30. Temperament <ul><li>Goodness of fit and parenting

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Some temperament characteristics pose more challenges than
others </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Management strategies that worked for one child
may not work for next one </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Be sensitive to individual
characteristics of child </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Structure environment
to be as good a fit as possible </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Avoid labeling as
“difficult child” </li></ul></ul></ul>

31. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Attachment </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Close emotional

bond between two people </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Social orientation in infants
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Face-to-face play : infant-caregiver interactions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Still-face paradigm : shows infants react differently to
people than objects </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Ages 1 to 2: more locomotion, social
play with peers, independence, goal-directed motivation </li></ul></ul>
32. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Social referencing </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Child
reads emotional cues in others, reacts </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>By second year of
age: much better at this </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Social sophistication and insight
reflected in infant’s perceptions of others </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Advanced
social cognitive skills are expected to influence attachment awareness </li></ul></ul>

33. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Theories of attachment

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Freud : infants attach to person or object providing oral
satisfaction </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Harlow’s study proved otherwise
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Erikson : first year of life is critical time for
attachment development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Sense of trust or mistrust
sets later expectations </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Physical comfort plays
a role in development </li></ul></ul></ul>

34. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Theories of attachment

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Bowlby : stresses importance of attachment in first year and
responsiveness of caregiver </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Develops in series of
phases </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Phase 1: birth to 2 months
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Phase 2: 2 to 7 months of age
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Phase 3: 7 to 24 months of age
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Phase 4: 24 months and older
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

35. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Individual differences in attachment

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Ainsworth and the “ strange situation ”
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Measure of infant attachment to caregiver
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Requires infant to move through a series of
introductions, separations, and reunions
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Securely attached or insecure
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Criticisms:
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>May not reflect real world behavior
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Culturally-biased to Western
children </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

36. Ainsworth’s Attachment Categories Securely attached Caregiver is secure base to

explore environment from Insecure avoidant Shows insecurity by avoiding caregiver
Insecure resistant Clings to caregiver, then resists by fighting against the closeness
Insecure disorganized Shows insecurity by being disorganized, disoriented

37. Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment Fig. 10.11

38. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Interpreting differences in attachment

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Secure attachment important in first year; provides foundation
for healthy development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Some developmentalists believe
too much emphasis on attachment bond in infancy
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Ignores the diversity of socializing agents and
contexts that exists in an infant’s world
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Ignores highly resilient and adaptive infants
</li></ul></ul></ul>

39. Caregiving Styles and Attachment Baby’s Attachment Caregiver Behavior Secure
Sensitive to signals, available Avoidant Unavailable or rejecting Resistant Inconsistent
Disorganized Neglect or physically abuse

40. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Mothers and fathers as caregivers

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Dramatic increase in stay-at-home fathers
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Many have career-focused wives
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Fathers have ability to nurture, be as sensitive
and responsive as mothers </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Maternal interactions:
mostly child-care centered </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Paternal interactions: more
likely to include play, engage in rough-and-tumble acts </li></ul></ul>

41. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Child care </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Most U.S.

children have multiple caregivers </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Parental
concerns: reduced emotional attachment to parents, harm to cognitive development,
improper socialization </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>About 2 million children
currently receive formal, licensed child care </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Types
of child care vary extensively in United States </li></ul></ul></ul>

42. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Parental leave </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Far more

extensive in other countries than United States </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Europe
led the way: paid fourteen-week maternity leave
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Most countries: restrictions as to minimal
employment period before leave taken </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>In the
United States: twelve weeks unpaid leave to care for newborns </li></ul></ul>

43. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Parental leave </li></ul><ul><ul><li>In most

European countries: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Working parents get 70% or
more of wages and paid leave averages 16 weeks
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Gender-equality family leave policies in
Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Sweden: most liberal of all — 18 month leave
with benefits for full and part-time workers </li></ul></ul></ul>

44. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Five types of parental leave from work
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Maternity leave: before and after birth
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Paternity leave: more important if second child born
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Parental leave: allows either parent
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Child-rearing leave: supplements maternity leave but
typically paid at much lower level </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Family leave: covers
reasons other than birth </li></ul></ul><ul><li>United States does not have paid
leave policy </li></ul>

45. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Variations in child care

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Many factors affect child care:
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Age of child
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Type of child care
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Quality of program — this makes a difference
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Number of hours per week the child is in care
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>High quality may not erase negative
effects </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>SES or families with few
resources </li></ul></ul></ul>

46. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Variations in child care

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Ongoing national study in U.S. (NICHD)
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Patterns of use : infants being placed sooner
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Quality of care : lower for low-income families
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Amount of child care : extensive time lessened
attachment sensitivity to mother, more behavioral issues
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Family and parenting influences are
important </li></ul></ul></ul>

47. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Variations in child care

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Child care strategies for parents
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Quality of parenting is key to child development
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Make decisions that enhance good parenting
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Monitor child’s development
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Take time to find the best child care
</li></ul></ul></ul>

48. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adolescence </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Secure

attachment to both parents positively related to peer and friendship relations
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Types of attachment to parents
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Dismissing/avoidant : caregiver rejection
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Preoccupied/ambivalent : inconsistent
parenting </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Unresolved/disorganized : high fear
due to traumatic experiences </li></ul></ul></ul>
49. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adolescence </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Dating and
romantic relationships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Spend lots of time dating or
thinking about it </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Form of recreation
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Source of status or achievement
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>A way to learn about close
relationships </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Function for mate
selection </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

50. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adolescence </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Dating and

romantic relationships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Younger adolescents getting
involved </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Comfort in numbers; youth “hang
out” in groups </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More time in mixed-
gender peer groups </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Dating involvement
linked to later adjustment </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Sociocultural
contexts influences dating and role expectations </li></ul></ul></ul>

51. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adulthood and attachment

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Adults count on romantic partners to be a secure base to which
they can return and obtain comfort, security in stressful times
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Childhood attachment patterns can impact here
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Influences choices and behaviors
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Secure, avoidant, anxious attachments
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Other factors like communication can impact
</li></ul></ul></ul>

52. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adulthood and romantic love

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Also called passionate love or eros
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Strong components of sexuality and infatuation
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Complex intermingling of emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Often predominates early part of love relationship
</li></ul></ul><ul><li>Affectionate love or companionate love
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Have deep, caring affection for person </li></ul></ul>

53. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adulthood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Sternberg’s

triangular theory of love </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Stresses three main
components/dimensions </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Passion:
physical, sexual attraction
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Intimacy: warmth, closeness, and
sharing </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Commitment: intent to
remain together </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Varying combinations
create qualitatively different types of love </li></ul></ul></ul>

54. Sternberg’s Triangle of Love Fig. 10.15

55. Attachment and Love <ul><li>Adulthood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Falling out of
love </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Collapse of close relationship
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Tragic feelings initially
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Over time — happiness and
personal development may benefit
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>One-sided relationships are
harmful </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

John W. Santrock Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood Children

13

2. Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood <ul><li>What Is the

Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?
</li></ul><ul><li>What Are Some Changes in Parenting and Families in Middle and
Late Childhood? </li></ul><ul><li>What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in
Middle and Late Childhood? </li></ul><ul><li>What Are Some Important Aspects of
Schools? </li></ul>

3. The Self <ul><li>Development of self-understanding

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Children increasingly describe themselves with physiological
characteristics and traits </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Self-understanding includes
social references and comparisons </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional
and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

4. The Self <ul><li>Understanding others </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Perspective taking

increases with age </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Judging others’ intentions,
purposes, actions </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Important in social
attitudes and behaviors </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Increased skepticism
of others’ claims with age </li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and
Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

5. The Self <ul><li>Self-esteem </li></ul><ul><li>Global evaluations of the self

</li></ul><ul><li>Self-worth </li></ul><ul><li>Self-image </li></ul><ul><li>Self-
concept </li></ul><ul><li>Domain-specific evaluations of the self </li></ul>What Is
the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

6. The Self <ul><li>Self-esteem and self-concept </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Variations

related to development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>High self-esteem linked to higher
initiative </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Concerns : too much or undeserved praises
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>inflated self-esteem
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Inability to accept criticism and competition
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><li>Most research is correlational </li></ul>What Is the
Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

7. The Self <ul><li>Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Identify

causes of low self-esteem </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Provide emotional support and
social approval </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Help children to achieve
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Encourage coping skills </li></ul></ul>What Is the
Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

8. The Self <ul><li>Self-regulation </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Increased capacity with

age, development </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Erikson’s Industry versus Inferiority
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Encouragement increases child’s sense of industry ; criticism
results in inferiority </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Develop sense of competence or
incompetence in attempt to master skills </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of
Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

9. Emotional Development <ul><li>Increased ability to understand complex emotions

</li></ul><ul><li>Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be
experienced in a situation </li></ul><ul><li>Self-initiated strategies for redirecting
feelings </li></ul><ul><li>More fully take into account events leading to emotional
reactions </li></ul><ul><li>Improved ability to suppress or conceal negative
emotional reactions </li></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

10. Emotional Development <ul><li>Emotional intelligence

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Ability to monitor feelings and emotions of oneself and others
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Four main areas
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Developing emotional self-awareness
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Managing emotions (self-control)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Reading emotions (perspective taking)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Handling emotions (resolve problems)
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development
in Middle and Late Childhood?

11. Emotional Development <ul><li>Coping with Stress </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Use of

alternative cognitive strategies increase with age, maturity
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Intentional thought shifting
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Reframing or changing one’s view
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Context or environment may overwhelm
coping </li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?
12. Emotional Development <ul><li>Helping children cope with stress
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Reassure safety and security
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Allow retelling of events; be patient listener
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Encourage discussion of disturbing feelings
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Help make sense of what has happened
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Protect child from re-exposure and trauma
</li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in
Middle and Late Childhood?

13. Moral Development <ul><li>Piaget’s morality

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Heteronomous: unchangeable rules
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Autonomous: consider intentions and consequences of
people </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Kohlberg’s theory </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Three
levels, six stages of moral reasoning </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Stage change based
on perspective taking opportunities and experienced conflict </li></ul></ul>What Is
the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

14. Moral Development <ul><li>Kohlberg’s theory </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Based

primarily on moral reasoning; </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and
Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Level Stage Description
Preconventional Reasoning: external rewards or punishment 1 Heteronomous morality :
moral thinking tied to punishment 2 Individualism, instrumental purpose, and
exchange : persons pursue own interests Conventional Reasoning: intermediate
internalization 3 Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal
conformity : moral standards seen as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ 4 Social systems morality : based on
understanding of social order, law, etc. Postconventional Reasoning: morality fully
internalized 5 Social contract : individual and human rights 6 Universal ethical
principles : conscience

15. Moral Development <ul><li>Kohlberg’s Beliefs </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Levels and

stages occurred in sequence </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Cognitive development does
not ensure moral reasoning development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Peer
interaction stimulates moral reasoning </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Universal
support found for first four stages </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional
and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

16. Moral Development <ul><li>Kohlberg’s Critics </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Not enough

emphasis on moral behavior </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Culture and Moral
Development </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Dismissed family processes importance
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Gender-biased: males use justice view, females use
caregiver perspective </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Social conventional reasoning;
rules for social control differ from moral rules </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of
Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

17. Moral Development <ul><li>Prosocial moral behavior

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>More emphasis on behavior development
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Empathy, altruism behaviors
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Empathy and adult encouragement fosters obligation to
share </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Definitions of ‘fairness’ change with age
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Give-and-take of peer interactions affects
most </li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

18. Moral Development <ul><li>Moral personality </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Three

components </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Moral identity (view of self)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Moral character (behavior shown to others)
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Moral exemplars (model for others)
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development
in Middle and Late Childhood?

19. Gender <ul><li>Gender stereotypes </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Broad categories of

beliefs, impressions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Traditionally: males dominant,
females nurturant </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Some influence by culture
and religion </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Some social inequalities have
diminished </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>As sexual equality increases, gender
stereotypes and behaviors may diminish </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of
Emotional and Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

20. Gender <ul><li>Gender difference and similarities

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Average differences: not all females or males
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Even in differences, there is large overlap
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Differences may be biological, sociocultural, or both
</li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development in
Middle and Late Childhood?

21. Gender <ul><li>Physical development </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Men taller, shorter

life expectancy, more likely to develop physical/mental disorders
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Females have more fat, hormone growth stops at puberty
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Female brains smaller and more folds, larger corpus
callosum </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Hypothalamus and area of parietal lobe are
larger in men </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?
22. Gender <ul><li>Cognitive Development </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Early research:
females had better verbal skills, males better math and visuospatial skills
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Later research suggests differences slight
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Differences persist on standardized test scores of
children; suspect other factors </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and
Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

23. Gender <ul><li>Socioemotional Development </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Boys more

physically aggressive; affected by biology and environment
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Girls equally or more verbally aggressive
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Relational aggression
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Communication differs
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Others talk to boys and girls differently
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Rapport and Report Talk
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development
in Middle and Late Childhood?

24. Gender <ul><li>Report talk </li></ul><ul><li>Favored by males

</li></ul><ul><li>Provides information </li></ul><ul><li>Public speaking such as
jokes and storytelling </li></ul><ul><li>Rapport talk </li></ul><ul><li>Favored by
females </li></ul><ul><li>For conversation, establishing connections, and negotiating
relationships </li></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development
in Middle and Late Childhood?

25. Gender <ul><li>Socioemotional Development

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Communication </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Girls use
more affiliative speech; boys use more self-assertive speech
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Differences affected by
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Group size
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Speaking with peers or adults
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Familiarity
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Age
</li></ul></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

26. Gender <ul><li>Emotion </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Boys hide more negative

emotions, girls show less disappointment </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Girls
experience more intense emotions in adolescence </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Males
show less self-regulation, more likely to have behavior problems
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Girls engage in more prosocial behaviors in childhood
and adolescence </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?
27. Gender <ul><li>Gender role classification </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Androgyny:
possessing both positive feminine and masculine characteristics
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Sandra Bem: androgynous persons
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More flexible, competent, mentally healthy
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Classification affected by context
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Despite societal changes, traditional raising of boys
continues </li></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality
Development in Middle and Late Childhood?

28. Feminine Masculine High Low Low High What Is the Nature of Emotional and
Personality Development in Middle and Late Childhood? Gender-Role Classification
androgynous feminine masculine undifferentiated

29. Gender <ul><li>Gender in context </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Gender stereotypes

usually expressed as personality traits </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Gender behavior
affected by context </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Gender roles prescribed in many
cultures </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Division of labor
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Childrearing and socialization
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Is the Nature of Emotional and Personality Development
in Middle and Late Childhood?

30. Developmental Changes in Parenting <ul><li>Parent-child interactions: decrease as

children get older </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Autonomy and parental regulation
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>School-related and out-of-school matters
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Discipline </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Co-regulation :
gradual process </li></ul></ul>What Are Some Changes in Parenting and Families in
Middle and Late Childhood?

31. Stepfamilies <ul><li>Divorce and remarriage common

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Higher divorce rate in remarriages
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Remarried parents face unique tasks
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Strengthen and define new relationships
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Renegotiate divorced biological parental roles
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Three common types of stepfamilies
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Stepfather, stepmother, and blended
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Are Some Changes in Parenting and Families in Middle
and Late Childhood?

32. Latchkey Children <ul><li>Both parents work outside home

</li></ul><ul><li>Largely unsupervised; experiences vary </li></ul><ul><ul><li>2
to 4 hours on school days </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Much more during summer
months </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Risks to child
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Grow up too fast, too many responsibilities
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Easier to get into trouble, negative behaviors
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Out-of-school care exists, more needed
</li></ul></ul>What Are Some Changes in Parenting and Families in Middle and Late
Childhood?

33. Gay Male and Lesbian Parents <ul><li>Families with children created by
</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Heterosexual parent identifies as gay male or lesbian after
birth of children </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Donor insemination
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Adoption </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Custody
arrangements can vary </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Few, if any, differences between
children raised in heterosexual and gay/lesbian families </li></ul></ul>What Are
Some Changes in Parenting and Families in Middle and Late Childhood?

34. Developmental Changes <ul><li>Peers become more important

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Peer interaction increases for recreation, group identification,
and friendships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Peer competence impacts on future
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Size of group increases and adult supervision decreases
with age </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Same-sex group preferences until age 12
</li></ul></ul>What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood?

35. Peer Statuses What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood? Rejected Frequently nominated as someone’s best friend and as being
disliked Controversial Average Popular Infrequently nominated as a best friend; actively
disliked by peers Receive average number of positive and negative nominations from
peers Frequently nominated as a best friend; rarely disliked by peers Neglected
Infrequently nominated as a best friend but not disliked by peers

36. Peer Status <ul><li>Skills of popular children </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Give out

reinforcements, act naturally </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Listen carefully, keep open
communication </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Are happy, control negative emotions
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Show enthusiasm, concern for others
</li></ul></ul>What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood?

37. Peer Status <ul><li>Behaviors of rejected children </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Less

classroom participation </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Negative attitudes on school
attendance </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>More often report being lonely
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Aggressive peer-rejected boys
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Impulsive, problems being attentive, disruptive
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Emotionally reactive, slow to calm down
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Have fewer social skills to make friends
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and
Late Childhood?

38. Social Cognition What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood? <ul><li>Thoughts about social matters </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Thoughts
about peers is important for understanding peer relationships
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Interpreting intentions determines response and
appropriateness </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Social knowledge creates social bonds
</li></ul></ul>

39. Bullying <ul><li>Verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less

powerful </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Most likely affected are males and younger middle
school students </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Targeted children unlikely to retaliate
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Bullies more likely to have lower grades, smoke or drink
alcohol </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Victims suffer many other effects
</li></ul></ul>What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood?

40. Bullying Behavior Among U.S. Youth Females Fig. 13.6 Subject of sexual comments
or gestures Belittled about religion or race Subject of rumors Hit, slapped, or pushed
Belittled about looks or speech Males 5 25 0 10 15 20 Percent experiencing bullying

41. Friends <ul><ul><li>Not all friendships </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>and not all

friends </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>are equal </li></ul></ul>What Changes
Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late Childhood? <ul><li>Friendships
serve six functions </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Companionship
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Stimulation </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Physical
support </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Ego support
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Social comparison
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Affection and intimacy </li></ul></ul>

42. Friends What Changes Characterize Peer Relationships in Middle and Late
Childhood? <ul><li>Intimacy in friendship </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Self-disclosure
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Sharing of private thoughts
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>May not appear until adolescence
</li></ul></ul><ul><li>Friendless students </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Showed less
prosocial behaviors </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>More emotionally depressed
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Had lower grades </li></ul></ul>

43. Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning <ul><li>Controversy over best

instructional approach </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Constructivist: learner-centered
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Direct instruction: teacher-centered
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Criticized as rote memory, teaching irrelevant
material, and creates passive learners </li></ul></ul></ul>What Are Some Important
Aspects of Schools?

44. Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment What Are Some
Important Aspects of Schools? Constructivist Direct instruction Emphasizes the child’s
active construction of knowledge/understanding with teacher guidance. Child
encouraged to discover, reflect, critically think. Emphasis on collaboration and
opportunities. Characterized by teacher direction and control, mastery of academic
material, high expectations for students’ progress, and maximum time spent on learning

45. Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning <ul><li>Accountability

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Demanded by public and government
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>State-mandated tests more powerful role
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act critics
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Single score from single test as indicator
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Tests don’t measure creativity, other skills
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Teaching to the test
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Are Some Important Aspects of Schools?

46. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity <ul><li>Education of students from low-

income </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Schools: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More
students with low achievement test scores
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Low graduation rates
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Low numbers attend college
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More inexperienced teachers
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>More rote memory encouraged
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Old and crumbling buildings and classrooms
</li></ul></ul></ul>What Are Some Important Aspects of Schools?

47. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity <ul><li>Ethnicity in schools

</li></ul><ul><ul><li>Large inner city school districts attended by
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>1/3 of all African American and Latino students
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>22% of all Asian students
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>5% of all white students
</li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>School segregation exists; effects of SES and
ethnicity intertwined </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Schools grossly underfunded, lack
adequate opportunities for effective learning </li></ul></ul>What Are Some
Important Aspects of Schools?

48. Improving Ethnically Diverse Schools <ul><ul><li>Turn the class into a jigsaw
classroom </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Use technology to foster cooperation
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Encourage positive personal contact
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Encourage perspective taking
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Help critical thinking, emotional intelligence
</li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Reduce bias </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>View school
and community as team </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Be a competent cultural
mediator </li></ul></ul>What Are Some Important Aspects of Schools?

Child development is the study of how children think, feel, and grow. Development
occurs in a predictable sequence, but every child has their own unique timeline.

Children will babble sounds before saying words. They usually walk before they run. But
not every child will say his first word at 10 months or walk at 1 year.

Normal development occurs within a range of timeframes with developmental

milestones occurring during a broad range of ages. All children will experience easier
times of development (equilibrium) and more challenging periods of growth
(disequilibrium).

UNDERSTANDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT CAN HELP PARENTS FEEL MORE

COMFORTABLE THAT THEIR CHILDREN ARE NORMAL, AND HELP PARENTS TO
MODIFY THEIR DAILY EXPECTATIONS.

What is Child Development?

Child development refers to the natural growth and learning that occurs in all children
from birth to adulthood, including physical, intellectual, and social-emotional growth.

Intellectual, or Cognitive development

Intellectual development describes how mental processes — learning, remembering,

problem solving, and thinking — develop from birth until adulthood. Understanding
cognitive development is useful in determining the kind of thinking children are capable
of at different age levels.

Physical development

Physical development is the process by which a child’s body grows and acquires
movement, including fine and gross motor skills. Physical development provides
children with the abilities they need to explore and interact with the world around them.

Social-Emotional Development

Social-Emotional development describes how children develop skills that allow them to
interact with other people and to express and control their emotions.
Social-Emotional stages are often harder to notice than signs of physical and cognitive
development. Waiting patiently. Making friends. Sharing toys. Taking care of others. All
of these qualities are examples of social-emotional development. Young children
develop these abilities in small increments over time.

Key Points of Understanding Child Development

Among children of the same age, there is a range of what is normal in the way they
develop socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically.

A child’s maturity level may be different for the various qualities he is developing,
including social skills, athletic abilities and learning capabilities. He might be strong in
reading but weak in math (or vice versa), or good at running but not at baseball.

The variations described above may be permanent, forming a child’s own unique profile;
or they could be evolving and thus be subject to change.

The particular parenting style of their parents and caregivers, as well as the child’s
environment, will affect their behavior and development.