Lecture-17 Prepared under

QIP-CD Cell Project

Jet Propulsion

Ujjwal K Saha, Ph. D.

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
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 Lift and Drag

Lift: is used to
support the weight
of the aircraft

Drag: that directly

opposes the motion
of the aircraft

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• In straight and Level Flight,
Lift = Weight
and Thrust = Drag

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 Airfoil Geometry

• α = Angle of Attack
• c = chord length
• t/c = thickness ratio =max. thickness/c
• camber ratio = max. camber/c
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 Evolution of Airfoils Airfoils Types

Early Designs - Designers

mistakenly believed that these
airfoils with sharp leading
edges will have low drag.
In practice, they stalled quickly,
and generated considerable drag.

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 Lift Equation

• L = CLV2ρ/2 S

• If the angle of attack and other

factors remain constant and
airspeed is doubled, lift will be
four times greater.

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 Ways of Controlling Lift

‰ Increase airspeed
‰ Change the angle of attack
‰ Change the shape of the airfoil
‰ Change the total area of the wings

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 Form Drag (Pressure Drag)
Parasite Drag Skin Friction Drag
(Profile Drag)
Drag Wave Drag
Induced Drag Interference Drag

Form Drag - Drag due to the shape of the body

Skin Friction Drag - Drag due to the friction between
the surface and the flow.
Interference Drag - created when the airflow around
one part of the airplane interacts with the airflow
around another.
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Parasite Drag Reduction

‰ By proper design and

streamlining the shape.
‰ Avoiding Protrusions on
the surface.
‰ Retracting landing gears.

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Parasite Drag is simply Skin Friction Drag+ Form Drag +
Interference Drag + Wave Drag
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 Supersonic Wave Drag

For a given airfoil or wing or aircraft, as the Mach

Number is increased, the drag begins to increase
above a free-stream Mach number of 0.8 or so due
to shock waves that form around the configuration.
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Shock waves

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How can shock waves be minimized?

• Use wing sweep.

• Use supercritical airfoils, which keep

the flow velocity over the airfoil and the
local Mach number from exceeding
Mach 1.1 or so.

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How can shock waves be minimized?
Use sweep.

° 0
c os3
0.8
30 ° sweep

M= 0.8

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Lift and Drag

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 Induced Drag
• For a lifting wing, the air pressure on the top of the
wing is lower than the pressure below the wing.

• The lines marking the center of the vortices are shown

as blue vortex lines leading from the wing tips.
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Boeing 727 test airplane (NASA)
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• The wing tip vortices produce a downwash of air
behind the wing which is very strong near the wing
tips and decreases toward the wing root.

Downwash

TOP SURFACE
(relative low pressure)

(relative high pressure)

BOTTOM SURFACE

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Induced Drag

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 Component of R1 (parallel to V∞) =
Drag D1 (due to skin friction and
pressure drag due to separation).

R = actual aerodynamic
force including the effect
of tip vortices.
Component R (parallel to V∞) is
the actual Drag force D.
Di = D − D1
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 Origin of Induced Drag

Geometric angle of attack = angle between the chord line and flow direction
However, local flow gets deflected downward by αi due to downwash. This
angle is known as induced angle of attack (difference between local flow
direction and freestream direction).

α eff = α − α i
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 Di = L sin α i
Values of αI are generally small, and hence
sin α i = α i
Threfore, Di = Lα i
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 Lift & downwash distributions

The lift per unit span may vary as a function of distance

along the wing because
‰ Chord varies along the length of the wing
‰ Each airfoil section is at a different geometric angle of attack (Twisted)

From incompressible flow theory

CL
αi =
π AR
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 CL
Di = L α i =L
π AR
1 2 CL
Di = L α i = CL ρV S
2 π AR
Di CL 2
=
ρV 2 S π AR
1
2
CL 2
CDi =
π AR
For all wings,
CL 2
CDi =
π eAR
where, e= span efficiency factor
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For elliptical planform

e=1 Lift Per Unit Span

-b/2 +b/2

For other planforms

e<1
Therefore, CDi is min imum for elliptical planform

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 Total Drag

Total Drag = Parasite Drag + Induced Drag

D = DP + Di
1 1 1
CD ρV S = CDP ρV S + CDi ρV 2 S
2 2
2 2 2
CD = CDP + CDi

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At High Values of α Wings Stall

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 Increasing the Angle of Attack to the Stall Point

The above picture shows a normal

airfoil during a typical cruise
profile. The angle of attack is small
and the airflow over the wing is
smooth, producing lift. No stall
condition exists.
In the left picture, the angle of attack has
been increased and is now closer
to/approaching the critical angle of attack.
Airflow above the wing is becoming
uneven. However, the angle is still less than
the critical angle, so lift is still being
produced by the wing. No stall condition
exists.
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 Stalled Wing

In the picture above, the wing has now exceeded its

critical angle of attack. The uneven airflow over the top
of the wing has broken into a swirling air mass that can
not produce lift. The wing (airfoil) is "stalled".
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 Leading Edge Slats
Help avoid stall near the leading edge

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 Lift Augmentation Devices
• Slat - It is placed in front of the airfoil to help increase the
momentum of the boundary layer fluid. High energy air from
the bottom side of the airfoil flows through the gap to the
upper side, energizes slow speed molecules, and keeps the flow
from stalling Thus it delays the separation and enhance the
lift.
• Flap- It is placed at the rear of the wing it allows higher
momentum fluid to replace the weaker fluid in the tail of the
wing. Thus it avoid separation. It also increases the drag.

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Achieving High Lift

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Effect of High-Lift Devices

Effect of leading edge devices on lift curve (Jenkinson).

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One form of flaps,
called Fowler
flaps increase the
chord length as
the flap is deployed.

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 Summary
Lift and Drag, Airfoil Terminology,
Types of Drag, Downwash,
Induced Drag, Flaps and Slats, Types of Flaps

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 References & Web Resources
1. Anderson, J. D. Jr., (2000), Introduction to Flight, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill.
2. Anderson, J. D. Jr., (1999), Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw Hill.
3. Shevell, R. S., (1989), Fundamentals of Flight, Pearson Education.
4. Clancy, L. J., (1996), Aerodynamics, Himalayan Books.

1. http://www.soton.ac.uk/~genesis
2. http://www.howstuffworks.co
3. http://www.pwc.ca/
4. http://rolls-royce.com
5. http://www.ge.com/aircraftengines/
6. http://www.ae.gatech.edu
7. http://www.ueet.nasa.gov/Engines101.html
8. http://www.aero.hq.nasa.gov/edu/index.html
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11. http://www2.janes.com/WW/www_results.jsp
12. http://www.allison.com/
13. http://wings.ucdavis.edu/Book/Propulsion
14. http://www.pilotfriend.com/
15. http://www.aerospaceweb.org/design/aerospike
16. http://www.grc.nasa.gov
17. http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History
18. http://membres.lycos.fr/bailliez/aerospace/engine
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20. http://roger.ecn.purdue.edu/~propulsi/propulsion/rockets
21. http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/ep2.htm
22. http://www.answers.com/main
23. http://www.astronautix.com 42