Professional Documents
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COMPETITIONS
2014
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1.1. 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3. Shortlisted problems for the 2014 Romanian NMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.4. Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.5. Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.6. 2013 – 2014 Local Mathematical Competitions
iii
FOREWORD
The Editors
THE 65th ROMANIAN MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD
DISTRICT ROUND
5th GRADE
b · ac = c · ab + 10.
***
Solution. a) The last (and hence, the first) digit of a number from M equals
4 or 9. A direct count shows that M contains 2 one digit numbers, 2 two digit
numbers, 20 three digit and 20 four digit numbers, hence the 50th number is
the 6th five digit number, that is, 40504.
b) The greatest number in M has the maximum number of digits. Therefore,
we put 4 as the first and last digit and complete the decimal representation
1
2 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round
with 2006 digits 1, obtaining thus 411 . . . 1 4. Similarly, the smallest number in
2006 digits 1
M has the least number of digits. The answer is 9899 . . . 989.
220 digits 9
Solution. a) Assume that such a partition exists. Then the product of all
elements of A must be a square as well. But this equals 31+2+3+···+2014 =
32015·1007 , obviously not a square.
b) Observe that 32n + 32n+1 = (3n · 2)2 , hence a possible partition is
(4 − a1 )(4 − a2 ) . . . (4 − a10 )
is also cute and distinct from the previous one. They add up to 4444444444.
Grouping the cute numbers in 32 such pairs, we obtain that their sum equals
32 · 4444444444 = 27 · 11 · 101010101 = 1408 · 101010101, hence the conclusion.
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round 3
6th GRADE
Problem 3. The points M, N, and P are chosen on the sides BC, CA and
AB of the triangle ABC such that BM = BP and CM =CN . The perpendi-
cular dropped from B onto M P and the perpendicular dropped from C onto
M N intersect at I. Prove that the angles IP
A and IN C are congruent.
Gabriel Popa
P N
I
B M C
Problem 4. Determine all positive integers a for which there exist exactly
a
2014 positive integers b such that 2 ≤ ≤ 5.
b
D. M. Bătineţu-Giurgiu, Neculai Stanciu
a
Solution. Rewrite 2 ≤ ≤ 5 as 2a ≤ 10b ≤ 5a. It follows that the
b
sequence 2a, 2a + 1, . . . , 5a contains 2014 multiples of 10, hence it contains at
least 2013 and at most 2015 groups of 10 consecutive numbers. We deduce
that 2013 · 10 ≤ 5a − 2a < 2015 · 10, which leads to a ∈ {6710, 6711, . . . , 6716}.
By inspection, we conclude that the required values of a are: 6710, 6712, and
6713.
7th GRADE
Problem 1. a) Prove that for any real numbers a and b the following
inequality holds:
2
a + 1 b2 + 1 + 50 ≥ 2 (2a + 1) (3b + 1) .
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round 5
Prove that one of the numbers a, b, c equals the sum of the other two.
George Stoica
A
E
I
B D C
We de-
Solution. Let I ∈ (BE) such that IA bisects the angle DAB.
A short computation shows
duce that ID is the bisector of the angle ADB.
◦
that m(DIB) = 135 , hence triangles ABE and IBD are similar. It follows
that AB BE AB BI
IB = BD , so that EB = BD . Thus, triangles ABI and DBE are similar
= m(BAI),
as well and, since m(BED) we infer that m(BED)
= 45◦ .
6 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round
B L C
A D
8th GRADE
√
Problem 1. In the right parallelepiped ABCDA′ B ′ C ′ D′ , with AB = 12 3
cm and AA′ = 18 cm, we consider the points P ∈ [AA′ ] and N ∈ [A′ B ′ ] such
that A′ N = 3B ′ N. Determine the length of the line segment [AP ] such that
for any position of the point M ∈ [BC] , the triangle M N P is right angled at
N.
Damian Marinescu
Petru Braica
Q P
R E D
F N
d M C
A B
Ion Pı̂rşe
Solution. Let a and b be arbitrary reals. We have ⌊b⌋ − ⌊a⌋ − 1 < b − a <
⌊b⌋ − ⌊a⌋ + 1, hence ⌊b⌋ − ⌊a⌋ − 1 ≤ ⌊b − a⌋ ≤ ⌊b⌋ − ⌊a⌋. Applying this to
some consecutive terms of the sequence, we obtain 0 ≤ ⌊xk − xk−1 ⌋ ≤ 1, for
all k = 2, 3, . . . , n. Thus, 0 ≤ S ≤ n − 1. We claim that the set of all possible
values of S is {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} . The value S = n − 1 can be obtained, for
instance, for xk = k, k = 1, 2, . . . , n . For the value S = p, with 0 ≤ p ≤ n − 2,
one can take, for instance,
k+ 1 , if 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 − p
xk = k+1 .
k, if n − p ≤ k ≤ n
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round 9
9th GRADE
E
P F
B D C
M
−−→ −−→ −−→
Solution. First, observe that AD + BE + CF = 0 (∗) . Denoting the areas
of the triangles ABC, BM C, CN A and AP B by s, sa , sb , and sc , respectively,
sa s+sa −−→ s+sa − −→
we have DM AM
AD = s , hence AD = s , which implies AM = s · AD, and
the analogous equalities. Triangles ABC and M N P share the same centroid
−−→ −−→ −−→
if and only if AM + BN + CP = 0, hence if and only if
s + sa −−→ s + sc −−→ s + sc −−→
· AD + · BE + · CF = 0,
s s s
or, equivalently,
−−→ −−→ −−→
sa · AD + sb · BE + sc · CF = 0.
10 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round
B AB D A1 AC C
10th GRADE
|z − |z + 1|| = |z + |z − 1||.
Dan Negulescu
(z + z) (|z − 1| + |z + 1| − 2) = 0.
and observe that the left hand side is an increasing function, while the right
hand side is a decreasing one. We conclude that the equation has at most a
solution, and it is not difficult to guess it: x = 2.
Problem 3. Let p and n be positive integers, with p ≥ 2, and let a be a
real number such that 1 ≤ a < a + n ≤ p. Prove that the set
⌊log2 x⌋ + ⌊log3 x⌋ + · · · + logp x x ∈ R, a ≤ x ≤ a + n
has exactly n + 1 elements.
Ioan Băetu
p
Solution. Let f (x) = k=2 ⌊logk x⌋ and let M = {f (x) | x ∈ [a, a+n]}. It is
easy to show that if k ≥ 2 is a positive integer, then ⌊logk ⌊x⌋⌋ = ⌊logk x⌋ . This
implies that f (x) = f (⌊x⌋), for all x ∈ [1, ∞), and hence M = {f (x) | x ∈ S},
where S = {⌊a⌋ , ⌊a⌋ + 1, . . . , ⌊a⌋ + n} has n + 1 elements. On the other hand,
for s ∈ S, s < ⌊a⌋ + n ≤ p, we have s + 1 ∈ {2, 3, . . . , p}, and
p
f (s+1)−f (s) = (⌊logk (s + 1)⌋−⌊logk s⌋) ≥ logs+1 (s + 1) − logs+1 s = 1,
k=2
therefore f (s + 1) > f (s), and this proves that M has exactly n + 1 elements.
Problem 4. Find all functions f : Q → Q such that
f (x + 3f (y)) = f (x) + f (y) + 2y,
for all x, y ∈ Q.
Nicuşor Berbecel
Solution. We claim that the solutions are f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = −2x/3,
for all real x.
Set x = y − 3f (y) to obtain f (y − 3f (y)) = −2y, y ∈ Q. Replacing y with
y − 3f (y) in the initial equation gives f (x − 6y) = f (x) − 2y + 2(y − 3f (y)),
hence f (x − 6y) = f (x) − 6f (y), for all x, y ∈ Q. Set now x = y = 0 to get
f (0) = 0 and replace x = 6y to obtain f (6y) = 6f (y), for all y ∈ Q.
We derived that f (x−6y) = f (x)−f (6y), which, for u = 6y and v = x−6y,
yields f (u + v) = f (u) + f (v), for all u, v ∈ Q. The solution of this classical
functional equation is f (x) = xf (1), x ∈ Q. On the other hand, by setting
x = y = 1 in the initial equation we obtain 3f 2 (1) − f (1) − 2 = 0, hence
f (1) = 1 or f (1) = −2/3, thus proving our claim.
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round 13
11th GRADE
a contradiction.
Dorel Miheţ
b) The function f : R → R,
−1,
x < 0,
f (x) = 0, x = 0,
1, x > 0,
� a) Clearly,
Solution. � αA+α′ I2 , then
if X = � � X and A commute. Conversely,
a 1 a2 x1 x 2
let A = ′ ′
and X = . The equality AX = XA implies
a1 a2 x′1 x′2
12th GRADE
and find n
1
lim fn (x)dx.
n→∞ n 0
***
k k
for some xk , n+1 < xk < n,
k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
′
x k f (x k ) kf ′ (xk ) xk f ′ (xk )
If f ′ ≥ 0, then ≤ ≤ , k = 1, 2, . . . , n, hence
n+1 n(n + 1) n
n n n
1 1 1
xk f ′ (xk ) ≤ kf ′ (xk ) ≤ xk f ′ (xk ). Because 0 ≤
n+1 n(n + 1) n
k=1 k=1 k=1
x1 ≤ 1/n ≤ x2 ≤ . . . ≤ xn ≤ n/n is a tagged partition of the interval [0, 1], it
follows that
n 1 1
1 1
lim kf ′ (xk ) = xf ′ (x)dx = xf (x)0 − f (x)dx,
n→∞ n(n + 1) 0 0
k=1
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – District Round 17
we have
1 1
M
(tn+1 − tn )n → g(x)dx = f (x)dx +
0 0 2
and
M
tn+1 − tn = sn+1 − sn + ,
2
therefore the conclusion holds in this case as well.
Problem 3. Let (A, +, ·) be an unit ring with the property: for all x ∈ A,
x + x2 + x3 = x4 + x5 + x6 .
5th GRADE
Problem 1. Prove that the product of every three odd consecutive positive
integers can be written as the sum of three consecutive integers.
Marian Ciuperceanu
Solution. a) Before the last change the number must be (2020 − 16) : 4 =
501; the previous number must be (501 − 9) : 3 = 164 and the required number
is (164 − 4) : 2 = 80.
19
20 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round
Problem 3. Show that there exists a multiple of 2013 which ends in 2014.
Mihaela Berindeanu
and 104j and 2103 are relatively prime, 2013 must divide ai−j .
Problem 4. One hundred boxes are labeled from 1 to 100. Each box has
at most 10 stones.The difference of the numbers of stones for every two boxes
labeled with consecutive numbers is 1. The boxes labeled 1, 4, 7, 10, . . . , 100
contain a total of 301 stones. Find the maximum possible number of stones
contained by the 100 boxes.
Gabriel Popa
Solution. Since the difference of the number of stones in every two con-
secutive boxes is 1, two consecutive boxes contain at most 19 stones. We
know the number of stones in the 34 boxes #1, #4, #7, . . . , #100 and if we
group the remaining 66 boxes in pairs of consecutive boxes, we obtain at most
301 + 33 · 19 = 928 stones.
This value is indeed obtained if we have 10 groups of the form (9, 10, 9, 8, 9,
10), then 6 groups of the form (9, 10, 9, 10, 9, 10) and, at the end, 9, 10, 9, 8.
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round 21
6th GRADE
Nicuşor Berbecel
Solution. Let us count the triples (x, y, z) of positive integers such that
x + y + z = n, where n ≥ 3 is a given integer. One can assign to x any value
from 1 to n − 2. If x = 1, then, taking into account that z ≥ 1, y can take
n − 2 values: from 1 to n − 2. If x = 2, then y can take n − 3 values, . . . , if
x = n − 2, then y can take only the value 1. This shows that the number of
triples of type n is
(n − 2)(n − 1)
s(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + (n − 3) + (n − 2) = .
2
a) If there exists n such that s(n) = 14, then (n − 2)(n − 1) = 28, which is
impossible: if n ≤ 6, then (n−2)(n−1) ≤ 20 and if n ≥ 7, then (n−2)(n−1) ≥
30.
b) We have to find the smallest n such that (n − 2)(n − 1) > 4028. Since
(n − 1)2 > (n − 2)(n − 1), n − 1 must be at least the smallest perfect square
larger than 4028.
Since 4028 = 22 · 1007 and 210 = 322 = 1024 > 1007 > 31.52 , it follows that
n − 1 ≥ 64, that is n ≥ 65. From (65 − 2)(65 − 1) = 4032 > 4028 follows that
n = 65.
′ ′ ′ ′
SCP implies R CQ = S CP , whence the points C, R , S are collinear. Also
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round 23
M S
R
N
C
B P Q
R'
S'
Therefore △N S M ≡ △R M S (case S-S-S), whence N�
′ ′ ′ �
M S′ ≡ M S ′ R′ .
′ � ≡ BCS
This shows that AB � CS , therefore ABC �′ . Now BCS
�′ ≡ BCA�
� �
implies ABC ≡ ACB, q.e.d.
7th GRADE
) + m(DBM
m(BDM ) = m(DM B) + 45◦ + m(CDM ) + 45◦ + m(CBM ) =
◦
90 + 2m(DM
B), whence m(DM B) = 45 .◦
B C
P
N M
In the isosceles triangle CDM the straight line CP is the perpendicular
from C onto DM , so it is the perpendicular bisector of the segment [DM ]. This
shows that triangle DP M is isosceles with vertex P . So, from m(DM P ) = 45◦
follows m(DP M ) = 90 .◦
2 2
Problem 3. Find all positive integers n so that 17n + 9n = 23n + 3n .
Marius Perianu
Problem 4. Construct outside the square ABCD the right isosceles tri-
angle ABE, with hypotenuse [AB]. Denote N the midpoint of the segment
[AD] and {M } = CE ∩ AB, {P } = CN ∩ AB, {F } = P E ∩ M N . Take on the
straight line F P the point Q so that [CE is the bisector of the angle ∠QCB.
Prove that M Q ⊥ CF .
Sorin Furtună
+ m(AEC)
m(BEC) = 90◦ yields m(AEC) + m(AEP ) = 90◦ , so m(CEP
) =
◦
90 . This shows that ECP is a right isosceles triangle, so m(CP E) = 45◦ .
P
A N D
Q
E M
B C
8th GRADE
D' C'
A' B'
D C
F
P
HA E B
Problem 3. Find the smallest integer n for which the set A = {n, n + 1,
n + 2, . . . , 2n} contains five elements a < b < c < d < e so that
a b c
= = .
c d e
Mircea Fianu
one of the other discs, say S2 . Then S2 cannot cover any point from (AD),
therefore (AD) ⊂ S3 . In this case [AD] is a diameter of S3 , so S3 cannot cover
any point from (BC), therefore S2 must cover (BC). This shows that [BC]
must be a diameter of S2 . But, in this case, no point from (CD) is covered –
contradiction.
b) Take M ∈ (AC) so that AM = 2. Denote P and R the orthogonal
projections of M onto AB and onto AD. Let T ∈ BC and U ∈ DC be such
that P T = RU = 2.
A R D
P M
XU
B TC
9th GRADE
Vasile Pop
√
Solution. a) As ma, na are natural numbers, the equality implies {m a} =
√
{−n a}.
Two numbers have the same fractional part if and only if their difference is
√
an integer, whence (m + n) a ∈ Z, which is absurd.
b) Again, let us as suppose that there is a natural number N , for which
there exist two not equal numbers m, n which are different from zero, such
√ √ √
that N = [m(a + a] = [n(a − a]. Then N ≤ m(a + a) < N + 1 and
√
N ≤ n(a − a) < N + 1; moreover, the inequalities are strict, because the
terms in the middle are irrational numbers.
We rewrite the inequalities as
N N +1 N N +1
√ <m< √ , √ <n< √ ,
a+ a a+ a a− a a− a
2 2
and thus, by addition, we get N < m + n < (N + 1) .
a−1 a−1
a−1
From here, N < (m + n) < N + 1, which is a contradiction, because
2
the term in the middle is natural (a is odd).
30 2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round
Remark. We could get the problem by using Beatty Theorem, which states
1 1
that if α and β are positive irrational numbers and + = 1 then the sets
α β
[nα] and [nβ] determine a partition of N.
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
and thus AE · AD = AF · AB. Equivalently, we have
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
AD + DE · AD = AB + BF · AB ⇔ AD2 + AD · DE = AB 2 + AB · BF .
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
But ∠ADE = ∠ABF = 90◦ , and hence AD · DE = AB · BF = 0, that is
AB = AD.
10th GRADE
Solution. We will get the result by doubly-counting the elements of the set
For 1 ≤ k ≤ n2 , let A(k) be the set of the natural divisors d of k such that
k ≤ d2 ≤ n2 .
A natural number d ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} belongs to the sets A(d), A(2d), . . . ,
A(d2 ) and only to them.
n2 n2
It follows that the contribution of each d in the sum a(k) = |A(k)|
k=1 k=1
is 1 + 1 + · · · + 1 = d.
d terms
n2 n
Thus, a(k) = d = n(n + 1)/2.
k=1 d=1
a) f (1) = 1,
the inequalities
3 log3 n ≤ f (n) ≤ 3 log2 n
Then
n−1 n−1
f (n) = 3 + f ≤ 3 + 3 log2 = 3 log2 (n − 1) ≤ 3 log2 n
2 2
and
n−1 n−1 3(n − 1)
f (n) = 3 + f ≥ 3 + 3 log3 = 3 log3 ≥ 3 log3 n.
2 2 2
for any x, y ∈ A.
Vladimir Cerbu, Mihai Piticari
not
Solution. We remark that f (k + 1) − f (k) = ak ∈ {0, 1}, k = 1, 2, . . . , n− 1.
Moreover, as ak ∈ {0, 1}, we have |f (x) − f (y)| ≤ |x − y| for any x, y ∈ A.
Therefore, any function f which satisfies the conditions in the problem, is
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round 33
f (0) + a1 + · · · + an−1 ≤ n.
n−1
b−a k
n(a, b) = Cn−1 = (n − k)Cn−1 .
0≤a≤b≤n 0≤a≤b≤n k=0
11th GRADE
Solution. We shall prove that all such functions are of the form f (x) =
−x + c, where c is a real constant. It is clear that such functions verify the
given conditions.
We shall first prove that f is one to one. Let x and y be real numbers
such that f (x) = f (y) and define gn = f 0 + · · · + f n , n ∈ N. Because g1 is
increasing, gm is decreasing. As g1 (x) − g1 (y) = x − y = gm (x) − gm (y), we get
2014 Romanian Mathematical Olympiad – Final Round 35
Solution. We shall show that only the identity function and the constant
functions satisfy the conditions of the problem. It is clear that these functions
verify indeed the conditions.
Because f is continuous, its range {f (x) | x ∈ R} is an interval I ⊆ R. If I
is degenerate at a point then f is constant.
If I is non-degenerate, let a = inf I < sup I = b, where a, b ∈ R. By the
given condition we deduce that the restriction of f to the interval (a, b) is the
identity:
f (x) = x, a < x < b. (1)
We shall show that a = −∞ and b = +∞, i.e. I = R and f is the identity
function. Suppose a is a finite number. By the continuity of f in a and by (1)
we get f (a) = a, so
f (x) − f (a) x−a
f ′ (a) = fd′ (a) = x→a
lim = x→a
lim = 1. (2)
x>a
x−a x>a
x−a
Solution. a) The given relation can be written in each of the two forms:
a contradiction.
So AB − BA is singular; moreover by (1) the matrix A − B is also singular.
b) It is known that for a matrix X of rank 1 in Mn (C), then X 2 = (tr X) X
(each row of X is proportional with a nonzero fixed row X). Using (1) we get
Taking conjugates and using that A is in Mn (R), we get that the conjugate
B̄ of B anticommutes with A. This proves that any linear combination with
complex coefficients of the matrices B and B̄ anticommutes with A. Conse-
quently, B or i(B − B̄) is a nonzero matrix in Mn (R) that anticommutes with
A. This proves the first part of the problem.
We shall prove the converse. Let B be a nonzero matrix in M4 (R) that
anticommutes with A. Then
f = λ4 −(tr A)λ3 +aλ2 −(tr A∗ )λ+det A = λ4 −(tr A)λ3 +aλ2 −(tr A)λ+det A,
x
1
(ii) The function h : [1, +∞) → (0, +∞) given by h(x) = f (t) dt has
x
1
finite limit at +∞.
x
1
b) Show that lim 2 f 2 (t) dt = 0.
x→+∞ x
1
Mihai Piticari
Solution. a) Let ℓ = lim g(x). If ℓ ∈ (0, +∞), let a > 0 be such that
x→+∞
g(x) > ℓ/2 for x ≥ a. Then
a x
1 1 a ℓ x
h(x) = f (t) dt + f (t) dt ≥ f (t) dt + t dt =
x 1 a x 1 2x a
1 a ℓ(x2 − a2 )
= f (t) dt + −→ +∞,
x 1 4x x→+∞
SMALL JUNIORS
a a+k
≤ .
b b+k
b) Prove that
1 4 7 148
+ + + ... + ≥ 25.
100 101 102 149
Gabriel Vrı̂nceanu, Ion Cicu
3. Find how many pairs (a, b), with a and b non-nil digits, have the property
that ab is irreducible and the decimal fractions ab and b(b+1)
a+b
are finite.
Gabriel Vrı̂nceanu
41
42 Shortlisted problems for the 2014 Romanian NMO
6. Denote O the center of the square ABCD. The bisector of the angle
∠OAB meets OB in N and BC in P . Prove that P C = 2ON .
George Stoica
7. Find all positive integers n with at least two digits, n’s digits are pairwise
distinct and n equals the product of the sum of its digits with one of its digits.
Cosmin Manea, Dragoş Petrică
JUNIORS
SENIORS
2. Find all strictly increasing sequences (an )n of positive integers with the
following two properties:
a) a31 + a32 + · · · + a3n = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2 , for every integer n ≥ 2014;
b) for every integer k ≥ 2015, the number a1 + a2 + · · · + a2014 cannot be
written as a sum of k consecutive positive integers.
Cristinel Mortici
5. Let a ∈ (0, 1). Find all functions f : R → (0, ∞) so that f (x) ≤ ax and
f (x + y + z) ≤ f (x)f (y)f (z), for every x, y, z ∈ R.
Traian Tămâian
PUTNAM SENIORS
clearly, the definition is correct. Prove that the sequences (xn )n∈N and (yn )n∈N
are convergent.
Dan Ştefan Marinescu, Mihai Monea
7. Let n ∈ N∗ and (G, ·) be a group with the property that there exists an
endomorphism f : G → G, so that
Prove that:
a) x2n+1 = e, for every x ∈ G;
b) the group (G, ·) is abelian.
Traian Tămâian
10. Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function and x0 ∈ [0, 1]. Define
the sequence (xn )n∈N by
1
n+1 (x0 +x1 +...+xn )
xn+1 = f (x) dx.
0
B'
C' X N
M N' M'
H
B A' B 1 C
47
48 Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO
Solution. Notice that, if w1 < w2 < · · · < wn+1 < wn+2 are positive integers
such that
w13 + w23 + · · · + wn+1
3 3
= wn+2 , (∗)
Solution. Erect the three outer Napoleon triangles associated with the tri-
angle A0 A1 A2 , and let γk , k = 0, 1, 2, be the corresponding circumcircles.
From any point X0 on γ0 draw lines X0 A2 X1 and X0 A1 X2 , where X1 lies
on γ1 and X2 lies on γ2 . The points X1 , A0 , X2 are collinear, and the triangle
X0 X1 X2 is an equilateral triangle satisfying the conditions in the statement.
Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO 49
X1
A0
X2 X
M1 M0
A1 A2
X0
Let Mk be the midpoint of the minor arc Ak+1 Ak+2 of the circle γk , and notice
that the triangle M0 M1 M2 is equilateral, since the Mk are the centers of the
inner Napoleon triangles associated with the triangle A0 A1 A2 . The center X
of the triangle X0 X1 X2 is the intersection of X0 M0 and X1 M1 , which must
intersect at 60◦ . Since the locus of X includes the three points Mk , it turns
out that the locus of X is the circle M0 M1 M2 .
Similarly, another circle is obtained by starting with the inner Napoleon
triangles. The required locus is a pair of circles.
Determine maxA minB |B|, as B runs through all subsets of A whose mem-
bers cover S, and A runs through the above collection.
***
***
Solution. Since the problem is of an affine nature, we may (and will) assume
that the triangle XY Z is equilateral. The triangle ABC has at least one vertex
angle, say at A, greater than or equal to 60◦ , so A is covered by the closed
circumdisc OY Z, where O is the center of the triangle XY Z. Since the latter
is covered by the 4-fold blow-up of the triangle XY Z from O, the conclusion
follows.
Problem 7. Let a be a real number in the open interval (0, 1), let n be a
positive integer and let fn : R → R, fn (x) = x + x2 /n. Show that
***
52 Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO
since the ak form an increasing sequence of positive real numbers. The first
inequality above yields the required upper bound,
an + a2
an < .
(1 − a)n + a
Plugged into the rightmost expression in (∗), this upper bound yields the re-
quired lower bound,
Problem 8. Determine all positive integers n such that all positive integers
less than n and coprime to n be powers of primes.
***
Problem 9. Let f be the function of the set of positive integers into itself,
defined by f (1) = 1, f (2n) = f (n) and f (2n + 1) = f (n) + f (n + 1). Show that,
for any positive integer n, the number of positive odd integers m such that
f (m) = n is equal to the number of positive integers less than and coprime to
n.
BMO 2014 Short List
P A B
Solution. Denote I the intersection of the bisector of ∠BAM with BC and
denote D the reflection of A about BC. Then ∠BM D ≡ ∠BM A ≡ ∠CM N ,
so P , M , D are collinear. On the other hand, DI is the bisector of ∠BDM –
the reflection of ∠BAM – and BI is the bisector of ∠ABD, therefore I is the
incenter of triangle P BD, whence the conclusion.
Problem 11. For every positive integer n, let σ(n) denote the sum of all
positive divisors of n (1 and n, inclusive). Show that a positive integer n, which
has at most two distinct prime factors, satisfies the condition σ(n) = 2n − 2 if
and only if n = 2k 2k+1 + 1 , where k is a non-negative integer and 2k+1 + 1
is prime.
***
√ √
Divergence of the harmonic series settles the case. Write 1/ j > 2( j + 1 −
√
j), to obtain
2
k � �
1 � 1 4 �√ �2 4 2 4 8
√ > 2 k+1−1 > 1− √ = − √ .
k j=1 j k k k k k k
√ √ √
Finally, notice that 1/(2k k) < 1/ k − 1 − 1/ k, k ≥ 2, to get
n
� 1 2
√ ≤ 3 − √ < 3,
k k n
k=1
Solution. Since gcd(k, n) depends only upon the residue class of k modulo
n, |An | − |Bn | = k (−1)s(k,n) , where s(k, n) is the number of distinct prime
factors of gcd(k, n), and k ranges over any complete residue system modulo n.
We shall prove that the above sum equals n p|n (1 − 2/p), p prime, whence
the conclusion; the latter is precisely the number of positive integers k < n
such that k and k + 1 are both coprime to n.
In the above notation, let e(k, n) = (−1)s(k,n) and let f (n) = k e(k, n).
We show that f is a numerical multiplicative function — that is, if n1 and n2
are coprime positive integers, then f (n1 n1 ) = f (n1 )f (n2 ).
If n1 , n2 are coprime positive integers, then e(k, n1 n2 ) = e(k, n1 )e(k, n2 ).
Further, if ki ranges once over a complete residue system modulo ni , i = 1, 2,
then k = k1 n2 + k2 n1 ranges once over a complete residue system modulo
n1 n2 , and e(k, ni ) = e(ki , ni ), i = 1, 2. Hence e(k, n1 n2 ) = e(k, n1 )e(k, n2 ) =
e(k1 , n1 )e(k2 , n2 ), and
f (n1 n2 ) = e(k, n1 n2 ) = e(k1 , n1 )e(k2 , n2 ) = f (n1 )f (n2 ).
k k1 k2
Finally, if p is a prime, and m is a positive integer, then f (pm ) equals the
number of k’s coprime to p, which is pm − pm−1 , minus the number of k’s
divisible by p, which is pm−1 , so f (pm ) = pm (1 − 2/p). This ends the proof.
Problem 14. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle and let O be its cir-
cumcenter. The tangents of the circumcircle ABC at vertices B and C meet at
P , the circle of radius P B centered at P meets the internal angle bisector of the
angle BAC at point Q lying in the interior of the triangle ABC, and the lines
OQ and BC meet at D. Finally, let E and F be the orthogonal projections
of Q on the lines AC and AB, respectively. Prove that the lines AD, BE and
CF are concurrent.
Cosmin Pohoaţă
Solution. The line AB and the circle of radius P B centered at P meet again
at some point R. Standard angle-chasing shows that the angle BRC is the
complement of the angle BAC. Hence the lines AC and CR are perpendicular,
so the lines EQ and CR are parallel, and the angles CQE and QCR are equal.
58 Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO
Since the points B, Q, C, R are concyclic, the angles QBF and QCR are
equal, so the angles QBF and CQE are equal and the right-angled triangles
BQF and QCE are similar: BQ/QC = BF/QE = QF/CE. Recall that
AQ is the internal angle bisector of the angle BAC, so EQ = F Q, whence
BQ2 /CQ2 = (BF/EQ)(F Q/CE) = BF/CE.
C
E
O Q P
D
A
F
B R
On the other hand, the line OQD is the Q-symmedian of the triangle BCQ,
so BQ2 /CQ2 = BD/CD. Consequently,
BD CE BD CE AF
1= · = · · ,
CD BF CD AE BF
on account of AQ being the internal angle bisector of the angle BAC, so AE =
AF . The conclusion follows by Ceva’s Theorem.
are obviously jointly coprime, either f ′ (g(x)) = ±1 and g ′ (X) = ±Φ′p (X) or
vice versa — as before, the signs correspond to one another. With the same
convention for signs, in the former case, g(X) = ±Φp (X)+a and f (X) = ±X ∓
a, where a is an integer; in the latter, g(X) = ±X + b and f (X) = Φp (±X ∓ b),
where b is an integer.
1 � 1 �
= (i + σ(i) + (n − σ(i) + 1) + (n − i + 1))
2 |I(σ)|
σ∈Sn i∈I(σ)
= (n + 1)! .
Solution. Let the tangents at Ak and Ak+1 meet at A′k+2 . We shall prove
that the lines A′k Bk are concurrent, whence the conclusion by Desargues’ the-
orem.
We show that the lines A′k Bk are concurrent at the centroid of the triangle
A′0 A′1 A′2 . More precisely, we prove that the line A′k Bk passes through the
midpoint of the segment A′k+1 A′k+2 .
Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO 61
A0
A'2
C1 C2
C0
B2 O B1
A1
B0 A2
To this end, let the parallel through O to the tangent A′k+1 A′k+2 meet the
tangents A′k A′k+1 and A′k A′k+2 at Xk and Yk , respectively, and notice that:
(1) the angles OXk Bk and OAk+2 Bk are equal, since the points Ak+2 , Bk ,
O, Xk all lie on the circle on diameter OXk ;
(2) the angles OAk+2 Bk and OAk+1 Ak+2 are equal, since OAk+1 = OAk+2 ;
and
(3) the angles OAk+1 Ak+2 and OYk Bk are equal, since the points Ak+1 , Bk ,
O, Yk all lie on the circle on diameter OYk .
Consequently, the angles OXk Bk and OYk Bk are equal. Since the lines Xk Yk
and A′k+1 A′k+2 are parallel, and the latter is perpendicular to the line OAk =
OBk , it follows that Bk is the midpoint of the segment Xk Yk , whence the
conclusion.
2
Alternative Solution. We will show that k=0 (Ck Bk+1 /Ck Bk+2 ) = 1, so
the conclusion follows by Menelaus’ theorem. To this end, we will prove that
Multiplying the three yields the desired relation, since, by Ceva’s theorem,
2
k=0 (Ak Bk+1 /Ak Bk+2 ) = 1.
We now turn to prove (∗). To avoid directed angles, assume, without any
loss, that the triangle A0 A1 A2 is acute-angled, fix an index k and let Ak Ak+1 ≤
62 Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO
Ak Ak+2 (the case Ak Ak+2 ≤ Ak Ak+1 is dealt with similarly). Apply the law
of sines in the triangles Ak Bk+1 Ck and Ak Bk+2 Ck to get
Since the angle Ck Ak Bk+1 is the supplement of the internal angle at Ak+1 of
the triangle A0 A1 A2 , and the angle Ck Ak Bk+2 is equal to the internal angle at
Ak+2 of the triangle A0 A1 A2 , the above ratio of sines equals Ak Ak+1 /Ak Ak+2
and (∗) follows.
Let ABC be a triangle, let P be a point on one of the bisectors of the angle
BAC, let X, Y , Z be the orthogonal projections of P on the lines BC, CA,
AB, respectively, and let the lines P X and Y Z meet at Q. Then the line AQ
passes through the midpoint of the segment BC.
***
Solution. The required ratio is 2n−m . To prove this, let An and B n denote
the sets of words described in the statement, so an = |An | and bn = |B n |,
and think of B as an extension of A = {a1 , . . . , am } by a disjoint copy Ā =
{ā1 , . . . , ām }.
Deletion of all bars in a word in B n produces a word in An . Now let α be
a word in An and let ai occur ki times in α; the ki are positive even integers
which add up to n. Since there are exactly 2ki −1 distinct ways to bar ai an odd
number of times in α, the preimage of α under deletion of all bars has exactly
2k1 −1 · · · · · 2km −1 = 2n−m elements. The conclusion follows.
Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO 63
for k = 1, . . . , n.
We shall prove that there exists a permutation σ of [n] such that |ϕ(k) −
k| + 1 ≤ σ(k) for all k, so a|ϕ(k)−k|+1 ≤ aσ(k) and the conclusion follows:
n
� n
� n
� n
�
f (|xk − ak |) ≤ f (a|ϕ(k)−k|+1 ) ≤ f (aσ(k) ) = f (ak ).
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
64 Selection tests for the 2014 BMO and IMO
Lucian Petrescu
3 2
x+y+z (x + y + z)
Solution. Since xyz ≤ and xy + yz + zx ≤ ,
3 3
3 2
s s 2
putting s = x+y+z, we get that + ≥ 4. This leads to (s − 3) (s + 6) ≥ 0,
27 3
so s ≥ 3. The equality holds for x = y = z = 1.
Problem 2. Determine all pairs (a, b) of integers which satisfy the equality
a+2 a+1 6
+ =1+ .
b+1 b+2 a+b+1
Lucian Dragomir
Solution. Obviously,
b �=−2
and b �= −1.Adding 2 in both members of the
a+2 a+1 6
equality, we get +1 + +1 =3+ , hence
b+1 b+2 a+b+1
1 1 3 (a + b + 3)
(a + b + 3) + = .
b+1 b+2 a+b+1
65
66 Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO
1 1 3
Case 2. If a + b + 3 �= 0, then + = , which leads to
b+1 b+2 a+b+1
b2 + 4b + 3
a= .
2b + 3
Solution. Let us split the square into five rectangles, as shown in the figure
√
above. The sizes of the three rectangles at the bottom are 1 × 3, so the
length of their diagonal is 2. The sizes of the two rectangles at the top are
√ √ 2
1.5 × 3 − 3 . Since 1.52 + 3 − 3 < 4, the length of their diagonal is
less than 2. By the pigeonhole principle, there are two points among the six
given which are situated within or on the sides of one of the five rectangles,
so the distance between them is at most equal to the length of the diagonal,
which is at most 2. However, the distance can be 2 only if the two points are
opposite vertices of one of the bottom rectangles, which implies that one of the
six points is not inside, but on one side of the square – contradiction.
Remarks. 1. Splitting the squares into three 1 × 1.7 rectangles and two
1.5 × 1.3 rectangles, we may prove that the result is still true if the six given
points are inside or on the sides of the square.
2. Let us notice that five points are not enough to draw the same conclusion
√
(taking the vertices and center of the square, the shortest distance is 3/ 2 > 2).
The strongest result known it literature is that the shortest distance (for 6
√
points) is 13/2 ≈ 9/5 < 2.
Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO 67
A
A'
C C' B
Problem 5. Let D and E be the midpoints of sides [AB] and [AC] of the
triangle ABC.
The circle of diameter [AB] intersects the line DE on the opposite side of
AB than C, in X. The circle of diameter [AC] intersects DE on the opposite
side of AC than B in Y .
Prove that the orthocenter of triangle XY T lies on BC.
Marius Bocanu
D O E
X Y
H
B C
N M
a2 + b b2 + a
and
b2 − a a2 − b
are both integers.
Asian-Pacific M.O., 2002
b2 + a
Solution. The assumption a ≥ b, yields ∈ N∗ , hence b2 + a ≥ a2 − b,
a2 − b
which leads to (a + b) (a − b − 1) ≤ 0. Consequently, a = b or a = b + 1.
a2 + b a+1
If a = b, then 2 = ∈ N∗ if and only if a − 1 | a + 1, or a − 1 | 2,
b −a a−1
which comes to a ∈ {2, 3} .
a2 + b b2 + 3b + 1
If a = b + 1, then 2 = 2 ∈ N∗ , if and only if b2 − b − 1 |
b −a b −b−1
b2 + 3b + 1, which means that b2 − b − 1 | 4b + 2, hence b2 − b − 1 ≤ 4b + 2. It
follows immediately that b ≤ 5. Checking these values, we find that only b = 1
and b = 2 satisfy the given condition.
In conclusion, the solutions of the problem are: (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(2, 3), (3, 2).
Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO 69
z2 �
≤ z 1 − z2.
x2 + y 2
Since
� � z2 + 1 − z2 1
z 1 − z2 = z 2 (1 − z 2 ) ≤ = ,
2 2
z2
it follows that ≤ 2, and therefore x2 + y 2 ≥ 2z 2 . Writing the other
x2 + y 2
two similar inequalities and adding them together yields 2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ≥
2(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ). Consequently,
√ equality must hold in all the inequalities above,
2
hence x = y = z = . Clearly this triple satisfies all the requirements.
2
Alternative Solution. As x, y, z ∈ (0, 1), we can write x = sin α, y = sin β,
z = sin γ, with α, β, γ ∈ (0, π/2). The first inequality becomes
B D C
and continues with moves similar to the ones described above, will pass through
exactly
2n + 3
< ⌊2n/3⌋ + 2 ≤ n
3
squares, hence it will not pass through squares of all possible colors, and this
for both the situations, a) and b);
• n ≡ 2 (mod 3). The path that starts with
and continues with moves similar to the ones described above, will pass through
exactly
2n + 5
= ⌊2n/3⌋ + 2 < n
3
squares, hence it does not pass through squares of all possible colors, under the
conditions from a).
We have proven a) and we have seen that for all n ≡ 0 (mod 3) and all
n ≡ 1 (mod 3) (n ≥ 6), the statement from a) remains true even if there are
only ⌊2n/3⌋ + 2 colors. We prove that the statement from a) is false if we have
⌊2n/3⌋ + 2 colors and n ≡ 2 (mod 3).
It remains to exhibit a coloring with ⌊2n/3⌋ + 2 colors such that any path
(1, 1) → (n, n) contains squares of all the colors.
We give several such examples:
square with color number 1 to the square with color number N it has to pass
through squares of all the other colors.
8 5 5 7
7 5 6
6 5 6 5
5 3 3 5 5
4 3 3 5 5
3 3 2 3
2 2 3
1 1 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 1 for n = 8, the smallest with n ≡ 2 (mod 3). (The squares left
white are to be colored with color number 4.)
8 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 7
7 3 4 5 4 5 6 5 6
6 4 3 4 5 4 5 6 5
5 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6
4 2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5
3 3 2 3 4 3 4 5 4
2 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 2 3 4 3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO 73
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ≥ 4.
***
1 3
It follows that 4 ≤ · (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ) , i.e. a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 ≥ 4.
2
Equality holds when a = b = c = d = 1.
Problem 11. Determine the prime numbers p and q that satisfy the equal-
ity
p3 + 107 = 2q (17q + 24) .
Lucian Petrescu
Prove that:
a1 + a2 + . . . + am n+1
≥ .
m 2
***
Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO 75
Problem 13. In the acute triangle ABC, with AB �= BC, let T denote the
midpoint of the side [AC], A1 and C1 denote the feet of the altitudes drawn
from A and C, respectively. Let Z be the point of intersection of the tangents
in A and C to the circumcircle of triangle ABC, X be the point of intersection
of lines ZA and A1 C1 and Y be the point of intersection of lines ZC and A1 C1 .
a) Prove that T is the incircle of triangle XY Z.
b) The circumcircles of triangles ABC and A1 BC1 meet again at D. Prove
that the orthocenter H of triangle ABC is on the line T D.
c) Prove that the point D lies on the circumcircle of triangle XY Z.
Marius Bocanu
C1 T
H
D
B A1 C
Y
b) We may assume that AB < BC; in this case, D is on the minor arc
AB. Let O denote the circumcenter of triangle ABC and let L be the midpoint
of the segment line [BH]. The radical axis of two circles being perpendicular
to the line connecting the centers of the circles, it follows that BD ⊥ LO.
As BD ⊥ DH, we get that LO � DH. OLHT is a parallelogram, therefore
OL � HT , and now it is clear that points D, H, T are collinear.
c) The quadrilateral AT DX is cyclic because
n, S1 , S2 , . . . , Sk−1 , Sk
where:
• S1 is a sequence of numbers that contains all the factors of n, other than
n, that are multiples of p1 , the last one in the sequence being p1 p2 ;
• S2 is a sequence of numbers that contains all the factors of n that are
multiples of p2 , but not of p1 , the last number in the sequence being p2 p3 ;
• S3 is a sequence of numbers that contains all the factors of n that are
multiples of p3 , but are multiples of neither p1 nor p2 , the last number in the
sequence being p3 p4 ;
.....................................
• Sk is a sequence of numbers that contains all the factors of n that are
multiples of pk , but not multiples of any of the numbers p1 , p2 , . . . , pk−1 .
The set {1, 2, . . . , 100} contains 74 composite numbers, 30 of which being
of the form pq, with p, q distinct primes. This leaves 44 nice numbers.
Remark. A stronger fact can be proven: the factors of a nice number can
actually be arranged on a circle such that, for every two neighboring numbers,
the smaller one is a factor of the larger one.
78 Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO
an = a2 + ab + ac + ad = a2 + cd + ac + ad = (a + c) (a + d) , (∗)
hence n | (a + c) (a + d) .
Supposing that n was prime, it would follow that n | a + c or n | a + d. but
neither of these two conditions can hold because n > a + c and n > a + d.
Selection tests for the 2014 JBMO 79
Problem 17. In a circle, consider two chords [AB], [CD] that intersect at
E. The lines AC and BD meet at F. Let G be the projection of E onto AC.
We denote by M, N, K the midpoints of the segment lines [EF ] , [EA] , and
[AD], respectively. Prove that the points M, N, K, G are concyclic.
Marius Bocanu
E
K
M
N
C
F P G A
Show that for each positive integer k ≤ n, there are k numbers among x1 ,
x2 , . . . , xn whose sum is at least k.
***
aj = xj + xj+1 + . . . xj+k−1 , j = 1, 2, . . . , n
are also less than k (where the indices from the sums aj are considered to be
taken modulo n).
Adding up yields a1 + a2 + . . . + an < nk and, since
a1 + a2 + . . . + an = k (x1 + x2 + . . . + xn ) ,
we get
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn < n.
n
n
n n
1 1 1
But n2 ≤ xk <n , so > n. It follows that
xk xk xk
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
n n
n
2
1 1 1 1 2
xk = ≥ > · n = n,
x2k n xk n
k=1 k=1 k=1
contradiction.
If xn−k+1 +. . .+xn−1 +xn < k, for a certain k ∈ {1, 2, .., n}, then xn−k+1 <
1, hence x1 < x2 < . . . < xn−k < 1. This leads to x1 + x2 + . . . + xn−k < n − k,
so
5m + n2 = 3p .
***
5m + 1 = 2 · 3b .
v3 (5m + 1) = v3 (5 + 1) + v3 (m) ,
A A'
M D E' O
E D'
D'' N
F G
B C
Solution. We shall prove that the admissible values of n (those for which
our goal can be achieved) are all the positive integers that are not divisible by
3.
Obviously, such turning is possible for n = 1. For n = 2, flip each of the
four 1-sided equilateral triangles once and all the coins will be tail-up.
We shall use now induction of step 3. Assume that n is an admissible value.
Flipping the coins of each unit sided triangle of an equilateral triangle of side
length n + 3, the coins from the vertices of the big triangle will turn one time,
those along the sides three times and the interior coins will turn six times each.
Consequently, all the exterior coins are turned tail up and all the interior coins
are heads up. But the interior coins form the net corresponding to an n - sided
triangle, so the induction works.
If 3 | n, then color the coins in red, yellow and blue so that any three
adjacent coins have different colors. Also, any three coins in a row will have
different colors. In this case the corners will all have the same color, say red.
(n + 1) (n + 2)
Since there are, in total, ≡ 1 (mod 3) coins, then there will be
2
exactly one more red coin than yellow or blue ones. Thus, at the beginning,
the parity of the number of red heads is different than the parity of the number
of yellow heads. Since each move changes the parity of the number of heads
of each color, we cannot end up with the parity of red heads equal to that of
yellow or blue heads, which would be the case if all coins showed tails. Thus
the coins cannot all be inverted, so n is not an admissible value.
THE DANUBE MATHEMATICAL COMPETITION
JUNIORS
Solution. Let M the set of the numbers n that satisfy the conditions above.
We shall show that M = N \ {0, 1, 3} .
We can observe that 2p ∈ M, for any p ≥ 1, the relations being satisfied
e.g. for x1 = x2 = . . . = xp = 1 and xp+1 = xp+2 = . . . = x2p = −1.
1 1 1
Moreover, if n ∈ M and x1 + x2 + . . . + xn = + +...+ = 0, taking
x1 x2 xn
xn+1 = 1 and xn+2 = −1, we conclude that n + 2 ∈ M, because
1 1 1 1 1
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn + xn+1 + xn+2 = + + ... + + + = 0.
x1 x2 xn xn+1 xn+2
Therefore, all that is left to be done is to find the smallest odd element of
M.
Suppose that 3 ∈ M ; then there exist x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R∗ so that
1 1 1
x 1 + x2 + x3 = + + = 0.
x1 x2 x3
85
86 2011 Danube Mathematical Competition
Solution. Using the 64 given numbers, there can be formed 2016 pairs (a, b) ,
with a < b; these pairs generate 2016 sums a + b which give 2016 remainders
when divided by 2013. Consequently, there are two different pairs (a, b) and
(c, d) having the same remainder when divided by 2013, hence 2013 | (a + b) −
(c + d) .
Assuming that (a, b) and (c, d) have a common component, e.g. a = c,
then 2013 | b − d, and, since |b − d| ≤ 2012, we get b = d, contradiction. The
conclusion now follows.
For m > 1 there are many (more than one) perfect squares between 5m − 1 and
17m − 1 (e.g. 9m and 16m ), therefore m = 1 and n = 3.
N P
O
E A B
SENIORS
c A
D'
F'
E'
a E
Z
Y X B
D
F
b
C
Solution. The lines Aa and bC meet at D, and the lines Bb and cA meet
at D′ to determine the Pascal line of the hexagram AaBbCc; similarly, the
88 2011 Danube Mathematical Competition
Solution. The case r = 2 is clear: Any cycle of even length works. In the
other cases, define a sequence of graphs Gr , r ≥ 3, as follows. The graph G3
is a cycle of just 7 edges. (Any larger odd number would do.) When Gr is
defined, with nr vertices say, construct Gr+1 as follows. Consider
rnr − r + 1
nr
The construction ensures that no graph Gr has a cycle of less than 6 edges.
This does not prove that Gr is r-chromatic, but if it is not, deletion of some
monochromatic classes of vertices together with their incident edges yields one
such.
Solution. Let H be a Hamel basis; that is, H is a set of real numbers such
90 2011 Danube Mathematical Competition
where the q(x, h) are all rational and vanish for all but a finite number (de-
pending on x) of h’s. The existence of Hamel bases can be proved via Zorn’s
lemma or Zermelo’s well ordering theorem or any other statement equivalent
to the axiom of choice.
We are now going to prove that the set S of those real numbers x whose q(x, h)
in (∗) are all integral satisfies the required condition.
To this end, fix a real number x. Since the conclusion is clear if x = 0, let x be
different from 0 and let m(x) be the least common multiple of the denominators
of the non-vanishing q(x, h) in (∗). Finally, notice that m(x) · x is a member
of S, to conclude that any set of the form nx + S, where n is a non-negative
integer, must be one of the sets rx + S, r = 0, 1, . . . , m(x) − 1.
THE Tenth IMAR MATHEMATICAL COMPETITION
Problem 1. Given a prime p ≥ 5, show that there exist at least two distinct
primes q and r in the range 2, 3, . . ., p − 2 such that q p−1 �≡ 1 (mod p2 ) and
rp−1 �≡ 1 (mod p2 ).
***
(1) An improper integer greater than 1 has at least one improper prime
divisor; and
The first claim follows from the fact that the product of two proper integers is
again proper. For the second, notice that p does not divide knp−2 to deduce
that
(kp − n)p−1 ≡ np−1 − (p − 1)kpnp−2 ≡ 1 + kpnp−2 �≡ 1,
91
92 2011 IMAR Mathematical Competition
Since p ≥ 5, the prime factors of p ± 1 are all less than p − 1; and since 2 is
the highest common factor of p − 1 and p + 1, the conclusion follows, provided
that 2 is proper.
Otherwise, look for an improper odd prime in the required range. To this
end, notice that one of the numbers 2p ± 1 is divisible by 3, so its prime factors
are all less than p − 1, for p ≥ 5; clearly, they are all odd, and the conclusion
follows.
Problem 2. For every non-negative integer n, let sn be the sum of the digits
in the decimal expansion of 2n . Is the sequence (sn )n∈N eventually increasing?
***
Solution. Suppose, if possible, that the conclusion does not hold. Then no
three discs meet, and each disc contains points of the closure of the triangle
determined by the centers of the other three discs, not covered by the latter.
Amongst the four discs, choose one, say ∆0 , containing the point O where
the diagonals of the quadrangle cross one another. Let A0 be the center of ∆0 ,
label the other three centers in circular order, A1 , A2 , A3 , so that the opposite
angles A0 OA1 and A2 OA3 be not obtuse, and let ∆i denote the disc centered
at Ai .
Before proceeding, we take time out to state a simple, but quite useful
lemma whose proof is postponed for the sake of clarity.
Recall that no three discs meet to deduce that neither ∆2 , nor ∆3 contains
O. It follows, for i = 2, 3, that the open segment Ai O crosses the boundary of
∆i at some point Bi . The open segments A2 B3 and A3 B2 cross each other, so
r2 + r3 = A2 B2 + A3 B3 < A2 B3 + A3 B2 , where ri is the radius of the disc ∆i ,
i = 2, 3.
We are presently going to show that r2 ≥ A2 B3 and r3 ≥ A3 B2 and reach
thereby the contradiction we were heading for. Only the first inequality will
be dealt with; the argument applies mutatis mutandis to the other. Since the
angle A2 OA3 is not obtuse, the orthogonal projection A′2 of A2 on the line
A1 A3 falls on the closed ray OA3 emanating from O. If A′2 fell on the closed
segment B3 O, then the image of the line A2 A′2 under a slight rotation about
the midpoint of the segment A2 A′2 would separate the disc ∆3 and the closure
[A0 A1 A2 ] of the triangle A0 A1 A2 , in contradiction with the second remark in
the opening paragraph. Hence A′2 lies on the open ray B3 A3 emanating from
B3 , so dist (A2 , [A0 A1 A3 ] \ ∆3 ) ≥ A2 B3 by the lemma. Finally, recall that ∆2
covers points in [A0 A1 A3 ] \ ∆3 , to conclude that r2 ≥ A2 B3 .
Proof of the lemma. Since the quadrangle ABCD is convex, the whole config-
uration of points lies on one side of the line AB, say H. Let F be the point
where the ray AD emanating from A crosses the boundary of ∆, let α denote
the arc EF of the boundary of ∆ situated in H, and let r be the ray emanating
from E along the line AC, not containing A.
Notice that, if X is a point in [ACD] \ ∆, then the closed segment BX
meets either α or r (this fails to hold if the quadrangle ABCD is not convex
at D), so it is sufficient to consider only points X in α ∪ r.
Now, as a point X traces α from E to F , the length of the segment BX
varies increasingly by the cosine law in the triangle ABX (this fails to hold if
the quadrangle ABCD is not convex at A or at B), so BX ≥ BE.
Finally, since the orthogonal projection of B on the line AC is not interior
to r, the length of the segment BX varies again increasingly, as X runs along
r away from E, so BX ≥ BE again. This ends the proof of the lemma and
completes the solution.
Remarks. Since the distance to the empty set may take on any value, the
conclusion of the lemma still holds if ∆ covers [ACD].
Under the conditions in the lemma, it may very well happen that
2011 IMAR Mathematical Competition 95
dist (B, [ACD] \ ∆) > BE, in which case C is certainly interior to ∆. Such
configurations are easily produced.
Finally, it is not hard to see that the conclusion of the lemma may fail
to hold if the quadrangle ABCD is not convex at one of the vertices A, B,
D or the projection of B on the line AC does not fall on the closed ray EA
emanating from E.
A
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