1. Ch.

- 1
Part I: Cabling for console and auxiliary (AUX) ports. Most routers have 3 types
are, RJ-45, DB-25 DCE, DB-25 DTE
Types of commonly used RJ-45 cabling
1. Straight-through Cable
• The colored wires, are in the same sequence - both ends of the cable.
• Primarily used for connecting unlike devices.
2. Crossover Cable
• Cables to connect like devices.
• Connecting a
Computer to a router. Computer to a computer.
▪ Router to a router. Switch to a switch. Hub to a hub.
2. Rolled Cable (Yost cables)
• The colored wires, reverse sequence of the colored wires at the other end
of the cable.
Usually connect a device to a router or switch’s console port
Routers -Purpose is to connect multiple networks and forward packets from one
network to the next.
• Typically has multiple interfaces.
• Each interface is a member or host on a different IP network.
Router Interfaces
Management ports-Routers have physical connectors -used to manage the
router. Console, Auxiliary port
• Console port-(most common) and Used to
▪ Connect a terminal, or most often a PC running terminal emulator
software,
▪ Configure the router without the need for network access to that
router- During initial configuration of the router.
• Auxiliary port Not all routers have auxiliary ports. It can also be used to
attach a modem.
Network Interfaces
 The term interface refers to a physical connector on the router whose main
purpose is to receive and forward packets.
 The network switch plays an integral part in most Ethernet LANs.
 A Switch operates at the data-link layer of the OSI model to create a different
collision domain per switch port.
 A switch has a console port for management and a set of Ethernet interfaces
for LANs connections.

2. Ch-2 IP Addressing & sub netting VLSM, CIDR

IP Addresses -an address used to uniquely identify a device on an IP network.
 The address is made up of 32 binary bits – network, host portion + subnet
mask. And broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits)-Dotted decimal format
 A 0-7-24 1.0.0.0- 127.255.255.255 ( 1st-N & 2,3,4-subnet/hosts)

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  10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 Reserved
 B 10-14-16 128.0.0.0 (1, 2 -N & 3,4-subnet/hosts)
 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 Reserved
 C 110-21-8 192.0.0.0 (1, 2,3 -N & 4-subnet/hosts)
 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 Reserved
 D 1110-multicast group (28) 224.0.0.0
 E 11110-resserved (28 bit) 240.0.0.0- 254.255.255.255
Network Masks
 Distinguishes which portion of the address identifies the network the node.
 Default masks:
 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0
Sub netting
 Creates multiple logical networks -a single Class A, B, or C network.
 No subnet, - one network from Class A, B, or C network- unrealistic
 Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every node
on that link being a member of the same network
 Benefit- Reduced network traffic, Optimized network performance, Simplified
management, Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances
IP Subnet-Zero - allows to use the 1st and last subnet the network design.
 E.g., the Class C mask of 192 provides subnets 64 and 128, but
 IP subnet-zero command, get to use subnets 0, 64, 128, and 192
How to create subnets
 Determine the number of required network IDs:
 One for: - each subnet. WAN connection
 Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
 One for:- each TCP/IP host, each router interface
 Then,
 One subnet mask for your entire network
 A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
 A range of host IDs for each subnet
Sub netting a Class A/B/C Address

Practice e.g. #1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25) Network 192.168.10.0

 How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce? Since 128 is 1 bit on
(10000000), the answer would be 21= 2.
 How many hosts per subnet? We have 7 host bits off (10000000), so the
equation would be 27– 2 = 126 hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. Remember, we’ll start at zero
and count in our block size, so our subnets are 0, 128.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the
value of the next subnet is all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast
address. For the zero subnet, the next subnet is 128, so the broadcast of the 0
subnet is 127.

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  What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers b/n the subnet and broadcast
address
Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27) Network 192.168.10.0
 How many subnets? 224 is 11100000, so our equation would be 23 = 8.
 How many hosts? 25– 2 = 30.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 224 = 32. We just start at zero and count to
the subnet mask value in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160,
192, and 224.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet (always the number right before
the next subnet)?
 What are the valid hosts (the numbers between the subnet number and the
broadcast address)?
Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.224 (/27) Network 192.168.10.0

Practice Example #1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17) Network 172.16.0.0

 Subnets? 21 = 2
 Hosts? 215– 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth)
 Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128. Remember that subnetting is
performed in the third octet, so the subnet numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0, as
shown in the next table
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?

Practice Example #2B: 255.255.240.0 (/20) Network 172.16.0.0

 Subnets? 24= 16.
 Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
 Valid subnets? 256 – 240 = 0, 16, 32, 48, etc., up to 240.
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?

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 

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) Subnet with requirements shown?

 5 subnets needed
 Can be assigned as follows:
 netA: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30
 netB: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62
 netC: 204.15.5.64/27 host address range 65 to 94
 netD: 204.15.5.96/27 host address range 97 to 126
 netE: 204.15.5.128/27 host address range 129 to 158

 Given the same network and requirements as in Sample Exercise 1 develop a

subnetting scheme using VLSM, given:
◦ netA: must support 14 hosts
◦ netB: must support 28 hosts
◦ netC: must support 2 hosts
◦ netD: must support 7 hosts
◦ netE: must support 28 host
 Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.

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 ◦ netA: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 14 hosts
◦ netB: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts
◦ netC: requires a /30 (255.255.255.252) mask to support 2 hosts
◦ netD: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 7 hosts
◦ netE: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts
 The easiest way to assign the subnets is to assign the largest first. For example,
you can assign in this manner:
◦ netB: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30
◦ netE: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62
◦ netA: 204.15.5.64/28 host address range 65 to 78
◦ netD: 204.15.5.80/28 host address range 81 to 94
◦ netC: 204.15.5.96/30 host address range 97 to 98

CIDR
 Classless Inter domain Routing
 Improve address space utilization
 Routing scalability in the Internet
 For example, if an ISP owns network 172.16.0.0/16, then the ISP can offer
172.16.1.0/24, 172.16.2.0/24,and so on to customers. Yet, when advertising to
other providers, the ISP only needs to advertise 172.16.0.0/16

3. Ch-3 Introduction to IPv6

1. Introduction
2. Protocols and Standards
3. Routing Protocols

Necessity of IPv6
 IPv4 addresses ⇒ 32 bits in length = (4.3 billion possible addressable devices
 IPv6 offers vast address space. The only compelling reason for IPv6
 128 bits: 4 times the size in bits, 3.4 × 1038 possible addressable
devices.
Current Situation

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  General perception is that”IPv6 has not yet taken hold”.
 IPv4 Address run-out has now made it into “headline news”.
 Private sector still demanding a business case to”migrate”.
 But reality is very different from perception!
 Something needs to be done to sustain the Internet growth.
 IPv6 or NAT or both or something else?
Do we really need a larger address space? - IPv4 addresses per person could require
IPv4
So what has really changed?
 Expanded address space, Address length quadrupled to 16 bytes
 Header Format Simplification
 Fixed length, optional headers are daisy-chained.
 IPv6 header is twice as long (40 bytes) as IPv4 header without
options (20 bytes).
 No checksum at the IP network layer
 No hop-by-hop segmentation, Path MTU discovery
 64 bits aligned
 Authentication and Privacy Capabilities, IPsec is mandated
 No more broadcast
IPV4 VS.IPV6

IPv6 Address Representation

 16 bit fields in case insensitive colon hexadecimal representation
2031:0000:130F:0000:0000:09C0:876A:130B
2031:0:130F:0:0:9C0:876A:130B
 Successive fields of 0 represented as ::, but only once in an address:
2031:0:130F::9C0:876A:130B is OK!

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 2031::130F::9C0:876A:130B is NOT OK!
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 → ::1 (loopback address)
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 → :: (unspecified address)
 :: representation
RFC5952 recommends that the rightmost set of :0: be replaced with :: for
consistency 2001:db8:0:2f::5 rather than 2001:db8::2f:0:0:0:5

Prefix Representation- just like IPv4 CIDR

 Like IPv4 address:
IPv6 Addressing Address Types are:
 Unicast: One to One (Global, Unique Local, Link local)
 Any cast: One to Nearest (Allocated from Unicast)
 Multicast: One to Many

IPv6 Address Allocation

 The allocation process is:

o The IANA is allocating out of 2000::/3 for initial IPv6 unicast use
o Each registry gets a /12 prefix from the IANA
o Registry allocates a /32 prefix (or larger) to an IPv6 ISP
o Policy is that an ISP allocates a /48 prefix to each end customer
IPv6 Addressing Scope
 64 bits reserved for the interface ID
o Possibility of 2^64 hosts on one network LAN
o In theory 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 hosts
o Arrangement to accommodate MAC addresses within the IPv6 address
 16 bits reserved for the end site
o Possibility of 2^16 networks at each end-site
o 65536 subnets equivalent to a /12 in IPv4 (assuming a /28 or 16 hosts
per IPv4 subnet)

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  16 bits reserved for each service provider
o Possibility of 2^16 end-sites per service provider
o 65536 possible customers: equivalent to each service provider receiving
a /8 in IPv4 (assuming a /24 address block per customer)
 29 bits reserved for all service providers
o Possibility of 2^29 service providers
o i.e. 536,870,912 discrete service provider networks
Interface IDs
Lowest order 64-bit field of unicast address may be assigned in several different
ways:
 Auto-configured from a 64-bit EUI-64, or expanded from a 48-bit MAC
address (e.g., Ethernet address)
 Auto-generated pseudo-random number (to address privacy concerns)
 Assigned via DHCP
 Manually configured
Static Routing in IPv6
Unchanged from IPv4
 Default route is now ::/0
 On most platforms, the CLI is very similar
Cisco IOS Static Routing Example:
 ipv6 route 2001:db8::/64 2001:db8:0:CC::1 110
 Routes packets for network 2001:db8::/64 to a networking device at
2001:db8:0:CC::1 with an administrative distance of 110
Dynamic Routing Protocols in IPv6
 Dynamic Routing in IPv6 is unchanged from IPv4:
o IPv6 has 2 types of routing protocols: IGP and EGP IPv6 still uses the
longest-prefix match routing algorithm
 IGP
o RIPng (RFC 2080)
o Cisco EIGRP for IPv6
o OSPFv3 (RFC 5340)
o Integrated IS-ISv6 (RFC 5308)
 EGP
o MP-BGP4 (RFC 4760 and RFC 2545)

4. Ch-4 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

 Introduction
 2 RIP Characteristics
Routing in the Internet

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 The Global Internet consists of Autonomous Systems (AS) interconnected with
each other
o Stub AS: small corporation: one connection to other AS’s.
o Multihomed AS: large corporation (no transit): multiple connections to
other AS’s.
o Transit AS: provider, hooking many AS’s together.
 Two-level routing:
o Intra-AS: administrator responsible for choice of routing algorithm
within network
o Inter-AS: unique standard for inter-AS routing algorithm
Internet AS Hierarchy
 Intra-AS border (exterior gateway) router
 Inter-AS interior (gateway) router

Routing Protocols


Dynamic protocols, sharing neighborhood information
 Use different metrics.
 RIP (1 hop count, how many ntks a packet crosses), Networks are treated
equally
 BGP (depend on the policy)
 OSPF (minimize delay, maximize throughput)
RIP
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
 Distance vectors: exchanged among neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination nets within AS
 Routing table, Advertisement, Updated routing?
Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec −→ neighbor/link declared dead
o routes via neighbor invalidated
o new advertisements sent to neighbors

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 o neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables changed)
o link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
o poison reverse used to prevent Ping-Pong loops (infinite distance = 16
hops)
 RIP Instability, Split Horizons, Poison reverse
RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level process called route-d
(daemon).
 Advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically repeated.
 Link (Forwarding table)
Weaknesses of RIP
 INFINITY defined as 15, thus RIP cannot be used in networks where routes are
more than 15 hops.
 Difficulty in supporting multiple metrics (default metric: # of hops)
o The potential range for such metrics as bandwidth, throughput, delay,
and reliability can be large.
o Thus the value for INFINITY should be large; but this can result in slow
convergence of RIP due to count-to-infinity problem.
Difference between RIPv1 and RIPv2.
RIPv1
 A classful distance vector routing protocol.
 Does not support discontiguous subnets, VLSM.
 Does not send subnet mask in routing update.
 Routing updates are broadcast.
RIPv2
 A classless distance vector –it is an enhancement of RIPv1’s features.
 Next hop address is included in updates.
 Routing updates are multicast.
 The use of authentication is an option.
5. Ch-5 Open Shortest Path First Protocol (OSPF)

I. Introduction
What is OSPF?
 Open, Developed by IETF IGP working group, RFC2328.
 SPF
o Each router floods link-state information through its neighbors to other R
 Maintains a complete link-state database
o Based on the link-state database, a routing table is constructed using SPF
(e.g., Dijkstra’s) algorithm.
 Runs over IP directly.
II. OSPF Basics
Features of OSPF
 Use flexible metrics instead of only hop count.

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  Supports variable-length subnetting.
 Allows load balancing among equal-cost paths.
 Supports multiple routes; one for each IP type of service (ToS).
 Authenticates route exchanges, Quick convergence.
 Uses multicast rather than broadcast of its messages to reduce network load.
Hierarchical OSPF
 AS is organized as two-level hierarchy
o AS is partitioned into self-contained areas.
o Areas are interconnected by a backbone area.
o Areas are identified by a 32-bit area ID.
o 0.0.0.0 Is reserved for the backbone area.
4 types of routers
 Internal, area border, backbone, AS boundary.
OSPF AS organized into a 2-level hierarchy
 Within each area, border router responsible for routing outside the area.
 Backbone area contains all area border routers and possibly others.
 Exactly one area is backbone are


III. OSPF Operation
Router Identities
 Each Router needs a unique ID. - Included in any OSPF messages
 ID -Chosen according… criteria:
o The highest IP address on the routers active loopback interfaces is used
(this is a logical interface on a router).
o If no loopback interface exists -the highest IP address on its active
interfaces is used when the router boots up.
Finding Neighbors
 An OSPF router learns about its OSPF neighbors and builds its adjacency and
topology tables by sharing link state advertisements (LSAs).
 Neighbor routers generate LSA hello messages every 10 seconds. - If not
within the dead interval time, (40 sec), the neighbor is declared dead.
 In order for 2 routers to become neighbors, must match on each router:
o The area number
o The hello and dead interval timers on their connected interfaces
o The OSPF password (optional), if it is configured

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 o The area stub flag, indicating the type of area; a stub is used to contain
OSPF messages and routing information
o MTU sizes on the connected interfaces
OSPF routers will go through 3 states, (exchange process)-to become neighbors:
 Down state: The R have not exchanged any OSPF information with any other
R.
 Init state: A desn R has received a new router’s hello - adds it to its neighbor
list.
 Two-way state: The new R receives a unidirectional reply (from the destination
R).
Designated and Backup Designated Routers –each multi-access broadcast segment-
DR and a BDR as well as other OSPF routers, called DROTHERs.
 When an OSPF router comes up, it forms adjacencies with the DR and the
BDR.
 Any exchange of routing infn is b/n these DR/BDR routers and the other OSPF
neighbors on a segment (and vice versa).
 IP multicast address
o An OSPF router talks to a DR - 224.0.0.6.
o The DR and the BDR talk to all OSPF - 224.0.0.5
 The OSPF router with the highest priority becomes the DR for the segment.
o If there is a tie, the router with the highest router ID will become the
DR.
Sharing Routing Information
After electing the DR/BDR pair, the R continue to generate hellos to maintain
communication.
 Exstart state: The DR & BDR form adjacencies with the other OSPF R on the
segment.
 Exchange state: The master starts sharing link state information first with the
slave. These are called database description packets (DBDs).
 Loading state: If the master has more up-to-date information than the slave, the
slave will respond to the master’s original DBD with a link state request
(LSR).
 Full state: Once the master and the slave are synchronized
IV. OSPF configuration
When configuring OSPF -syntax:
o Router(config)# router ospf process_ID
o Router(config-router)# network IP_address wildcard_mask area area_#
 The process ID -differentiate between OSPF processes running on the same
router.
 A wildcard mask
o Inverted subnet mask, with the 1s and 0s switched.
o Specific about which interfaces belong to which areas.
Loopback Interfaces -is always up

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  It is a logical, virtual interface on a router.
 All IOS platforms support loopback interfaces
 Reason-to create a loopback interface to:
o Assign a router ID to an OSPF router
o Use for testing purposes, since this interface
o Terminate special connections, such as GRE tunnels or IPSec
connections.
o Router (config)# interface loopback port_#
Router (config-if) # ip address IP_address subnet_mask
OSPF Metric Values
OSPF uses in picking the best-cost routes for the routing table in two ways.
1 To change the cost of an interface manually:
o Router(config)# interface type [slot_#/]port_#
o Router(config-if)# ip ospf cost cost_value
o N.B. the cost is assigned within an interface & range from 1 to 65,535
(108).
2 To configure the bandwidth on your router’s interfaces:
o Router (config)# interface type [slot_#/]port_#
o Router(config-if)# bandwidth speed_in_Kbps

6. CH-6 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

INTODUCTION
What is BGP? -”Path Vector” routing protocol.
 It is a standardized exterior gateway protocol (EGP).
 BGP was not built to route within an AS, but rather to route between AS’s.
 BGP maintains a separate routing table based on shortest AS Path and various
other attributes, as opposed to IGP metrics like distance or cost.
 BGP -choice on the Internet.-the Internet is a collection of interconnected AS.
Autonomous System (AS)
 Collection of networks with same routing policy, Single routing protocol.-trust
BGP Autonomous Systems:
 Assigned an Autonomous System Number (ASN)-16-bit number ranging from 1
- 65535.
 Range from 64512 - 65535, has been reserved- for private (or internal) use.
1023
 Utilizes TCP for reliable transfer of its packets, on port 179.
When to Use BGP? Under the following circumstances:
 Multiple connections
o Exist to external AS’s
 Such as the Internet via different providers.
 Through the same provider, but connect via a separate CO or
routing policy.

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 o The existing routing equipment can handle the additional demands.
 BGP’s true benefit is in controlling how traffic enters the local AS, rather than
how traffic exits it.
Definition of terms
 Neighbours- AS’s which directly exchange routing information.
 Announce- Send routing information to a neighbour.
 Accept -Receive and use routing information sent by a neighbour.
 Originate- Insert routing information into external announcements (usually as
a result of the IGP).
 Peers- Routers in neighbouring AS’s or within one AS which exchange routing
and policy information.
BGP OPERATION
BGP Peers (Neighbors)-2 types of BGP neighbor relationships:
o iBGP Peers - BGP neighbors within the same AS.
o eBGP Peers - BGP neighbors connecting separate AS.
 Once BGP peers form a neighbor relationship,
o They share their full routing table.
o only changes to the routing table are forwarded to peers
BGP Peers Messages
1 OPEN message is sent b/n peers to initiate the session. - Several parameters:
o BGP Version - must be the same between BGP peers.
o Local AS Number.
o BGP Router ID.
2 KEEPALIVE messages are sent periodically (every 60 sec by default)
-availability.
a. Dead time = (by default, 180 sec).
3 UPDATE messages are used to exchange routes between peers.
4 NOTIFICATION messages are sent when there is a fatal error condition

As a BGP peer session is forming, - several states & known as the BGP Finite-State
Machine (FSM):
 Idle - the initial BGP state.
 Connect - BGP waits for a TCP connection with the remote peer.
 Active - BGP attempts to initiate a TCP connection with the remote peer.
 OpenSent - BGP has both established the TCP connection and sent an OPEN
Message, and is awaiting a reply OPEN Message.
 OpenConfirm - BGP listens for a reply KEEPALIVE message.
 Established - the BGP peer session is fully established.
Configuring BGP Neighbors
 1st step in config BGP is to enable the BGP process, and specify the router’s
AS:
o RouterB(config)# router bgp 100
 2 , neighbor relationships must be established.
nd

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 o 1 In the same AS (iBGP Peer):
 RouterB(config)# router bgp 100
 RouterB(config-router)# neighbor 10.1.1.1 remote-as 100
o 2 In a separate AS (eBGP Peer):
 RouterB(config)# router bgp 100
 RouterB(config-router)# neighbor 172.16.1.2 remote-as 900
 For stability purposes, the source interface used to generate updates to a
particular neighbor can be specified:
o RouterB(config)# router bgp 100
o RouterB(config-router)# neighbor 172.16.1.2 update-source lo0
 RouterC must then point to RouterB’s loopback (assume the address is
1.1.1.1/24) in its neighbor statement:
o RouterC(config)# router bgp 900
o RouterC(config-router)# neighbor 1.1.1.1 remote-as 100
 RouterC must have a route to RouterB’s loopback in its routing table.
BGP “Best Path” Determination
BGP determines the best path by successively comparing the attributes of each
“route pair.” The attributes are compared in a specific order:
 Weight - Which route has the highest weight?
 Local Preference - Which route has the highest local preference?
 Locally Originated - Did the local router originate this route? In other words,
is the next hop to the destination 0.0.0.0?
 AS-Path - Which route has the shortest AS-Path?
 Origin Code - Where did the route originate? The following origin codes are
listed in order of preference:
o IGP (originated from an interior gateway protocol)
o EGP (originated from an exterior gateway protocol)
o ? (Unknown origin)
 MultiExit Discriminator - Which path has the lowest MED?
 BGP Route Type - Is this an eBGP or iBGP route? (eBGP routes are preferred).
 Age - Which route is the oldest? (Oldest is preferred).
 Router ID - Which route originated from the router with the lowest BGP router
ID?
 Peer IP Address - Which route originated from the router with the lowest IP?
When applying attributes,
 Weight and Local Preference-inbound routes, dictating the best outbound
path.
 AS-Path and MED - outbound routes, dictating the best inbound path.

7. Multicasting And Multicast Routing Protocols

Introduction
Unicasting- recipient is there
 The router forwards the received datagram through only one of its interfaces.

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Multicasting - at least one member
 The router may forward the received datagram through several of its interfaces.
Multicasting versus multiple unicasting
 A multicast address is a destination address for a group of hosts that have
joined a multicast group.
 A packet that uses a multicast address as a destination can reach all members of
the group unless there are some filtering restriction by the receiver.
Multicast Address Ranges


Mapping Class D to Ethernet Physical Address
 An Ethernet multicast physical address is in the range 01:00:5E:00:00:00 to
01:00:5E:7F:FF:FF.
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 Multicast communication means that a sender sends a message to a group of
recipients that are members of the same group.
 Each multicast router needs to know the list of groups that have at least one
loyal member related to each interface.
 Information is done at two levels: locally and globally.
o The 1st task is done by the IGMP protocol;
o The 2nd task is done by the multicast routing protocols.
IGMP Messages
 IGMP is a group management protocol. It helps a multicast router create and
update a list of loyal members related to each router interface.


Unicast Routing
 Each router in the domain has a table that defines a shortest path tree to
possible destinations.

Multicast Routing

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  Each involved router needs to construct a shortest path tree for each group.
 Source-based tree approach, each router needs to have one shortest path tree
for each group and source
 Group-shared tree approach, only the core router, which has a shortest path
tree for each group, is involved in multicasting.
 If a router receives a multicast packet,
o It encapsulates the packet in a unicast packet- sends it to the core router.
o The core router removes the multicast packet from its capsule, and
consults its routing table to route the packet.

Routing Protocols

MOSPF: Multicast Link State Routing

DVMRP: Multicast Distance Vector
CBT: Core-Based Tree
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
PIM-DM
 It is used when there is a possibility that each router is involved in multicasting
(dense mode).
 In this environment, the use of a protocol that broadcasts the packet is justified
because almost all routers are involved in the process.
 It uses a simple Flood and Prune design and assumes most (or all) PIM routers
have some receivers.
 PIM-DM is used in a dense multicast environment, such as a LAN.
PIM-SM
 It’s a general purpose multicast routing protocol that works with unicast
routing protocol to create a loop free multicast distribution trees.
 PIM-SM is used in a sparse multicast environment such as a WAN

8. Virtual LANs (VLANs)

VLAN introduction
 It provide segmentation based on broadcast domains, traditionally provided by
physical routers in LAN configurations.
 It is logically segment switched networks based on the -regardless of the
physical location or connections to the network.
 All workstations and servers -particular workgroup share the same VLAN.
 Address scalability, security, and network management.

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 o Routers in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, and
traffic flow management.
 Switches may not bridge any traffic between VLANs, as this would violate the
integrity of the VLAN broadcast domain.
 Traffic should only be routed between VLANs.
o A group of ports or users in same broadcast domain.
o Can be based on port ID, MAC address, protocol or application.
o LAN switches and network mgt software provide a mechanism to create
VLANs.
o Frame tagged with VLAN ID.
Broadcast domains with VLANs and routers
 A VLAN is a broadcast domain created by one or more switches.
 Without VLANs, Each group is on a different IP network and on a different
switch
 With VLANs Switch is configured with the ports on the appropriate VLAN.
Still, each group on a different IP network; however, they are all on the same
switch. And One link per VLAN or a single VLAN Trunk (later).
VLAN operation

 Each switch port can be assigned to a different VLAN.

 Ports assigned to the same VLAN share broadcasts.-not belong-not share
 Static membership =port-based = port-centric membership VLANs.
 As a device enters the network- automatically assumes VLAN membership
 ”The default VLAN for every port in the switch is the management VLAN.
o Always VLAN 1 and may not be deleted.”
 All other ports on the switch- reassigned to alternate VLANs
Important notes on VLANs:
1 VLANs are assigned on the switch port. Not done on the host (usually).
2. Host to be a part of the VLAN, it must be assigned an IP address that belongs to the
proper subnet.
 Remember: VLAN = Subnet
3. Assigning a host to the correct VLAN is a 2-step process:

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 o 1 Connect the host - port on the switch.
o 2 Assign to the host -IP address depending on the VLAN membership
 Dynamic
o Membership VLANs are created through network mangt software. (Not
as common as static VLANs).
o VLANs allow for membership based on the MAC address of the device
connected to the switch port.
 As a device enters the network, - it queries a database VLAN membership.
The key benefit -VLANs is that to network admin to organize the LAN logically
instead of physically; able to do easily
o Move/add workstations on/to the LAN.
o Change the LAN configuration.
o Control network traffic.
o Improve security.
 Without VLANs, the ARP Request would be seen by all hosts.
 Again, consuming unnecessary network bandwidth and host processing cycles.

VLAN type—approaches can vary performance.

VLAN Tagging (header information)

 When a link needs to carry traffic for more than one VLAN.
o Trunk link: As packets are received by the switch from any attached
end-station device, a unique packet identifier is added within each
header.
 Designates the VLAN membership of each packet.

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  The packet is then forwarded to the appropriate switches or routers based on
the VLAN identifier and MAC address.
 Upon reaching the destination node (Switch) the VLAN ID is removed from
the packet by the adjacent switch and forwarded to the attached device.
 Packet tagging provides a mechanism for controlling the flow of broadcasts
and applications while not interfering with the network and applications.
 This is known as a trunk link or VLAN trunking.
 There are two major methods of frame tagging, Cisco proprietary Inter-Switch
Link (ISL) and IEEE 802.1Q.
 ISL used to be the most common, but is now being replaced by 802.1Q frame
tagging

End-to-End or Campus-wide VLANs,

 VLAN Based on functionality, everywhere model
 Same VLAN/Subnet no matter what the location is on the network
 Trunking at the Core
 Usually not recommended
 Adds complexity to network administration
 Does not resolve Layer 2 Spanning Tree issues
 Since the core layer router is being used to route between subnets (VLANs),
the rule is:
o The network is engineered to have 80 percent of the tra ffic contained
within a VLAN.
o The remaining 20 percent crosses the router to the enterprise servers and
to the Internet and WAN. - 80/20 rule. With today’s traffic patterns,
obsolete.
Geographic or Local VLANs
 VLANs based on physical location, Dedicated to each layer switch cluster
End-to-end VLANs have become more difficult to maintain.
 Users are required to use many different resources, many of which are no
longer in their VLAN.- Because of this shift in placement and usage of

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 resources, VLANs are now more frequently being created around geographic
boundaries.
 In a VLAN structure, it is typical to find the new 20/80 rule in effect.
o 80 % of the traffic is remote to the user
o 20 % of the traffic is local to the user.
Configuring static VLANs, guidelines for configuring VLANs on switches:
 The maximum number of VLANs is switch dependent.
 VLAN 1 is one of the factory-default VLANs & Ethernet VLAN.
 The switch must be in VTP server mode to create, add, or delete VLANs.
Creating VLANs
 Assigning access ports (non-trunk ports) to a specific VLAN
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/9
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan_vlan number
Create the VLAN:
o Switch# vlan database
o Switch(vlan)# vlan_number
o Switch(vlan)# exit
 Assign ports to the VLAN
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/9
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 10
 access - Denotes this port as an access port and not a trunk link (later)
Configuring Ranges of VLANs
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/5
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/6
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/7
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit

Configuring Ranges of VLANs

o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/5
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/6
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit
o Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/7
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2
o Switch(config-if)# exit

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 Alternative:
o Switch(config)# interface range fastethernet 0/5, fastethernet 0/12
o Switch(config-if)# switchport access vlan 2 Switch(config-if)# exit
Access port assignment:
 Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/1
 Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
 Switch(config-if)# exit
 Note: The switchport mode access command should be configured on all ports
that the network administrator does not want to become a trunk port.
Access port assignment:
 Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/1
 Switch(config-if)# switchport mode access
 Switch(config-if)# exit
 Note: The switchport mode access command should be configured on all ports
that the network administrator does not want to become a trunk port.
Trunk port assignment:
 Switch(config)# interface fastethernet 0/1
 Switch(config-if)# switchport mode trunk
 Switch(config-if)# exit
--------------------------------------End--------------------------------

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