Electro ...

Hydraulic
Servomechanism
Type EHS 160

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Equipment Serial No . 160/

FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS LIMITED . CROWBOROUGH . SUSSEX . ENGLAND .

Telephone : Crowborough (089 26) 3322 . Telex: 95255 . Cables : Feedback Crowb r Tele x .
Although this Feedback manual was correct a t the
t ime of pr inting , componen ts suppl ied may d iffer
slightly from those described .

We endeavour cont inually to improve our equ ip-

ment by incorporat ing the latest developments and
components, even up to t he time of despatch .
Whenever poss ible we wi ll include such new or
revised information .

Component replacement
-.
Whenever poss ible, replacemen t components
should be simi lar to those o rig inally suppl ied .
These may be ordered direct from Feedback
Instruments Limited or its agen ts by quo ti ng the
fol lowing informati on :

1. Equipmen t type
2. Equipmen t serial number
3. Component reference
4. Component value

Standard componen ts can often be replaced by

alternatives ava i lable locally.

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

© Feedback Instruments Lim ited .

Al I rights reserved . No part of th is
publication may be reproduce d, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, record ing or
otherwise, without the prior permission
of Feedback Instrumen ts Limited .
 CONTENTS

SECTION l SPECIFICATION (Data Sheet)

SECTION 2 INTRODLCTION

SECTION 3 ANCILLIARY EQUIPMENT

SECTION 4 INSTALLATION

SECTION 5 OPERATI NG INST RLCTIONS

5. 1 Safety
5. 2 Quick-c onnect couplings
5.3 Brake
5.4 Inertia
5.5 Flow gauge
5.6 Hydraul ic system start -up
5 .7 Rotary transducer
5.8 Linear transd ucer
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5 .9 Force transducer
- (")
I 5 . 10 Pressure and fl ow transducers
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5 . 11 Tran sport Iag hose
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5 . 12 0 i I te mperature
5 . 13 Heat exchanger
5 . 14 Control unit constants

SEC TIO N 6 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

SECTI O N 7 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

SECTIO N 8 THEORY & EXPERIMENTS: STEADY -STATE PERFORMANCE

8. l General
8. 2 Operational amplifier
8 .3 Valve drive ampl ifier
8.4 Error channels (Experiment l)
8. 5 Flow gauge (Experiment 2)
8 .6 Electro-hydraulic valve
8 .6 . l General
8.6.2 Valve drive amplifier
8.6 .3 Pressure/fl ow curves (Experiment 4)
8.6 . 4 Hysteresis and resolution (Experiment 5)
8.6.5 Val ve model
 8 .7 Hydraul ic motor
8 .7 . l Gene ral
8 .7 .2 Friction and efficiency (F x periment 6)
8 .7 . 3 Di splace ment (Experi men t 7)
8.7.4 Motor mode l
8.8 Hydraulic cylinder
8.8 . l Genera l
8.8 . 2 Fr ict ion (Experiment Sa)
8. 8 .3 Effect ive pi ston area (E xperiment Bb)
8 . 8. 4 Leakage {E xperimen t 9)
8 8 .5 Cylinder model
8.9 O the r hydraulic components
8 . 10 Hydraul ic system operating point
8 . 11 Rotary velocity servo
8 . 11 . 1 Gene ral
8 . 11 . 2 Effect o f load on valve/ motor
combination {Experiment lOo)
8 . 11 . 3 Effec t of feedback (Experiment lOb)
8 . 11 . 4 Re turn difference
8 . 11.5 Velocity stiffness {Experiment 11)
8 . 12 Linear position servo
8 . 12 . l General
8 . 12.2 Servo types 0, 1 and 2
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8 . 12 . 3 Error coefficients (Experiment 12) -q-
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8 . 13 Rotary position servo 0
8 . 13 . l General '°
8 . 13 . 2 Position stiffness and velocity stiffness
8 .1 3 . 3 Effect of operating point {Experiment 13)
8 .1 3 . 4 Positive feedback (Experiment 14)

SECTION 9 THEORY & EX PER IME NTS: TIME DEPENDENT PERFORMANCE

9. 1 Servo stability

9.2 Methods of representing time dependence

9.2. l Differential equation
9. 2. 2 Frequency response
9. 2 .3 Bode plot
9.2.4 Nyquist plot
9 . 2 .5 Transient response
9. 2 . 6 Laplace transform
9.2.7 Pole-zero plot
9.2.8 Summary
9 .3 Basic forms of time dependence
9 .3. 1 Simple Iag
9.3.2 Resonant double lag
9.3.3 !ntegration
9 .3. 4 Differentiation
9 . 3. 5 Tran sport Iag
 9.4 Dynamic characteristics of loop components
9.4 . 1 General
9.4. 2 Electro-hydraulic valve
9 .4 . 3 Motor and load
9.4 . 4 Cylinder
9. 4 .5 Hydraulic connecting lines
9 .4 .6 Feedback path
9 . 4.7 Operational amplifier
9.4 .8 Valve/motor combination (Experiment 15)
9 .5 Rotary velocity servo
9 .5 . 1 General
9.5 . 2 Increased stiffness (Experiment 16)
9.6 Rotary position servo
9.6 . 1 General
9 . 6.2 Velocity damping
9.6 .3 Limit cycling (Experiment 17)
9 .7 Linear position servo
9 .7 . 1 General
9.7 . 2 Effect of transport lag (Experiment 18)
9 .8 Additional servo configurations
9 .8 . 1 Pressure feedback
9.8 . 2 Flow feedback
9 . 8 .3 Force feedback
9 . 8 .4 Digital feedback
9 .8 . 5 Compensation techniques
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~ SECTION 10 MAINTENANCE
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'° 10. 1 Cleaning

10.2 Mechanical tightness
10.3 Leaks
10.4 Fii te r
10. 5 Accumulator

10 . 6 Valve
10.7 Gauges

10.8 Torque meter

10.9 Lubrication

10. 10 Electronic checks

10. 11 Hydraulic power unit
1o. 12 Hydraulic equipment overhaul
SECTION 11 CIRCUIT NOTES

11. l Opera ti onal ampl ifier

11. 2 Valve drive amplifier

11. 3 Rotary tachometer
11. 4 Synchro pair
11. 5 400Hz supply
11.6 De modulator
11. 7 ±SV supply
11. 8 linear tachometer and amplifier
11. 9 linear potentiometer and amplifier
11. 10 Pressure, flow and force transducers and ampl ifier s
11. 11 Power supply un it

SECTION 12 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

APPENDIX A Symbols used in theory

B Use of the control unit with an electric motor

C Hydraulic circuit in CETOP symbols

D Additional reading .-
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FEEDB CK
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SERVO EHS 160
' .
Hydroul ic powe r control constitutes the most common fo rm
of preci se power man ipulati o n used in modern technology .
It is used throughou t aircraft, ships, machine tools, and
in every indu stry e mployi ng automati c control s up to many
hundreds of horsepo we r.
The EHS160, specifi ca l ly desi gne d for teachi ng
technicians ond stu dent engineers, embodies the latest
hydraulic components ond electronic circu its in a
comprehensive system. Due co re hos been token to fit the
demonstrations and experimental work to the ult imate
requirements of the students.
The apparatus and its ancillary transduce rs and
e lect ronics reproduce exact Iy the conditions found in
industrial installations .
Features
0 Complete with all transducers inc luding two p ressure,
one flo w, one force
0 Includes rotary motor and linear actuators a s output
al te rnoti ves
0 Calibrated output loading foci I ity
D 400Hz synchros on a.c erro r channel
0 Linear d .c displacement control on line a r actuator
D Electronic unit complete with all power suppli es
D Standard industrial hydraul ic compone nts used
throughout
D Hyd raulic powe r suppl y a vailable if required ,
type HPS161 .
0 Clear mimic diagrams show hydroul ic and e lectrical
connecting lines .
Le aflet D 160
___
~ -~
,__
__..._,
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• e
Demonst rati on s & Experiments
STEADY ST ATE PERFORMANCE
Electro-hydraulic va lve , moto r and c yli nder charac te r-
i stic s . Flow gauge calibration . Use o f o ther hydraulic
components, e le c tronic amplifiers and error channel s.
Characteristics of ro tary veloc ity, ro ta ry position a nd
linear position servo s - ve locity and pos itio n erro rs a nd
stiffness, return difference, servo types 0, 1 and 2, error
coeffi cien t , positive feedback .
TIME DEPENDENT PERFORMANCE
Methods of repre senting ti medependence - differential
e quation, frequency response, Bode plot, N y qu ist plot,
transient response, La place transfo rm, pole-zero plot .
Basic forms of time dependence - simpl e and resonant
lag, integration, d ifferen tiation, t ransport lag .
Performance o f practical servo components.
Servo va lve frequency response .
Val ve/moto r combined freque ncy response .
Rotary velocity, rotary position and linea r posit ion
servo s - damping fac tor, effect of inert ia , limi t cycling,
increased s tiffne ss, s tabi lity , effect o f t ransport log .
Add i tional servo configura tions - pressure, fl ow , force
and dig ital position feedback .
By using Feedback LOGI KIT with Shaft Encoder SE254 or
INTIKIT with Shaft Encoder SE266, the system may be
controlled d igitally.
 Specification
Se rvo unit Electronic power uni t

Rotory hydroul ic oxiol piston moto r capable of
1500rev/min , 4.5 N ewton .me tre (401b .in) to rque.
L ine or hydrou l ic motor, 50mm (2 in) stroke , doubie -
oc ting , low fri ction type.
Hydraulic servo valve, h igh fre que ncy, 4-po rt
(usabl e as 3-port) e le ct rically ope rote d spool ty pe .
A smel l free - stand ing un it wh ich p ro vides the necessary
+ 15V and - 15V d .c to the control uni t . Its o utput is
curre nt-l imite d . It requ ires 20 0-250V, 50Hz or 100 - 125V
60H z ot less than 1 amp .

Hydraulic pressu re line filte r, replaceme nt e leme nt

type. . . 3
Hydraulic accumulator, bog type , 0 . 37 li tre (231n )
~olum e .
Gouges 1OOmm (4in) Bourdon tube type, read steady
(mean) va lue s and p rotected from exce ssive vibration -
for supply I ine pressure and flow, servo va lve outputs.
Flow gouge O. I 15litreysec (7in3/ sec) .
Rel ief ond re pl e nishing volve protec t> moto rs etc
from pressures obove 100 bor (1SOOlb/in 2 ) and from
co v i lotion .
Re lief volve , lbo r (151b/in2) prote cts flo w gouge .
Pre ssure tran sduce rs (2) measure dynomicol ly the
servo valve output pressures .
Hyd raul ic power suppl y , type HPS161 {optional)
Flow tronsducer meosures dynamical ly the flow
monito red by flow gouge.
The unit is fi t ted w ith sound absorbent moun tings on
Fo rce tronsducer meosures dynami cal Iy force oppl ied
o fra me with costars.
by the cylinder.
Oil temperature gouge.
This provides o maxi mum of 0 . I I S li tres/ sec (7i n3/ sec)
Coupling, quick - connect self-sealing, a llows e ithe r
ot 70 bar (10001b/in2).
rotary or linear moto r to· be driven.
Coulomb friction b roke and torque meter - pressure
Pump dri ve motor is 220/240V, I IA, SOHz sing le phase.
appl ied or remove d rapidly .
O ther voltages to spec ial order .
Inertial loads, two sizes.
Rotary transducer com prises d . c tocho-genero tor and Pump is subm e rge d type mounted in 4S litre (10 gal)
400Hz synchro transformer. tonk .
Linear transduc er comprises d.c line ar velocity trans -
ducer and l inear potentiometer. Wa ter - cooled heat exchange r.
Transport lo g hose, 3 met res (120in).
Because of le ga l re st ric tion s on the tronsport of
NOTE : Inst ruments indicat ing pressure and torque hove h ydraul ic oil, thi s is not suppl ie d . A range of sui tab le
scal es in S I units. If scale s ore to be in British units (lb oil s is g iven in the handbook .
dnd in) this must be spec ifi e d on the order.
Anc illary e qu ipmen t
Control Uni t
Comprehe nsive inst ruction manual covering theory and
Constructed fo r use al so as o se lf-standing unit , the control prac t ice of oil ex per iments, patch cords, set of spanners .
panel is clipped to the side o f the servo unit. It co ntains
oil the e lectron ics to prov ide these fa ci li ties : The following equipmen t should be mode o voiloble
fo r use with th e EHS 160:-
Rotary and linear reference posi t ion se ttings.
4001-1 z suppl y fo r synch ro tronsm i tte r. LF. test waveform generato r such a s ~he Fe edbac k
Ope rotionol amplifier wi th summing re sistors, TWGSOO or TW GSO I , and o generol - purpose dual t race
vorioble attenuato rs, and selec tab le fee dbac k oscilloscope {long pers is te nce, preferobly) .
confi g uro ti ons.
Se rvo valve d rive amplifie r w i th polarity and
Dimensions & Weights
offset control . Width Depth Heigh t Weigh t
Amp I ifi cotion for pressure , flow and force Servo un it 1003mm 380mm 610mm 47.6k g
tronsduce r outputs. 39.S in 1Sin 24in 10Slb
Suppl y fo r pressure, flow and force transducers, Control pane l 310mm 76mm 360mm 34kg
±SV d.c. 12 .2Sin 3 .0i n 14 . SOin 7 .Sib
Patch so ckets to give ma x imum fl exi bility of Electrical P.S . 140mm 290mm 130mm s. l kg
configu ration w ith minimum patch co rds. All S . SOin 11. SOin Sin 11.Slb
sockets ore short-circuit proof. Hydrau l ic P . S. S90mm 577mm 774mm 71 kg
Al I signals o re of suffici en t ompl i tude for direct 23.25in 22.75in 30 . S in I SB lb
view ing on general -purpose osci ll oscope . (e mpty )

PRINTED IN ENG LAND

FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS LIMITED 0 7 71

• PARK ROAD CROWB ORDUGH SUSSE X TNB 2QR

llef;&tered ., fog!M>d No 990620
Sub~id1ory ol F"EfOO/\CK LTD
ThEPHONE CROW80ROUGH 1089 261 3322 CABLES FEEDBACK CROWBR TELEX TELCX 95255
 INTRODUCTION SECTION 2

The FEEDBACK EHS160 Electro-hydraulic Servomechanism is intended for

experimental use both by students who are beg in ning their studies o f closed-loop
systems and by those who have already grasped the essen ti als of control theory and
wish to study the characteristics peculiar to hydraulic systems .

No prev ious knowledge of control systems is assumed in the text . However,

should the student be familiar with the subject it can only be helpful In allowing a
more rapid and complete grasp of the ma teri al presented here .

Each piece of experimental work is accompanied by the relevant theory .

Wherever this theory is, of necessity, I imited in depth, an attempt is made to
introduce the important concepts .

The experimental work is presented in two sections .

Section 8 deals with the steady-state charac teristics of the hydraulic and -
el ectrical components and of servo loops incorporating these components . Characteris -
tics deri ved include gain, stiffness and error constants . The non-linear aspect of the
hydraulic components is discussed .

I In Section 9 the time dependent cha racteristics of servo mechanisms are described .
°' I The various symbolic and graphical tec hn iques, including the Laplace transform, for
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0 analysi ng and synthesising servo behaviour are introduced . Their applica ti on to several
'° servo configurations is illustrated .
-ANCILLARY
---------QU IPMl Nl SECTION 3

To de ii v ful l b 111 fl t fr om the EH S 160 Servomechanism the use of the foll owing
an ci ll ary e quipme nt ho ~ nl1ol .

1. A d . c -c oupl od o c il loscopo with, prefe rab ly,

(a) dual be ams
(b) XYfa c i lity
(c ) lon g pe rsi tance phosphor (P7)

2. A waveform ge ne rator giving square, sine, and ramp waveforms in the range
0 . 2H z to 200Hzr 0- lOvolts peak - to-peak .

Sui table un its a re the FEEDBACK function gene rators TWG500 and TWG501 .

3. A general purpose, low vol tage, d . c vol t me ter .

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 IN Sf ALLATIO NS SECTION 4

On receipt of the equipment carry out the following checks and set ting-up
procedure :

Unpack the equipment. Check that the following items are present :

Servo uni t with brake drum and large inertia disc attached, Force transducer and
coupl i ng, Flow transducer and two Pressure transducers.

Control unit
Electronic power un it
Rotary transducer assembly
Linear transducer assembly
Tran sport Iag hose
High pressure supply hose
Return hose (clear)
Smal I inertia disc
Cylinder guard
Patch leads (nine, various lengths)
Tools (six Spanners, one Al len key)
Spare seals (eight, various sizes)
Hexagon plugs (four l/ 4" BSP)
Hexagon nuts (5/8 11 BSF)
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I and, if it has been ordered, the:

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'° Hydraulic power unit HSP16l

Thoroughly inspect all items for damage . If any item is damaged or any of the
above items are missing, inform both the carrier and FEEDBACK I NSfRUMENr S LTD
immediately .

Stand the servo unit on a flat, rigid surface t hat is horizontal to within 1° .
Attach the control unit to the servo unit by engaging the sprung pins with the keyhole
slot.

Stand the electronic power unit beside the servo . Set the voltage selector
to the appropriate position. If the supply voltage is intermediate between any of the
available positions, use the next highest position .

Fill the hydraulic power unit with new, clean oil - approximately 10 Imp gal
(45 litre) . Suitable oils are Shell Tellus 27, BP Energol HLP65, Esso Nuto H44,
Chevron EP Hydraulic Oil 9 and Caltex Rando HD-A .

If HSP161 power unit is supplied:

Remove the dust caps from the supply and return hoses, and from the HSP161
ports. Attach the hoses, using the sealing washers provided, and tighten adequately.
 Stand the h 1cl1 <1ul h P'-) 1 1111 I In a we ll ve ntilate d position on a non-resonant
surfac e . The bn:> . of tho '~ ' y ,1 1111 l t ho uld bo highe r than the power unit o i l leve l, but
preferabl b n m r~ them i l)Onu11 (711 4in ) .

BEFO RE ~ WI T HIN ~ (. N 1 HI FRVOMECH ANI SM, read t he Operating Instructions

in Section 5 (~ . 1 t

Wipe cl cm th motinn surfo o of a ll quick -connect hydraulic coupl ings, with a

lint-free cloth . onn~ t tht' ~uppl y and ret urn hoses to the servo un it . Connect the
port l coupling t o the r tm motor . Re move the broke drum and inertia disc and swi ng
the brake behind the se 1 unit pan I .

Start t he po\' er unit a cording to the Operating Instructi ons, secti on 5 . 6 . Recti fy
C11Y oil leaks accord i ng to the Mainte nance Instructions, secti on 10 . 3 .

Switch off t he equi pment . Before operating it further, read the remaining Operating
Instructi ons in Secti on 5(5 .7 to 5 . 14) .

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 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS SECTION 5

The purpose of this section is to indicate the correct operation of the equ ipme n t
where it is not obvious by inspection .

5. l . Safety

It is important to note that I arge hydraulic pressures and mechanical force s a re

developed in the equipment . These can be dangerous if the equipmen t is t reated care-
lessly .

Also note that the oil is flammable, having a closed flash point of 205°C (Shell
Tellus 27) .

In particular the warning on the servo unit panel must be observed scrupulously .
Th is is:

WARNING - SUPPLY PRESSURE MUST BE ZERO

WHILE

* LINEAR TRANSDUCER IS UNGUARDED

* ATTACHING OR DETACHING FORCE TRANSDUCER,

M
I HYDRAULIC COUPLINGS OR BRAKE DRUM .
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I 5.2 Quick-connect couplings
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'° The hydraulic couplings are released by pulling back the knurled collar on the
female half . As the coupling separates, poppet valves automatically seal each half.
This is always accompanied by a small amount of spillage, and it is advisable to hold a
mopping cloth under the coupling when disconnecting it.

To connect the couplings, the collar must again be pulled back. The couplings
should then be pushed together firmly and the collar released .

Note that the quick-connect coupling from the servo unit to the return hose contains
no poppet valves and does not seal when disconnected . This is to prevent any accidental
obstruction of the return flow which would over-stress the low pressure side of the system .
To avoid spillage when the return hose is disconnected drain the return hose, including
that on the servo unit, before disconnecting . To drain the hose, unscrew the large hori-
zontal knurled knob located behind the servo unit panel immediately below the return flow
gouge. Two or three turns are all that are necessary to admit air and allow drainage . Do
A{.ilt forget to retighten, by hand, firmly.

Always ensure that the mating surfaces of the coup I in gs ore clean before they ore
~onnected. Clean with a lint-free cloth. Dust cops are provided to protect the couplings
when not in use.

5.3 Broke

To remove the broke pads from the drum, loosen the knurled knob at the front.
Unscrew and slide out the pivot pin joining the front pod caliper to the brake arm .
Remove the front col iper . If the equipment is to be used before the broke is re-oppl ied,
tighten the knurl e d knob and swing the arm be hind the panel to e ngage with the mag-
netic retainer.

To opp Iy the broke pods to the drum , pul I the broke arm forward un ti I the rear
pod touches the d rum . Loosen the knurled knob suffici e ntly to allow the front pad caliper
to engage be h ind the six domed Belleville washers . (These washers are stacked in al tern a te
directions, bellows fashi on , with concave ends . ) Slide inand screw home the pivo t p in .
The brake can the n be applied to any degree by ti ghte ning the knurled knob .

When the brake is to be used for any period the large inertia d isc should be a ttached
to assist hea t d issi pation .

The broke drum loca tes on the tapered motor shaft . To remove the drum, rota te
the nut counte r-clockwi se to bre ak the grip o f the drum on the toper . If necessary, use the
broke pods to lock the drum . As soon a s the grip is broken, remove the pads to al low the
drum to be removed .

To attach the drum, push it on to the shaft and rotate the nu t clockwise to engage
the thread . Con tinue rotat ing the nut unti l the drum has fully engaged on the taper, then
finally ti gh ten the nut with a spanner .

5 .4 Inertia di scs

Two inertia discs are provided . Either one of these may be attached to the left -
hand side o f the brake drum with the three screws prov ided . These screws must be tighte ned I
..;t
securely .
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5.5 Flow gauge 0

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,....
When the gauge is not in use, the ORIFICE CALIBRATOR should be left fully
clockwise (open) . NEVER FORCE THE GAUGE POINTER RIGHT ROUND AGAINST
THE STOP .

5.6 Hydraulic system start-up

Connect port 1 coupling to either the cylinder or the motor . Ensure that any brake
drum, inertia disc, mot ion transducer and force transducer connections are tight.

It is useful to be able to control the flow when supply pressure is applied . The cont rol
unit should therefore have power applied and be plugged into the servo unit.

If the supply hose or the fluid path of the servo unit contains any significant amount
of a i r before starting, the hydraulic power unit should be 'jog' started This means turning
on the supply for one or two seconds then turning it off for a similar period. This is
repeated until most of the air has passed through the system, then the pressure is left on and
al lowed to build up to its ful I value.

If necessarx:, adjust the hydraulic power supply pressure to its correct value of approx .
70 bar (lOOOlb/inL) , See section 10.11 .

The upper part of the port 1 hose may well have a certain amount of trapped air.
If port 1 is connected to the motor, the offset control should be used to rotate the motor
at a reasonable speed. This will rapidly flush out any tropped air. If port 1 is connected
to the cylinder, the cylinder may be cycled repea tedly over its full stroke to pump out
this air. This may be done with the offset control.
 Natl' tlh1I whl• ll the' · yl ind01 is bolt o d to the force transd uc er, pumping is
i111po ib le . t-l owov() I, if po 1t l p1 s~u rc is c y c le d, the bubbles will be di spersed and
low l y rn1ie d mvo y b y tlw kwl a g flow past the piston rings .

Th rt'nml11de 1 , f th t ' r t mi s se lf- flu shing . There is a small amount of a ir com-

pre e d into th e gmi ~1l' tubl1\ but th is i ~ of no conseque nce .

Th oil flowi11g thro ugh tho re turn hose can be examine d . When this is free from
ae ration th e rt mi 1t' a dy fo r u c. (Continuous aeration may be a sign tha t the supply
oil itself ha b ecom o rot d, poss ib ly be cause the reservo i r level has fallen.)

Thi tort-up proce du re should always be followed .

Note t hat wh e n the supply pressure is turned off, a check va lve at t he input to
the filter prev e nts re v rse flow . The re is a conside rabl e reservoir of high pressure o i l in
the accumulato r, and if th e re is only le akage forward flow, this may toke one or two
minutes to diss ipate .

5 .7 Rotary transduce r

To attach the rotary transducer assemb ly, re move the keepers from the magnetic
feet. Align the i npu t coupl ing w ith the mo to r shaft , a ttach the fee t to the shelf and slide
the un it to wa rds the motor . Tighten th e coupling by rota ti ng the end cop wi th respect to
the body.
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Plug the flying lead into the control unit socke t.
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When no t in use, the magnetic feet should have the keepers replaced .
'°
Note t hat the lo w - speed sha ft of the gearbox is the correc t d iame ter and he i ght
to accept the FEEDBAC K digital sha ft encoders .

5.8 Li near transducer

To a ttach the linear mo ti on transduce r, first remove the keeper from the magnetic
foot . Positi on the foo t on the right-hand side of the shelf, and lower the t ransduce r
coupling block down betwee n the tie ba rs . Align the captive bol t in the block w i th the
cylinder rod end. Scre w t he bolt home whil e holding the cylinder rod with a spanner
across the flats. Never grip t he cylinder rod itse lf, si nce th e resultant scoring would
ruin the rod seal .

Cl ip on the clear plastic guard and sc al e . See figure 1.

Thi s guard must always be in plac e whi le th e linea r tran sducer is connec ted unless
the supply pressure is zero . Thi s is important, si nc e finger-crush ing force s equivalent to
200kg (4501b) are possible .

Note that, to aid mea surement of the exc ursi on of a rapidly oscillating rod , the
thickness of the coup l ing block b e low the sco) e is lOmm .

5. 9 Force T runsducer

The force tran ~ducer i!. •.upplied fixe d in position on the servo uni t . If it becomes
necessary to re move the tronsd1Jccr proceed as follow s ,

TURN OFF HYDRAULIC POWER AND REMOVE THE PORT l COUPLING .

 Hold the flat of th e cy linder rod with a spanner and loosen and spin the locknut
up to the co up! ing nut . Un c re w the coup! ing nut from the force transducer . Depress the
poppe t va lv in th e qui c k- onnect cou pling when pushing back the cylinder rod . Unscrew
and remove th tron du e r r taining bolt . Lift the transducer clear and lay it down along-
side th e servo unit. Unscrew and re move coupling from cylinder rod end .

Re place the force transducer by the reverse procedure . Again the hydraulic power
must be off and th e port l coupling disconnected .

5. l 0 Press ure and fl ow tran sducc rs

The two pre ssure transducers and the flow transducer are supplie d fixed in positi on o n the
servo unit . If it becomes necessary to remove any of these tra nsducers, the leads beh in d the
panel should first be disconn ected from the socket a t the right hand side of the se rvo unit and
drown through to the front . The transducer may then be un screwed and one of the 1/4" BSP
plugs supplied in the accessory kit, inserted in its place taking care not to introduce any fo reign
matter into the system.

5 . 11 Transport lag hose

When the transport lag extension hose is used it is generally attached to the
cylinder . To incorporate this extra length in the hydraulic path, mount the hose bracket
to the motor/cylinder mounting plate with the scre ws prov ide d , so th at it rests on the top
of the motor . Connect part 1 to the captive male coupl ing and take the loose female
I
coupling to the cylinder input. See figure 2 .
'° I
:c
Drape the length of double hose either down the front of the bench on which the 0
servo un it stands, or la y it along the base of the servo unit and through the front left- '°
hand carrying handle.

If the hose contains a ir, it should be tho roughly flushed out by first connec tin g
the hose to the motor (which is rotated) before connecting it to the cyl inder . Th is
cyl inder connec ti on aga in introduces a sma ll amount of air which must be flushed out .
When not in use the hose e nds should be coupled together to exclude d irt. Oil
will automatically be retained in the hose .

5 . 12 Oil temperature

The oil temperature should not be allowed to exceed an indicated 40°C . Above
this the oil may become on inadequate lub ricant. No portion o f the hyd raul ic c ircui t should
feel uncomfortably hot to the hand .
5. 13 Heat exchanger

The exchanger fitted on the hydraulic power unit requires 3-5 litre/min
(0 . 7 - l Imp . gal/min) flow of water for good performance . The water supply should of
cou~e be as cool as possible.

Conditions of usage will determine whether or not it is desirable to use the ex-
changer. ·

·....
Fig l Mounting of the
Ii near transducer

Wl\RNING - upply preL'ure

mu 1 br• / ·ro
\\.h1te
1
•ltn .i tr 111 d11cer 1s \ HHJu.ircle<I
•D' t.1c.:h11"1/ct I c.h1nq forte
• tr u1 clue.•' l1ydr.H11t<: couplintp-1
or hr.i'ci· flrlim

•
'
•

I
Fig 2 Moun t ing of the
t ransport I ag hose

..
•
..

\
5 . 14 Control unit constants

Operating range of valve drive amplifier (in

terms of operational amplifier output) ±2.CN
Offset control range (in terms of operational amplifier ou t pu t) ±2.CN
Rotary velocity constant 26mV/ rac:V sec
Rotary position constant 50ChiV/ rad
{3.75V/rad on dial)

linear velocity constant lOmV/mm/sec

(254mV/ in/ sec)

Linear position constant lV/mm

(25 .4V/ in)

Pressure constant 1OOmV/bar

( 6 . 9mV/lb/in2}

Flow constant BV/80% full scale

Force constant 2mV/newton

( 8 . 9mV/lbf)

(These ore all nominal values}

Positive voltage on an input to the operational amplifier yields positive differ-

ential pressure (port 1 - port 2) from valve .
........
I
co
Positive differential pressure produces positive motion and torque/force. I

5
Positive rotation and torque correspond to clockwise rotation of the motor when
viewed from its shaft end. Th is gives clockwise rotation of the synchro transformer dial .
'°
Positive I inear motion and force correspond to the cylinder rod extending.

All positive actions yield negative transducer signals to give the correct polarity
of feedback.

Flow measurement is in the system return line, and is therefore independent of the
direction of flow in port 1. Flow transducer signals are always negative.
 SECTION 6

In o\~"~\1 ~I. 1tn\ 111•pllt\lllo11 1110 1 1ci quires a la rge force to be applied smoothly
b. ' NW II 1,, hql•'I '' 11111111lld11I P 101 hydraulic power. Additionally, hydrauli c power
L th l ~)h.11 .. h,,k II\ \' t~1t11ln 1l lli (> 1 ulod !,.

T n m 1) f. 1w 1)\ th 1)1 opp I !ca tion : hydraulic presses, earth-moving machinery,

I, h :m~ml , \ "'' ,n~11t pl lt1 - d1 lvo1 &.

In m nv S'l- h •drrnlk powo1· is appl ied in a closed-loo p system. That is, the
eff" t f th~ opp! kotion 1. f ~ W('I h monitore d and the pressure or flow adjusted automat-
i II,' t gh' th' 1 qui1 d r~"u l t . Exampl es of such closed-loop systems (or servo-
m ch I"\' in 1uddt•1 and stobi li zo r contro l on ships and the positioning of co ntrol
ur f ir roft. Ill' of tho most rapid ly expanding uses of hydra ulic power is for
the p ntrol f ma chine too ls. Typically, the work tab le is moved hydraul-
icall ' t the ommand of a punched-tape program .

The three common power systems in use tod ay ore hydroul ic, electrical and
pneumatic. Because of the compressibility of the work ing fl uid, most practica l c losed-
loop systems would be very difficult, in many cases impossible, to mechan ise pneumat-
ica lly.

Th i s leaves the cho ic e between hydraulic and electrical power systems . Their
relat ive merits o re summarised below in a very general fashion. These general iza ti ons
o re limited to power o utputs above 50 watts, below which the advan tage usually li es
with a d.c e lec tri cal system.
N
I
0-
1 Type o f power Hydraul ic Electr ical
I
0
-0
Actuator size smal l large

Speed o f response of high mode ra te

servomechanism

Linecrity ofte n predominantly usually

non-Iineor predom ina ntly
l inear
Co$t of hardware cheaper actuators
and motor

We ight of hordwur0 comparabl e

(inc ludinCJ powor r.uppllM)

Reliobfl ity r;i n ra ll y highe r

r< ,,fo1l I I ti r1111l•1 l1yd1•11i llr ~Mvon1t1chonism~ having a mechanica l input, such as
11
ouf'~r1'ot,il'> ,,.., ,,,H
u~ ~ l o: t-;d ~ 1 .. •11l11n, mt1y h«t ft rAtirnly hydrau l ic. Mo re sophistica ted servo
syst!'trm mriy ,., ,r, r•1 '' · l11ll r1W "'' l'l l1H tr li::1d inp11t \i !lno l or to have comple x frequency
5h<>p: r•<I in th,. f"',.,n ,,.,, I· r.- itl 1 M111l11;1rint ka l opt·rations on the feedback and forward paths
mrJ 4~ri•r'1ll ; l11 1 ,,,,.j,,, ,,, 1,« rfnrrn .,, ,-., t11 r 1il ly lhor1 hydrau lically. Therefor~ ~ lo~i c ol
'll' lro/ r IJ·. • -.~ h r·, lq, 11 1)1\fi" j.,,;rihnck, \ ignol summ i ng, and ompl1f1cat1on
Chtf!IJll"if•f j t,n ;,,

with o h1d1111Jl 1• p•1 r1 • r •lflrt•I H j1 qi Ion 0 11tp111 ~taci~.

 The hydraulic power amplifier may be classified as one of two basic types, either
on electrically controll ed valve or an electrica lly controlled pump .

N ote that an electrica lly controlled pump does not imply that the driving
power is controlled, but that the pressure or f low of the pump is controlled by a low
power electrical signal. O f course it is possible to control the pump output by con-
trol I ing the driving power, but then there is no hydraulic power ompl ification, on ly
power conversion. The efficiency advantage in controlling the pump rather than a
valve becomes important at the high er power ratings, for instance above 5 kilowatts.

The electrically controlled valve (referred to in the tex t as an electro-hydraulic

or servo valve) is more commonly used at present . It offers a much higher frequency
response, at the expense of lower efficiency and consequent oil heating . The EHS 160
uses an electro-hydraulic valve (e-h vol ve).

I
0
N
I
I
0

'°
 The moj r f ~ tu 1~~ ,,t di\ lmple outomatic control system are shown in figure 3 .

vt' nd ' utput 1 quo11titio s ore c ompare d t o produce an 'error' signal

e-r tr' tlw 'fot , cud path' , whi ch is t he whole of t he system be tween the
error sign l th ' fin l ~ ~1tp ~•t. In on hydrau l ic o r electro-mechanical syste m the for-
ward pa th 11 t 1k ~ th<.) fo1m of an a mpli fier operat i ng a motor which drive s the outp4t
o r load . Thi ri pthn ma bt) ummari sed in gene ral terms a s:-

(t) ther mparison of input and output to yield an error,

(ii) the . r p rat · th y te rn,
(iii) there L o p we: r gai n from error to output,

and these conditi o n_ are oft n token a s the defi n iti on of a 'closed loop control system' .

It is ge ne ral ly necessa ry to use some form of tronsducer (sho wn dotted in figure

3 ) in the input a nd feedback I ines in order to convert the actual i npu t and output
quan titi e s (wh ich ma y be shaft angles or some o ther variabl e ) into a suitable form, comm-
onl y voltages . These may th en be compare d to yield the error si gna l wh ich operates the
forward path.

For a speed contro l syste m t he tronsduc er in the fee dback I ine would be a tacho-
generato r, prov id i ng a vo ltage proporti o nal to ou tput shaft speed wh ich is compared with
a des ired speed rep resented by o n inpu t vol t age . Th e port ion o f the syste m used to com-
pare input a nd o utput a nd produce an error is commonly te rmed the 'error channel 1 •

It is impo rta nt to note tha t t here is a 'closed loop ' in the system from the e rro r
.-
N through the forward path and back through the ou tput tran sduce r to the compa rison un it.
I
:I: It is the effec t o f this c losed loop wh ich gives feedback systems their part icular properti es
0
-0 both ad va ntageous and d is-0 d vontageou s.

The g rea t advan t age of o feedback or closed loop system is tha t since it is 'error
opera ted' it co nta i ns the faci l ity to compe nsate for any depa rture o f th e ou tput from the
required condition set by the input . Any suc h d e parture changes the error ond causes
a correcring si gnal to be oppl ied to th o forward path. Whether the departure is caused
by ex ternal load i ng , on inte rnal cfo turbon ce in the system , o r some change in the system
paramet er>, cm ornpfifier Hain for ins tan ce , the syste m compensates for the change to an
ex·t ent depending on the d e toi lf) d d ~ ign . Th e di sadvantage o f a fe e dback system is that,
due to the clo~e cJ loop poth , th1 '• Y~ I m may le nd to give an o scillatory response to any
change of j npul , ond th h rriuy l e; ~ '..O m< I imo lo di e away. The system may eveh become
'umtobl e' and rnointoir1 o ;:c illcAl'lon . Th 11 o ffocts are illustrated in figure 4.

1he g r19r'JI rl- •, iqr1 prnhlt m of c lornd loop syste ms is to expl o it to the ful l the
ctdvontog.es thor f1 c.JbmJ· pto ticl• '> h~Jt to ovoid th e disadvantages .

/v1/ (J(I<,<. d I •1(Jr1 ~/~ f~•rtl d 1(lf U>il l 10 1 some me chanical element / such OS 0 motor
shah V-.H i tl0n (1 r ;I ,~ tf 11 1J~ f r; f fl r ;I i11d 1 , htift / may be termed a 'servomechanism' (mean ing
I I I I t I ' 1\/1 I ,
L fr 'l '•Tfl I) ' IJt " 1I/If'/
s 0 '/~ rn~ CrHJ
 In order to de sig n any servo system effectively al I the component ports must
be characterize d fo r such parame ters as steady-state ga in, offset, de odbond and
saturation . Additionally if the beha viour with frequency (fre quency response ) of
the system is important, or if high ga in is required using components whose indivi-
dual frequency responses have ce rta in characteristics, t hen t he frequency re spon se
of each component must be known .

IOIWUO IAIH t
,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - -- - - - - ~

MDIDI
1Nru1 _ _......,;' 1u~11'.- ---...i 1------' AID l========= -n"UI SHArl
' '
I. - - - - .J
6 (01 1~
I
I

IUUI AID o u . , u r /
L
----- - - ----- ---- --- ------- -..J'
w m111101
,.. - - - - - ...
' I
'---------i~l/onCli((l:~-------------l
'-- - - - - - .J

Fig 3 Elements of a closed loop system

N
N
I

,.,u, __J_____________ I
0
'-0

rUCll CAl

Fig 4 System responses

 THEORY AND EXPERIMENTS :
SECTIO N 8
ST EADY -ST ATE PERFORMANCE

8.1 General

Each component in the servo loop wi ll be e xamined in turn . Mode ls wi ll b e

developed for the hydraulic valve, motor and cylinde r for th e ir steady-state response
(e . g constant position, velocity or acce lerat ion) to appropriate con stan t inputs.
Sinusoidal and transient analysis is left until section 9 .

The closed-loop experiments ore based on the resul ts of the examination of the
individual components . If it is required to give the stude nt only a lim ited acquaintanc e
with hydraulic servomechanism performance and problems, the theory and expe rime nts
may be appropriately selected . Expe riments 14 and 15 are good demonstration e xpe ri-
ments.

Before starting the experimental work the st udent must be thoroughly familiar
with the Operating Instructions, sec t ion 5 .

Note that in the experimental work the values quoted in pound and inch value s
may not be direct equivalents of the quoted Systeme International uni ts, but just con-
venient values .

Apart from the load pressure the system pressure drops ore predominantly caused
by the need to accelerate the fluid through a reduced bore or orifice . Th is kinetic
energy is then d issipated in a subsequent larger bore in turbulence . These pressure drops
(")
are only dependent on the moss (density) and velocities of the fluid accelerated .
N
I
I However, some proportion of the system pressure drops are due to vi scous effects,
0
'° particularly in the hoses at high flow rates . These viscous drops are obviously dependen t
on the fluid viscosity (in fact, directly so) . The viscosity of a typical hydraulic oil of
the type recommended for use in this equipment varies with temperature as shown in
figure 5.
Kinematic
viscosity
(centistokes)
100 cent istoke = 10- 6 m2 /sec
(= 10 .7x 10-6 tt2/sec]

80

60

40

20

0 -+------------~-------------Oil temperat ure

10 20 30 40 50 (<\:)

Fig 5 Variation of oil viscosity with temperature

 It is therefore importont always to record the meon oil temperature w ith any set
of hydroulic experimental readings . Unl ess the heat exchanger is used ond the oil
brought up to a constant temperature, the hydraulic power unit should only be run for
the minimum time to toke a set of readings. Th is reduces the te mperature change be twee n
consecutive plots .

The experiments descri bed in section 8 do not involve the use of the pressure ond
flow t ransducers . These transduce rs are primarily for e xamination of dynam ic condi ti ons,
and more direct indication of steady-state conditions is provi de d by the gouges .

8. 2 Operational amplifier

The operational amp I ifier, before any feedback is appl ied , idea lly is char -
acteri sed by infinite vo ltage gain, zero output impedance , infinite input impedanc e and
zero offset. Practical op-amps can, for many purposes, be regarded a s having the se
ideal characteristics .

Con si der the circuit of f igure 6(0) showing an op-amp with simple resistive
feedback. If infinite gain is assum e d, the amplifier can produce any output voltage
with no differential voltage required at its input terminals.
Thus

= r
Rf I

Generalizing, if the input and feedback impedances are Z . and Zf the vo l toge gain
1
through the ompl ifier is ~
N
I
I
-zf 0
VO
= '°
V•
I
z.-I

This can obviously be made frequency sensitive, if required . Either Zf or Zi or both

may contain capacitive elements.

One can also sum seve ral input voltages with the operational amplifier a s shown
in figure 6(b). These ore weighted in inverse proportion to their input impedance thus

... + L.
v.IX
IX
l
Another case is that ii lustrated in figure 6(c} where only a proportion, k, of v 0 is
fed to Rf. The gain is then

The output of the operational amp I ifier on the control unit is I imi ted between .
approximately +3V and -4V. Th is is more than adequate to drive the servo valve over its
ful I range.
 Rt
Vj 1 2 I 1 Zt

v;2 z

VjX Z·

Vo

summing junction
(al (bl

Rt

Vo

I.()
N
I
:c
~ (c)
Fig 6 Operational arnpl if ier con fig urations

8.3 Valve drive amplifier

The va lve drive amplifier converts the op-amp output voltage into a proportional
drive current for the servo valve. The gain is lOOm,A/V. The full operating range of
the va lve output is ±200mA or, referred to the op-amp o u tput, ±2.0V.

The I NVERT switch inverts the valve drive amplifier input signal about ground .

The OFFSET control allows offsets to be introduced into the amplifier output .
This may be used to compensate for the pressure bias required by the cylinder, to de mon-
strate the effect o f o ffset i n the forward path, or to provide simple open-loop control of
the moto r or cy linder.

A note co ncerning use of the valve drive amplifier to control ±600mA in an

electric mo tor field wil I be fo und in Appendix B.
8 .4 Error channel s

There are four motion transducers use d on the e quipment. These ore for rotary
velocity, rotary position, l inear ve locity and l inear position . They are each repre se n ted
d iogrammot ica l ly on the control unit pone I . Both velocity transducers work on the same
principle; a voltage is induced in a wind ing , proportiona l to the re lot-ive spee d be twee n
the wind ing and a permanent magnet whose fie ld it intersec ts.

Linear posit io n se nsi ng is a lso 'd . c'. The cy l inder drives the wiper of o fixed
linear pote nt iome ter whose en ds o re e nergised wi th ±5V. The resul tan t voltage is on
indication o f cylinder position, di rec tly propo rtional to its d istance fro m the centre of
tra ve l .

Note that the linear control led posi tion and reference position o re not compo red
at the op-amp summing junction . lnsteod the I ineo r posit ion error is produc e d at a
separate summing ampl ifie r . (T his is ana logou s to the produc ti on o f the rotary positio n
error by the inheren t ac tion of the sync hro l ink and demodulator . )

The rotary motor position is sensed using an a . c carrier sys tem . The alternat ive
use o f a si mpl e poten tiometer in a system capabl e of continuous rotation would hove
obvious Iimitations . Spe c iol to ppe d potenti ometers cou ld ove rcome th ese I im ita tions,
but normal pract ice is to use synchros . These ore used w ith either a compl e te ly o , c system
including ampl ification , fre q uency shaping and on e le c tro-me chanical ou tpu t de v ice all
operating at carrier frequency, or with a hybrid sys te m such as in the EHS 160 where the
position error (d . c fo1m) is de rive d from o de modu lator and the rest of the system opera tes
in d . c voltages .

A synchro consists of a wound roto r with conne c t ions brough t out through sli p '°
N
t
rings, and three sta t o r w indings spaced at 120° . In normal use the two stotors ore I
connected togeth er and one rotor energi se d by a . c a s in fig u re 7 . Th e e ne rgi sed rotor 0

induces currents in the stato r circuits which generate a field in the rotor . If thi s rotor '°
is turned, t he relative magni t ude s of the voltages between the sta to r I ine s change and
the field direc t ion in the se cond stator rotates with the firs t ro tor . A vo ltage wi ll be
induced in the second rotor wh ich is proportional to cos G , where Q is the angl e between
the field and rotor axis . Hence when two rotors o re pe rpe nd icu lar there wi l I be no
voltage in the second rotor . When the rotors are move d a way from perpe ndicu l a r o voltage
appears in the second rotor proportional to the change (for small angles), and with phase
changing through 180° with the sense of the change a s shown in figure 7(b) . It is
important to note that the synchros ore o single phase system, and there ore no fields
rotating at supply freque ncy a s with three phase systems. The null o f a pair of synchros
provides a very preci se alignment indication, the accuracy be ing of the o rder o f a fra ction
of a degree.

If one rotor is connected to the output shaft of a position system and the other
to the input shaft then the output si gnal from the se cond rotor con be use d a s on e rror
indication . The two rotors would be set 90° apart on the i r respec t ive shafts so that when
the shafts rotate at the some speed the second rotor wi l I give a signal depend ing on the
misalignment. This is the great advantage of synchros in that they pe rm it e rror de tect ion
with continuous rotation of input and output shafts. The disadvantage of the synchro l ink
is that the error is on a . c signal, and cannot be applied direc t ly to the forward path of
o system which operates on d.c signals, as in the present system. It is nec essary to
introduce a 'demodulator' which will convert the a.c error info rmation to a d.c signa l
to operate the system . This means that the demodulato r output must be positive or
negative depending on the phase of the o . c error signal, as in figure 7 (c) and have
magnitude proportional to the o.c magnitude.
 Field ! DC depending
Energ1 sat1 on on phase of
S1 <>-----'~-----<>·- -- rotor output

Rot or output for

smal l change
Slip rings
(a) (b) (c )

Fig 7 Synchro error chonnel

"'
N
I
In the synchro I ink it doe s no t matter in princ ipl e wh ich rotor is energ ised, i .e
the output synchro rotor could be energ ized and th e de modula tor fed from the inpu t ro tor .
I
0
In practice, the synchro with rotor e nergi sa ti on is normally connecte d to the refere nce
'° shaft and called the 'transmitter' . The one tha t pro vi des the error signal a t the rotor is
normally connected to the output (con troll e d) shaft and called the ' t ransformer' . The
winding details differ some what between the pa i r .

The pr inciple on which the demodulator operates is show n in fi gu re 8 . The ro to r

of the synchro dri v ing the demodulato r is connected across the two input res istances
r, wh ich are relatively low compared with the other resistances R, and ha ve thei r commo n
point grounded so that the rotor voltage is obta ined as two equal and opposite phase vol tages
at the points 1, 2. The signals at one point change phase by 180° as indica ted whe n the
rotor is turned through the null condition. The two points 3,4, are connected to a switch
(which in the actual demodulator is an equivalent transistor circuit) wh ich opera te s a t th e
400Hz carrier frequency, alternatively shorting 3 or 4 to ground . The sw i tch is arranged
to change over at the instant when the carrier frequency signal from the rotor passes through
zero, and hence the waveforms at 3, 4, will be as shown. Alternate half cycles a re sho rt
circuited, and only positive or negative half-waves remain depending on th e phase o f the
rotor voltage with respect to the switch operation. The half cycles are added togethe r by
the operational amplifier to give the ful I wave positive or negative rectified ou t pu t a s show n
at 51 depending on the phase of the rotor voltage . This signal could not be used d i re c t ly
to operate the forward path of the system, since the ripple would tend to dri ve the units
beyond their operating range, or cause the motor to run roughly. If a capaci tor C is
connected in parol lel with the feedback resistor as shown, the respon se o f t he a mp lifier
falls with increasing frequency and the ripple component is much reduced.
 . It is important that the switch opera te exact ly in phase wi th the rotor volta ge,
otherwise t he waveforms a t 3, 4, have th e general shape of figure 8(b), and the mean
d.c leve l falls . It is convenient to operate the sw itc h from the suppl y tha t energises
the input synch ro roto r ( th ough there is so me sma ll phase sh ift through the synchro link) .

0 ' ,_ ... , ''

Ref in - - - --,
,

~
I Effect of C
I

L~
3

R/2 R
I
I~\
I
Sig in

I (b)

I
2 R/2 R/2 c

/
,-,
'\
' ~, ,
.
(a)
\Jo-
Fig 8 Demodu l a t or pr i nciple co
N

I '
Experiment 1 0

"°
Se t up the servo un it and control unit for open-loop ro t ary control as shown 1n
figure 9. Do not apply the brake .

Set the ORI Fl CE CALI BRAT OR fully open .

Switch on electron ic powe r .

Loosen the coupling and rotate the rotary transducer input shaft until the dial reads
0°. Reconnect it to the motor shaft . With on oscilloscope, preferably triggered from the
400Hz carrier test point, examine the waveforms through the synchro l ink, available a t
the various test points . Rotate the reference position dial through the 0° {zero error) point .

Switch on the hydraulic power. Examine the demodulator output as the mo tor is
rotated, using ATTENUATOR l . Note that,os expected from the theory, the output of th e
demodulator is a sinusoidal waveform for constant motor speed. The frequency of this sine
wave is equal to the frequency of rotation of the transformer dial, that is, 1/7.5 that of
the motor shaft. Use th is to calibrate the ROT ARY VELOCITY tachogenerator output,
K rv vol ts/ {rod/ sec)
 •0
~

w ~
>
N >

0
~
~

c
0
u
•
l[)
~
0 ~

u
~

u
-
0
0
~

w ~
0) 0
~
0
0
I
c

\
w
~
~ 0
~

en
0)

~
 8.5 Fl ow on:ii) ~

WAR NIN 1: NI V lR I ORC, THE G AUGE POINTE R RI G HT ROUND AGAI NST THE
STOP .

The flow
rJ l'lll rJl' o p 1o fo s by me osu1 ing t he pre ss ure drop a cross a smol I metering
o ii f ict' pla
di n !ht' hyd 1ou l ic re tu rn . Th e size of th is orif ice co n be a l tere d, using
the O RI FIC CALl l3RATO R, to give a suitabl e range on the ga uge .

Th is fo1m of fl ow me a sure me nt is c ommonly use d in prac ti ce . It re l ies on t he

e xi ste nc e of q fixod 1o la ti o n hip be t we e n pressure drop and flow i n a hydraul ic resista nc e .
Using Be rnoulli' th e o re m, fo r t u rbul e n t flow th rough a simpl e orifi ce th is rela tion sh ip
may be exp re se d a s

Q = COA ~ 2 6p/p

w he re Q = volume flow, x 10 millil i tre/ se c [x lin3/sec J

co = o rifice co e ffi cie nt, dime nsi onl ess

A = oriT ice a rea, mm 2 [ 1n 2]

flp = orifice pressure drop, bar [l b/ in J

2 3
p = mass density of flu id, k ilogram/ I it re [l b/ in/se c )/ in ]

The o rifice coefficien t is depende nt o n t he geomet ric conf i gu ro ti o n o f t he o rifi ce

and , to some e xtent, upon the order o f the fl o w ve loc ity re la tive to the or if ice si z e . For 0
("")
sharp-edged orifices it normally ranges from 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 . I
I
0
If, for a given orifice size, the flow gauge press u re read i ng is p lo tte d aga i nst fl o w '°
the resul tant curve should be parabolic . The motor may be use d a s a meteri ng dev ice to
measure the fl ow since it hos a constant displacement per revolu ti on .

The e x perimental result will be affected to some degree by va ri ou s fa c tors . First ly,
the flow gouge is measuring the fu l l system flow , i . e motor and val ve lea kage fl ows o s we ll
as the active motor flow. Since the mo tor rotation doe s not include th is lea kage the e x peri-
mental curve will I ie a I ittle below its true position .

The flow gauge is actually measuring the press ure upstream of the me te r ing o rifice
and the return hose and connections , rather than the t rue differential pressure across the
orifice. There is a bock pressure developed in thi s hose and connections, which depe nds
to some extent on vi scosity (and therefore tempe rature ) . Al so, si nce the flo w he re is
partially laminar (smooth) and partially turbulent, the bock pre ssure follo ws a so me wha t
different law from that across the orifice. Thi s back pressure is less sign i fican t with smal ler
orifice settings.

Finally, the head of oil from the orifice to the level o f the hydraulic po we r unit
reservoir subtracts from the flow gauge pressure reading, For a typ ical h ydraul ic oil h avi ng
a specific gravity of 0.88, thi s head is 0.086bar/metre (0. 026bar/foo t) .

A typical colibration curve is shown in figure 10.

 02 04 06 08
F ig 10 Typical flow gauge cal ib ration curve

M 1ote tho r th e graduations on the ORIFICE CAL IBR ATOR d ial do not d irec tly
I
I indicore rh e o rifi ce a rea, but pro vide a means o f resett ing to a kno wn col ibroti on {at a
0
k ow rempe ro ture) .
'°
Apart from toking accurate readings, the flow gouge is useful for comparative
a nd q ua li ta tive ind icati on .

Readings above 0 . 8 bar ore unreliable since o pro tective relief valve starts to
by- poss the fl o w gouge above thi s pressure . However, exce ssive flow through the resistance
o f th e re turn ho~ a nd connections con st ill cause excessive gauge pressures . Because of
thi s re li ef by- poss, the pul sin g flow from the cylinder (on the retract st roke only) may not
be occ urc te ly a veraged. During the pul se the flow may be b y-passed if it is of suffic ient
o rrpli tude , yet the gouge may be re ading an ove rage much less than 0.8 bar . Thi s is also
tn..e, o f cou~e , for pul si ng motion of the rotary motor.

N!> te that if the flow transducer is use d, the calibration cu rves obtained with the
fl ow gou ge: ore dirE:c.tly applicabl e.
E xperim c n t 2

To c o l ib1oto tho fl ow OllUQ ' , c onnect up the se rvo unit and control unit os
shown in figut tl 9. Oo 11ot opply th o broke. The motor wi ll be used a s o flow metering
devic e.

Switch on oloc tro11i c powe r .

Set ATT ENUATOR 2 to 0 .5, then adjust ATTENUATOR 1 to give CN at the

op-amp ou tput .

Switch on the hydrau l ic power unit .

Adjust t he OFF SET to balance port 1 and port 2 pressures.

Use ATTENUATOR 1 and 2, respe ctive ly, as coarse and fine motor ve loc ity
controls.

Set th e motor running clockwi se to give a ROT AAY VE LOCI TY reading of about
-3 . 0V. Adjust the ORI FICE CALIBRATOR to produce a flow gouge reading of 0 . 8 bar .

Record the flow gouge pressure re adings corresponding to o range of ROT AAY
VELOCITY vo l tages down to a point where the motor runs erroticol ly.

Re cord the oil temperature and the ORIFICE CALIBRATOR setting.

Plot flow against flow gauge pressu re as shown in figure 10 . Use a motor
d ispl ace ment of 4 . 5mi11 i Ii t res/ rev @. 275in3/ rev] to tra nslate tacho- generator reodi ngs N
into motor flow. ('"")
I
I
0
To mea sure smaller f lows, cal ibration curves a t small er orif ice settings ore -c>

required . The se are produced in the way already described, but ad just ing the ORIFICE
CALIBRATOR to gi ve 0 . 8 bar flow g auge read ing a t o lower flow sta rting po int.

8.6 Elec tro-hydraulic val ve

8.6. 1 General

The e l e ctro-hydraulic val ve is the control e lement in any closed-loop electro-

hydraul ic sys te m (exce pt on those whi c h ore control led b y a variabl e delivery pump).
The val ve u se d in the EH S 160 is o proportional flow type, often known a s a servo valve.
It prov ide s a flow from one output port to the other (ports l and 2) in either direction,
propo rti onal to on input s ignal curre nt . The other two ports ore con nected to the
hydraulic supply and re turn lines. The output port pressures ore generolly symmetrical
about half supply pressure.

A diagrammati c sec tion of the valve is show n 1n figu re 11 . It consists of a

polarise d electrical torque motor and two stages o f hydraulic power ampl ificotion. The
motor armature ex tends into th e air gaps of th e magne tic flu x ci rcu it and is supported in
th is posi tion by a fl exure tube me mber. The fle xu re tube acts al so as a seal between the
electromagnetic and hydraul ic sec tions of the valve. The two motor coi ls surround the
armature, one on e a c h side o f the fl exure tube.
 Magnet

c ll Flexure tu be

Ar motur Flapper

Noz:zl Lower poleplate

Spool Feed back spr1 ng

Filter
Fixed orifice

Port 1 Return Port 2 Pressure

F ig 11 Electro-hydraulic servo valve

The fl opper of the first stage hydraulic amplifier is rig idly attached to the mid-
po int o f the arma t ure. The flopper extends through the flexure tube and posses between
("')
("')
two nozzles, crea ti ng two variable orifices between the nozzle tips and the flopper .
I
I The pressure controlled by the flopper and nozzle variable orifice is fed to the end areas
0
of the second stage s pool.
'°
The input sign al induces a proportional magnetic charge in the armat ure and causes
a deflection of the armature and the flopper . This assembly pivots (in the plane of the
paper in fi gure 11) about the flexure tube, increasing the size of one nozzle orifice and
decreasi ng the si ze of the other . Thi s action creates a differential pressure from one end
of the spool to the other and re sults in spool displacement . The spool displacement cause s
a torque in the feedback wire which opposes the original input signal torque. Spool move-
men t cont inues until the feedback wire torque equals the input signal torque .

Se rvo val ves may b e ei ther 4-port or 3-port. In a 4-port valve, both output ports
ore v~d lo giv£: o pu·.h-pull drive , while a 3-port valve has only a single output port .
Generolly, o 4-port· ·.poo l volve, such as that on the EHS160, may be used as a 3-port
vol 11e by ~ irriply c.onn<;c ling to one of the output ports and closing off the other .
\

lhc 'Jf1tJly~h thut· follows is generally o f' the) 4-port configuration . The application
to ~1-port \J'.;Oq'' h di ~c, ti ~·.o d in ~ec lian 8.6.5.
8 . 6.2 Flowgain

The flow gain is the relationship between the valve output flow and the input
signal. r

The valve use d on the EHS160 has a nominally linear flow gain characteristic .
Th is deri ves from the fact tha t the spool displacement is d irectly propo rt ional to the input
signal current . Since flow is d irect ly propo rtional to orifice size for a gi ven pressure,
linear flow gain results, i.e O/vx = constant.

Also, for a simple orifice the flow is proportional to the square-root of the
pressure across it {as discussed in section 8 . 5) . The total pressure across the two ac tive
spool orifices is the difference between the supply - return differential pressure, p,
and the (absolute amplitude of) port 1 -port 2 differential pressure,Jpx ; . Therefor~
increa sing the load pressure,jpx !,reduces the valve o rifi ce pressure drop and accord in gly
the flow gain .

The motor may again be used experimentally as a flow meterin g device. Flow
gain curves obtained in this way w ill be of the form shown in figure 12 .

Fig 12 Valve flow gain

 Thee experi me n ta l fl ow gain c u rves may appear to indicate that the servo
val ve of the 1overlopped 1 type.

An overlapped valve is one in whi ch a s the spool crosses its central posit ion it
closes off port 1 and 2 to both supply and re turn for o meosuroble portion of its tra ve l .
Th is result in a 1deodbond' of zero flow g a in os shown in figure 13 .

Output t low Q

Spool
d 1spl acement
CX: Vx

~I ~(two
Flow gain doubles 1n t his area
or1f1ces uncov ered at t he
same ti me)

It)
("')
I
::c
0
-0
F ig 13 Effect of spoo l la p

Con versely, os the spool of on 1underlopped 1 val ve posse s through o central

region each port hos orific es ope n to both the supply and the return at the same ti me .
Since each port then ho s two orifices active ot the some time there is a doubling o f the
flow gain in the region. Al so in thi s region the second-stage internal le akage, from
s upply straight to return, by-passing the output ports, greatly incre a ses .

The EHS160 servo va lve is norminolly ' ze ro loppe d' . Howe ve r, produc ti on
tolerances mean that e ither or both ports may e xhibit symp toms of o ve r- or unde r-lopping
to a very smol I degree. The ze ro-gain regi on in the c e ntre of the experi mental flow gain
plot should not be token as evi de nce of ove rlap. It is due simply to the valve and motor
leakage flow having to be suppli ed before the moto r w ill rotate .

The true gain charac teristi cs may therefore be assumed to poss I ineorl y through
the origin porol IE: I to th e measured flow c urves, and are shown as broken I ines in
figure 12.
 Expe riment 3

Set up the servo uni t and contro l unit a s shown in figure 9 .

Switch on the e lectron i c power unit . Set ATTENUATOR 2 to 0 . 5, the n adjust

ATTENUATOR 1 to give OV at the op-amp output .

Switch on the hydra uli c power unit .

Use the OFFSET control to ba la nce port 1 and port 2 pressu res . To give t his
balanced condition the valve spool wi l I be in its central pos ition, os shown in figure 11,
provi de d that the loads (or impe dances) d riven b y po rts 1 and 2 are simil ar . In th is
position each port is seal ed off from both the supply p ressu re a nd return ports, apart fro m
some smal I leakage past t he spool . In t he EHS 160, ports 1 and 2 are connected across
the rotary motor . This motor has a small continuous intern al leakage from its in pu t ports
to its 'drain' port. Thi s drain po rt is connected to the return si de of the hydra ulic syst em .
Under these lea kage condit ions the p re ssure drop through the val ve spool sea ls is greater
than that through th e motor . Hence under balanced conditions the port 1 and 2 p ressures
tend towards zero . No te that if, for e xample, the moto r drain were connected to a
central press ure of 35 bar [5001b/in 2 ] the port 1 and 2 pressures would also balance a t
that point .

ATTENUATOR 1 and ATTENUATOR 2 may now be use d a s, respective ly , coarse

and fine inputs to the op-amp and hence the servo val ve . Th e motor spee d, indica ted by
t he tacho-gene rator, is a direct measure of the val ve flow (apart from motor leakage) .

I
The val ve p ress ure d rop (ps - Px j) is controlled a t 20 bars (}001b/in2J by use
of the fri ction b rake . Small adjustments to t he b rake tension knob wi l l be necessary as '°
(")
I
t he speed is varied . I
0

To de termine the flow gain cha racteristic of the val ve a t this pressure a plot o f
'°
readings of ROT ARY VELOCITY output voltage, Vrv ' and va lve dr ive ampli fi er input
(op-amp ou t put) voltage vx should b e made . Start by ro tat ing ATTENUATOR 2 clockwise
un til the motor just rotates smoothly , clockwise . Record \X and vrv · Repeat a t appropriate
st eps of Vx progressi ve ly increasing the motor speed until ROT ARY VE LOCI TY readings
of betwee n -3 . 5V are obtained . Repe at the readings for counter-c loc kwise rota tion .

Repeat the readings for (ps - IPx I) = 50 bars [ 7 001b/in2J

From the readings at the two val ve pressure drops, produc e plots similar to those
show n in figure 12 . Again, as fo r the flow gauge experiment, assume a mot or displac ement
of 4 . 5millilitrevrev [ 0 . 275in3/re v]. Fo r con venience the valve input may b e left in
terms of vx, though actually .t he valve d rive amplifier converts this to a proportional
differential current .

8.6 .3 Pressure/flow curves

It hos been show n that th e load press ure affects the flo w gain . This pressure
dependence con be characte ri sed ideal I y by a si mpl e o rifice where flow is proportional
to the square-root of the pressure across it . Fo r on ideal valve

Q = C vx ~ Ps - IPx j I itres/ sec

' .. •
,.
l • ••..

"e ....
 w here C is a constant of the valve and valve drive ompl ifier (and I Px 12 Ps)
Let C = Kx/~
Then Q = Kxvx ~ (ps - I Px I )/ps
When the ful l supply pressure, Psi is dropped across the valve, i .e Px = 0.

Q =
Therefore ~ is th e flow gain of the valve at the system supply p ressure. This is then the
fundamental valve constant in that sy stem .

To establish that the si mpl e orifice equation provides a reasonably accurate model
of the EHS160 valve pe rformance, experimenta l plots of va lve p ressure drop against flow
should be token at various values of vx, the curves should be parabolic as shown in
figure 14 .

Note that figures 12 and 14 present the some information, the relationship between
vx, (ps - PxI I) a nd Q, in two different ways , to emphasise different a spects of this
re lot ionsh i p .

- "
M
I
I

0
'°

Fig 14 Typical va Ive pressure I flow characteristics

Exp 1 imonl 4

Tho so t up Is a s for the previous experi ment, a s illustrated in figure 9.

Init ia ll y do not apply the b roke.

Swi tch on the hydroul ic power unit .

Set ATTENUATOR 2 to 0 . 5 and adjust ATTENUATOR 1 to give vx = Ov.

Adjust th e OFFSET to balance port 1 and port 2 .

Now use ATTENUATOR 1 and 2 to se t v

x
= -0 . 6v, soy.

Re cord the suppl y and load pressures (ps and px), the ROTARY VELOCITY voltage
(vrv) and the va lve drive inpu t vo ltage (vx)· Leovi np v~ at this setti ng, apply the bro ke
to give, say a 10 bar Q501b/in2Jdecreo se in (ps - IPx I ) and repeat the readings. Repeat
thi s ot four or five suitabl e increase d values of Pxr in particular in the region before the
moto r is jus t brought to a hol t.

The res ul tant re adings should resemble the curve shown in f igure 14.

If the proce dure is re pe ate d for an e qual but negative value of vx , the symmetrical
continuation oi the curve is produce d .

The intermediate curves ore produce d by repeating the experiment at other suitable
value s of vx (though plotting for negati ve polarities may be omitted once the symmetry hos
be e n de monstrate d).
00 -
M

Cclculate Kx from the slope of the (Ps - IPx I) = 50 bars line produce d in
I
:r:
0
experiment 3.
--
'° -
Check the experimental pressure/flow curves at seve ral points to determ ine where,
and by how much, the EHS160 val ve departs from Q = Kxvx ~(Ps - !Pxl/Ps ·

What effect doe s the smal I motor leakage hove on the experimental curves?

8.6.4 Hysteresis and resolution

Hysteresis is a non-linearity in the flow gain caused by magnetic remanence in

the torque motor . The effect on the flow is as shown in figure 15 where the valve input
signal required for o given flow is dependent on the polarity and ompl itude of previous
signal values. In a well designed valve this effect should be very small .

Resolution, or rather lock of it, is cause d by frictional force s on the moving ports
of the valve. It is defined os the maximum movement of the input signal before o change
in flow occurs . The effect shows up as 'bac klash' in the flow gain. Again in o we ll
designed valve this effect is very small .
 Q

F 19 15 Valve flow gain hysteresis

°'
M
I
Experimen t 5
I
0
'° To measure these e ffect s a particularly accurate measuremen t techn ique must be
used . The flow gouge may be used to mea sure the point of minimum fl ow, correspond ing
to the nom inol ly perfectly balance d condit ion .

The set up is as for the previous experiment, as illustrated in fi gure 9 .

Initially do not apply the brake.

Switch on th e e lectronic power un it .

Set ATTENUATOR 2 to 0 . 5 and adjust ATTENUATOR l to give vx = Ov.

Switch on th e hydrau lic supply and adjust the OFFSET to balance port 1 and
port 2 pressures .

Rotate the ORIFICE CAL IBRATOR counter-clockwise to give o flow gouge pressure
reading of about 0 . 2 bar. (VVARN ING: DO NOT FORCE THE FLOW GAUGE
POINTER RIGHT ROUND AGAINST THE STOP.) This is a measure of the total leak -
age and valve first -~ toge flow, proportional to its square. Finely adjust ATTENUATOR 2
to obtain a minimum . Agoin adjust the flow gauge pressure to approximately 0 . 2 bar
(this flow is lorgo ly compasod of the first-stage flapper valve flow) .
 To measure the valve resolution, carefully adjust ATTENUATOR 2 up ond do wn
to determine the range of movement of the valve dri ve voltage w ithou t ca using any
movement of the flow gauge . (Note that the flow gauge has a respon se ti me o f seve ra l
seconds, and a lso that gentle tapping of the panel may be required to incre a se th e
resolution of the gauge itself . ) The valve resolution may well be beyond the lim its o f
adequate I y accurate measurement .

To measure hysteresis aga in adjust ATTENUATOR 2 to give a minimum flow.

Now , using the brake to keep the flow gouge reading in the reg ion of l bar, se t
ATTEN UATOR l to give a va lve drive input of -2 . 0v . Carefully and slowly return
ATTEN UATOR 1 near to the minimum flow condition, then finely adjust ing. Measure
the valve drive vo ltage, vx, accurately.

Repeat the procedure, this time first rotating the motor counter-clock w ise .
Aga in measure the input voltage required for minimum flow .

The difference between the two input vol toge readings, 1 - 2, is the sum of the
va lve hysteresis (for the full input ampli t ude sw ing) and resolution effects .

8. 6. 5 Valve model

From the section 8 . 6.3. the expression governing on idea l 4-port valve 1s
(for IPx I~ Ps).

Q = I /sec 3
[in /sec J
The experimental work sho u ld hove shown this to be a reasonab le approximation
0
for the EHS 160 valve. ~
I
I
Th is expression, being non-linear (since Qa:: JP)
is difficu l t to work with, fo r
0
'°
reaso ns that wil l be apparent later when closed-loop operation is considered . For small
ch a nges in Q and Px a si mp lified I ineo r model may be use d .

Differentiating the gene ra l expressi o n gives

~I = -2ps Q
bar/ { I /sec) [{lb/in2)/ (in3/ sec) J
d Q K 2v 2
x x

= -2 ~ Ps ~Ps - IPx I )
Kxvx

Al terna tive ly

d Px
=
- 2 p~ I0 I
dQ K 2v 2
x x

-2 ~ Ps ~Ps - IPx I )
=
Kx I vx I
 Thi s gi ve s the slope of the pressure/flow cu rve a t the ope rating point (Q , Pxi vx) .
For small changes in ope ro ti ng point thi s slope is substa nti al ly constan t , That is

8 Px
8Q = constant

Th is measure of the i nde pe nde nce of val ve flow from the valve out put pressu re is the
val ve 'stiffness' . It is analogous to th e output re sistance of an e le c trical ampl ifier .

The small-signal (steady-state ) model is then a s show n in figure 16, where the
amplifier gain k x is

= (I / sec)/volt [(in3/se c)/vol t J

and is a constant at the chosen opera t ing poi nt . Pre ssures p 1 (o) and p (o) ore al so
2
constants at the ope ra ti ng point .

amplifier
P1 lo l

iocvx
" ""

- i OC V x
q :>
I leakage/
I
/
Px

I
/ P2

Bpx/250

Fig 16 Valve small-signal model

Now consider 3-port operation of the some valve . In the 4-port usage symme t ric a l
operation was assumed, i . e

=
2

This meant that the flow reverses at = =

2

and also that orifice drops in both ports ore equal regardless of flow amplitude and polarity.
 PS
In the 3-port configuration, unle ss flow also reverses at p
1
= , the operation is
o ssymme tri col • 2

The flow expressions ore

3
Q = I/sec [in / sec]

for flow from the suppl y o rifice (+ve flow )

3
-Q = K v ~ 2p /p s I /sec [in /sec]
x x 1
for flow to the return orifice (-ve flow) .

The correspond ing flow gains ore

k
x
= for +ve flow

k
x
= for -ve flow

Differentioti ng the flow expression gives

-p Q
s
= for +ve flow
K 2v 2
x x N
~
I
I
-~2p (ps - pl) 0
s
= '°
K v
x x

+p Q
s
= for -ve flow

=
Kx v x

Therefore the flow gain and the stiffness change as the spool nul I is crossed, unless
pl = p/2 at this point.

Note ~hot if ~he flow reversal does occur at p

1
= p/2, the fl.a"':' g.oin .is. equal
to, and the stiffness 1s half, that of the corresponding 4-port valve, This 1s 1ntu1t1vely
obvious from consideration of one symmetrically-operated port of a 4-port valve.
 II ""'''I h ,,I llh~ "' l~1I 111u l ti - pi Ion t ype with a fixed swa shplate .
A si mpl ified
,~, th''''l ' \,,,, h 'h''"" In ti~l.llC' 17. I i co ia l pi tons a ct, vi a shoes ond a co mp lete,
1\ :) ~'l , ... '"'"h~'hll ) tl <' d I lh c e nd of the motor cos ing.

P1!.lon Orivc port

Seal

\
\
\
Outpu t shaft

Motor casing Roto r Beari ng

cy.
I
I F 1g 17 Hydraulic motor
0
-0

Rother than bei ng set perpendicular to the a x is of ro ta ti on , this swoshpl o te is set

a t a n gle, t ypically 70° to the a xis. The whol e rotor a ssembl y is connected to t he output
sha ft and is: free to rotate insi de the motor ca sing . Torque is produce d by exposing to a
h i gher pressure those pi ston s acting on one si de of the swa shplate.

The ac tion of motor is complete symmetrical, the direc t ion of rota tion depends on
whether flow is from the upper to the lower port or vice versa .

In add ition to the two drive ports there is a small drain port {located on the hidden
side) which, connected lo the hydraulic return line, remove s oil leak ing from the eel
be tween the dri ve ports and th e rotating cylinder assembly, and al so tha t leaking po.t the
p is tons. Thi ~ leakage flow accounts for the slow, erratic rotation of the moto r when
pressure is oppl i<:d to port 2 and the port l coupling removed from the upper motor port .
In thi~ co nd ition th<; pr e~~ure in all cylinders rises to that of por t 2 (w i th no broke load on
th e mo tor). Th<; droin leakage from those cylinders open to the uppe r port is mete red
th rough th~ r()l")fOt ond c ou ~cs rotation .
 1hh llh'tl.'1 1 \I' \\ Ith 111 ' ' types o f hydroulic motor, wi l l run equally well a s a
putnp , N,,t\' th,11 thl' 1111.lk'I lo1 qu c c o •1stant, or pump delivery rote, may be va r ied by
~lt•1ln, thr '" ''hpl,,tr> 1.111~ 1 <'. Mo lo1' and pumps using t he swoshplo te principle, with
' ' rh ti ,,n,, ~'11~ \ <."I ) ,,,1111111.,11 i 11 p 1C1c li ce. Other ty pes in common u se ore ge ar motors ,
' 1;' m t\' I:- nd ,,, dt1.1l phi 11 1110 10 1 . Each has its part i cula r adva n t ages a nd di sad va ntages.

II hv,il\"1-tlh.' (1.1~ db t in t from hydrokinetic, e.g t urbine) motors p roduce a gross

t tc)u p1\?~''1th' 1UI !,) dti in~ prcs~ ure and hove a ve locity p ropo rtional to flo w.

$ .7,.._ vt ti hkti011t tUt rni11 g friction and efficiency

t tl f1 l ticn , 1 'sti d ion ' is the torque that must be appl ied before the motor wi l I
v

b gin k mov', It is ~wne1a ll y higher than th e low-speed ru nning fr ic ti on .

nnlng f1 i tion L compose d of two se parate types , coulomb fr iction and viscous
frictl n. oulomb f1i ti n i i nde pendent of speed while vis cous frict ion is speed depe ndent.
lscous frlcti n in thi s cont ex t is o combination of true v iscous friction and of k inetic energy
lo_se . a_ th ii pa .e through co nstrictions in the flo w path .

Fric tio n t p ica lly varies with ve loci ty a s sho wn in fig.ire 18 .

Pt

~
I
Vi scous fri ction :r:
0
-0

Coulomb fricti on

'\
\
\

F 19 10 Motor fr1ct1on losses

 Note that friction torque represents lost efficiency, in the same way that doe s
pressure drop acro ss the valve orifices . N e glecting leakage flow and therefore ossuming
that all the supply flow posses through the moto r

actual pressure a vailable to drive load

valve + motor efficiency =
supply pressure

PX - Pf
= x 100%

where pf is the pressure required to drive the internal fr iction of the motor .

Experiment 6

Set up the servo un it and control uni t as shown in figure 9.

Do not apply the brake .

With the motor stopped and the port l and 2 pressures appro xi mately balanced
rotate ATTENUATOR 2 clockwi se un t il the motor begins to move . Note that the pressu re
p across the motor, falls as the motor starts to move . Record the ma xi mum va lue of Px
aftai ned before movement of the motor. Repeat this for several different starting posi t ions
to find the worst case. Then repeat for counter-clockwise motor rotation.

Using ATTENUATOR land ATTENUATOR 2 to adjust the motor speed, measure

the differential pressure required to ma intain vorious steody speeds in the range -20 rev/sec
to +20 re v/ sec. Plot motor friction load pressure, Pf' against tachometer reading v rv as
shown in figure 18. Separate the coulomb and viscous friction as shown . Also show on
th is plot the worst case static frict ion recorded.

The horizontal axis may be calibrated in terms of speed; when the motor torque
constant hos been established, Pf readings may be translated into equivalent friction torque .
\
)
From the experimental results for Pf calculate the valve + moto r efficiency at
typical working points
. =
(a) = 30 bar [4001b/in2], Q 10 rev/ sec

(b)
Px

= 60 ba r ~8501b/in2], Q
. = 2 rev/sec
Px
2
Assume Ps = 70 bar [l0001b/in ]
 llw d l \ 11l 11\l't\1Ptli / 1ud l\1t1 o f th e rno to1 i s a f u ndament al parameter of the mo to r 's
~"'' "" " ' ' "' '

v ~ l , ,1 (I\ ,
\I \

II d ll\J1 ti
tl1 r> 1l , 1w q11 l 11 h to 1 l h o va l ve. Apart from relating the f low to the mo tor
11-l 1tl t>~ tl11? l o 1que gen c 1a te d i n th e mo tor to the p ress ure d ro p across
r
th ~ 11\l't\.'I ,

Q
•
0 rad/ sec
vm

ond Vm (1 t cxp1 c~se d in c ompatible uni ts .

Con. idt'1 th ' wo1k e qua tion

torqu x angula r rotat ion = pre ssu re x vol ume

The to r que con tont i s t h en given by

torque (TL + Tf) v.>I ume

= = vm
press u re (p ) angular rota t i o n
x

If practical un its ore appli e d,

(TL + Tf)N . m ~I
= V m m3/rod I
0
p N/m2 -0
x

= vm in3/cod l
Si nee 1 bar = lo5Njm2 and l litre = io-3m3

(f L + Tf)
N .m = 100\/
m Ii tres
Px bar

Al so, since pf =
Tf

100\/
m
bar [~ Tf
vm
lb/in
2
]

= 1OOV m (p x - pf) N •m

vm (px - pf) lb . in J
Expe 1im 111 7

Agoi" UH' th xpo 1irnc ntal set up of figure 9 but mount the b rake ready for
appli cotio11 , U\o AlTLNUATOR 2 to run the motor at some moderote steady speed .
N ote th o ROT ARY VCLOCITY re ading and px (= pf).

2
N ow appl y th broke to give p - pf = 10 bar [l501b/in ]when the
ATTENUATOR 2 has bee n re odju ste d t~ give the some tocho-generator reading as before .
Record the brake to1quc mete r reading . Repeat for further steps of 10 bor [ 1501b/in 2 J
in Px - Pr·

Fig 19 Motor torque character i s tics

Plot the output torque TL again st Px - pf as shown in figure 19 . The torque

constant is given by the slope of the best -fitting straigh t line through the orig in.

3
The motor used on the EHS160 hos a di splacement/rev of 4 . 5 millilitre (0.275in ).
Use this to check the torque cons tant obtained experimenta lly.

8. 7 . 4 Motor model

If the losses in the motor ore a ssume d to be due only to viscous and coulomb
friction, (i . e neglecting kinetic losses ex: a2, and stiction effects) the corresponding
pressure drops are

= +

where T is vi scous friction/ (rad/sec ) and T f is the velocity-independent friction torque .

vf c
Then (neglecting leakage flow )

QT vf T cf
pf = + bar
lOOV 2 lOOV
m m

[ =
Q Tvf

v
m
2
+
T cf

vm
lb/in
2

J
The gen eral expression is then

= +

Q Tvf Tcf + TL
= + bar
lOOV 2 lOOV
m
m

[ Q Tv f Tcf + TL
= +
v 2 vm
m

assuming TL to be independent of the velocity amp Ii tu de.

Thi s expression appl ies, and is linear, except in zero velocity region. Thus the
motor model shown in figure 20 is not necessarily re stri cted to small si gna ls.
co
~
I
I
0
--0

Pf

6p=0 Tvf /100Vnt

0
Q

I
I
6p=TCf/100Vrn

Px

Tp=T L/100Vm
t Q leakage
-a PL
(Omit factor 100 for lb -i n units)
Fig 20 Motor model
8 .8 Hydraulic cylinder

8. 8. l General

A sectional view o f the cylinder is shown in figure 21 . It is of the double-acting

variety, that is, pressure may be applied to either face of the piston to provide dri ve 1n
either d irection . As is typical of many cylinders, particularly small ones, the rod
cross-sectional area is o si gnificant proport ion, 0 . 391 of the cylinder cross- sectional
area . Since the rod leaves only one end of the cylinder, for balanced operation the rod
side of the piston must be provided with a pressure that is higher than that on the other
{head) side of the piston . The ratio of pressures required isl: {l - 0 . 391) . It is therefore
convenient to connect the rod end to full supply pressure and control the action of the
cylinder by varying the head end pressure only . With this connect ion fully symmetrical
action is obtained when the ratio of cross-section is 2 : l. The EHS160 cylinder approx-
imates to th is. The servo vol ve reg u ired to cont rol such on arrangement hos only one
output port ra ther than the two out pu t ports necessary for symmetrical motor dri ve. The
4-port spool valve on the EHS160 may be used as a 3-port val ve by simply connecting
to one of the output ports and closing o ff the o ther . In this case the cylinder is connected
to port l and port 2 is left connected to the isolated motor . Note that such operation from
a single port halves the valve stiffness.

Wiper seals Rod end port Piston Head end port

I

Rod Piston ring seals

Fig 21 Hydraulic cylinder

Another feature of the EHS160 cylinder is that the piston-to-cylinder seal uses
piston rings rather than packing washer seals. This reduces the sliding friction. It also
allows sufficient leakage past the seal to flush out any accumulated air in the cylinder
and connections, even if the rod is held stationary by a force transducer {see section 5.7) .
This leakage, however is a negligible proportion of the operating flow.
8.8 .2 Friction

The cylinder exhibits both coulomb ond viscous friction. However, there is not
the marked° difference between static friction and low-spe ed running friction generally
observed on the a xial-pi ston motor .

Experiment 8(0)

To measure the coulomb friction between the rod and cylinder, set up the servo
unit and control unit as shown in figure 22 .

Adjust the OFF SET control until the cylinder rod just begins to slowly extend .

Record po rt l pressure, p A. {Port 2 pressure is ignored for the 3-port connection

1
of the vol ve in a l I cylinde r expe r1 men ts . )

Now rotate the OFFSET control counter-clockwise until the rod begins to slowly
re tract.

Again record the port l pressure, pl(' Also record Ps ·

The pressure required to overcome frict ion is therefore pf = (pl A PlC)/2.

When the force constant hos been established, this pressure con be translated into on
equivalent {coulomb) friction force, Fcf '

Meosurement of viscous friction force, Fvf N/ (mm/sec) [lb/ {in/ sec) J/

requires that the cylinder be continuously moved and the pressure, Pl, monitored 0
ll')
dynamically. The effect of viscous fr iction moy be observed in Experiment 12. I
I
0
8. 8 . 3 Effective piston area '°
The pi ston area in the cylinder is directly analogous to the displacement in the
motor. For 3-port connection, the effective p iston area is the cross-sectional area on
the head side, ~ .

The piston velocity is related to the flow by

.
s =
Q

when Q and A ore expressed 1n compatible units.

3
l0 Q litre/sec
S m/sec =
Ah mm2

[ S ;n/sec =
Q in3 /sec

A. 2
h•n
]
 If Ar is the piston area on the rod side the n the force equation is

F
c
=

where F = FL + Ff' the load force plus the friction force .

c

For the balance condition F c = 0 and pl =

=

and, in general

F
c
=

when expressed in the appropriate dimensions .

Since 1 bar =

2
F N = ~mm
c

For the EHS160 cylinder

bore diameter = 25.4mm (1 . 00in)

piston {head end) area Ah = 507mm2 {0.785in2)

ll")
rod diameter = 15 . 9mm (0.625in)
2
198mm (0 . 307in 2)
I
I rod area =
0
2
'° piston (rod end) area Ar = 309mm (0.478in 2)

= psA/~

= 0.609p
s

Expe ri ment B{b)

Using the results of Experiment 8(0), determine plB by making the r~astnable
assumption that the friction is equal in both directions. Thot is

and =

Compare this value with that predicted by comparison of the cross-sectional oreas
of the two sides of the piston.

(The force transducer may be calibrated using the calculated value of FL at various
pressures. )
 0 00 0
0 0

• 0 0 0
0 oo 0
0
000 0 0
0
0
0 0 00
• • 00
0

0
.....
'-
c
0
u
'-
0
(lJ
c

0 a.
0
0

c
(lJ
a.
I

0
N
N
OI
LL

.
\
~' •- ) t1

... ,.~ ' ~ ~. .. .,,

•
, ~ ·, •: >' -~ .... :. +\
... : \ ....
 Set up os in figure 22, but repl ace the linear motion transducer with the force
transducer. Refer to sections 5.7 ond 5.10 .

Switch the transducer ompl ifier to 4, ond use the zero adjustment to set the
force test point voltage to zero, with no hydraulic power applied. Plot the force test
point voltage versus (p - 0.61ps), over the range of pl. To e liminat e the friction
1
effect, at each force reading determine the maximum and minimum va lues of p without
1
changing the force reading, and record the mean of these two pressures.

(The force transducer consta1.., 1· , volts/bar [volts/(lb/in2) J, is the slope of the

be st-fitting I ine through the origin.)

8. 8. 4 Leo koge

The leakage post the piston rings con be simply measured experimentol ly .

Experiment 9

Set up the system as in figure 22 .

Position the rod in the fully retracted position.

Switch off hydraulic power and remove the port l coupling fro m the cylinder .

Switch on the hydraulic power ond measure the time from the rod starting to move
until it stops in the fully extended position .

M
This movement is entirely due to leakage past the rings . The pressure differential
I.()
I across the rings is Ps - (p 18 + pf), since while the rod is moving the head end pressure
I
0 is (plB + pf).
'°
If the measured time is t seconds

leakage flow = displaced vo lume/time

= Ai, x stroke/t

The stroke is 5lmm [2.0in],

= 507mm
2
[0.785in
2
J
leakage flow = 25.8ml/t sec Q.47in3/t sec J
 Thr 't •h 'h1k llh'dl I i)I th o c ylindc 1 is produced in the same way a s for the
1

m to1 n<l j, 'lh''" i1111 \IUI(' ,\. /\~ fo 1 the moto r thi s is a model which applies , and is
l in or , "~ ' tlH' \\hl' l,1 ''f't't(1tln1:11t1n~c cxco pt for th e ze ro ve locity region.

Pt

Ps_._ _ _.
0I

0 leakage
6
P=10FL/Ah 1------~F
s = 1_0_3_0
L
Ah

-Q P19 PL
(Omit factors 10,103 and 104 f or lb- 1n units)
Fig 23 Cylinder model

8.9 O th er hydraulic components

Sev era l hydrou l ic components hove not yet been discussed . On the servo unit
these ore the filter, the accumulator and, behind the panel, the relief and replen ishing "<:!"
l()
valve. I
I
0
The fi lter is composed of a number of sintered bronze discs stocked such that '°
each hos o surface exposed to the hydraulic power unit pressure with t he other surface
leading to the system supply pressure. See the sectional diagram figure 24 . The mean
pore size of the d isc s is 5 microns [200 micro inches] . Thi s degree of filtration is
necessary to pre vent silting of such close tolerance items as the servo valve spool . An
indic a tion of the contaminant build-up in the filter is provided by measu rin g the pressure
drop ac ross it under flow conditions . Using this principle, the gouge fitted to the fi lter
body warns of excessive clogging .

The accumulator is the e quival e nt of the power supply filter capacitor in an

electronic system. It> purpose is to eliminate pul sations in the supply pres su re . These
would otherwi se de:v e lop from two sources. The gear pump used in the hydraulic power
unit g ives flow pul ~otion s corresponding to the meshing of each tooth. Al so when the
ser110 valve is opcrote:cJ rapidly, th e su dden acce le ration and deceleration of oil into it
con cau se corresponding prw,5urc fl uctuations in the su pply line.
 Flow out

Capsule

Filter bowl

Fig 24 Hydraulic filter

I(')
ll)
I
I
0

'° The accumulator is effectively a reservoir of oil at supply pressure, placed in

the supply line close to the servo valve . This oil is pressurized by a volume of compressed
gas sepqrated from the oil by a neoprene bag . For satisfactory operation this gas is
pre-compressed to half the working pressure of the oil . Thus when the oil is brought up
to working pressure the accumulator volume is shared equally between gas and oil .
Figure 25 shows a typical bog-type accumulator.

The relief and replenishing valve is a two-port device connected into the
hydroulic circuit across port 1 and port 2 of the servo valve. The valve bypasses from one
port to the other if the pressure in either excee ds 100 bar [l5001b/in2 ] . Such ove r-
pressures ore developed if the motor is running and a stop command returns the spool in the
servo vtJlve to its centre position . In this position both ports are closed off . The rotating
motor becomes o pump driven by its own inertia and that of any flywheel fitted . This
causes a pressure increase on one side and cavitation (vacuum) bubbles to form on the other,
both of which can cause damage. Bypassing above a reasonable over-pressure reduces the
problem.

The hydraulic power unit supplies a flow of oil at nominally constant pressure . In
practice the indicated supply pressure decreases slightly with inc reasi ng flow, due to the
resistance of the supply connec t ions and filter unit and the pressure require d to operate
the power unit pressure control valve.
 ,, Gas valve

Poppet valve "

,
....
"'- Oil port
F 19 25 Bag- type accumulator

8. 10 Hydraulic system operating point

The first stage in the design of o hydroul ic servomechanism, once the component
characteristics ore known, is to determine the system flow and pressures in the normal
operating condition (or conditions).

In sections 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8 the steady-state expressions for the valve, motor
and cylinder were produced. These can be combined to give the characteristic equation
for valve/motor or valve/cylinder systems.

For the valve, from section 8.6 .

Q = Kx v x ~ (ps PX I)/ps

Th is gives
IPX I = PS
l 1 -
Q2

K 2v 2
x x
J
 For the motor, from section 8.7 .

QT vf T cf + TL
I PX I = I PL + Pf I = lOW 2
+
l OOVm
bor
m

+ TL
[ =
Q Tvf

v 2
+
Tcf

vm
lb/in
2
J
m

Therefore for the val ve/motor combination

0 2 Ps QT vf (Tcf + TL)
0 = + + - Ps bor
K 2v 2 lOOV 2 l OOV
x x m m

[ =
Q2ps

K 2v 2
t
Q Tvf

vm 2
+
\f
+

vm
\ - P' lb/in
2
J
x x

The solution of thi s quadratic equation gives the va lue of Q and, by substitution, p and
x
Pf' at the operating point .

An alternative approach to determining the operating flow and pre ssure is to use
a graphical method . Th e pressure/fl ow chorocteristics of the va lve , for the given inpu t
signal, vx, is drawn negatively from the supply pre ssure line, ond thot of the motor is
drawn positi ve ly from the z e ro press ure line. The point whe re the two c urves inte rsect
corresponds to the operating point . An example is illustrated in figure 26.

output

Motor
inpu t
pressures

0 Ps
Px
Fig 26 Valve/motor opera ti ng points
r
8Q
n e th n11t1 111 t l11q (~ <111 J Px h uvc bee n es tabl ishe d the valve fl o w ga in - -
l'I Px 5 pr 0vx
and th \ lop11 , \h t111Hf1 '• u11d - - c on be calc ul ated o r me a sure d from the
o(~ 5Q
c u1 ves. Tlwn in th i, lll!JI 0 11 l lnN 11 theo ry c on be a ppl ied to predic t the response to small
load o r inp u t honn•" ·

The p1 0 (l d lHt ~0 1 o vtdvo / c y linde r comb ination is si milar .

Thi ano ly j\ ho n g l •c to d va lve a nd motor le aka ge flows for simplicity . In fact

the comb ine d le akagt' f low ~ ub ti acts from the a c tive motor flow .

Q ::.. KP
le akage I x

wh ere K is a consta n t .
1
(Th e anal y sis a lso ne g le cts the c ond ition whe re TL is no t d riv i ng a load but is a
nega t ive value, ind icat ing that th e motor is b e ing d riven by an e x tern al torque . A
suffic ien tly la rge -TL would ma ke the moto r act a s o pump and mak e I p I > p . )
x - s
8 . 11 Rotary velocity servo

8. 11 . l General

A veloc ity servo is one in wh ich veloc it y feedbac k is appl ie d so t ha t a constant

input produce s a constan t output veloc ity .
co
l()
The e ffec t of fe e dback on th e ga in a n d st iffness o f the fo rw a rd pa th is exam ined I
I
us ing large-s ig na l non-I inear th eory , then usi ng sma l I- s ignal I ine a r theo ry . 0
'°
8. 11 . 2 Effect of load on val ve/motor comb inat ion

The effect of applying a load to rque to t he mot o r sha ft has been see n i n the
experiments of section 8 . 6 . Th e motor pressure drop (px) increases , th e v al ve pressure
drop {ps - j Px I)
decre a se s , val ve flow (Q) dec re a ses a nd th ere fore th e motor v eloc i ty
{Q) decreases.

Con side r a c han ge in cou lomb fri c tion load o n the mo tor , such a s produced b y
the EHS160 broke , of from TL to TL + !lTL' The correspond ing flo w chang e llQ
is found from th e qu a drati c e qua ti o n fo r flow deve lope d in sec tion 8 . 10 . If Ps i f '
Tvf are a ss ume d to be c o ns tant [ and the fa c tor of 100 is onl y appl ied for SI uni tsj

Q2
P,, Q 1v f Tcf + TL
0 l!I
'}
+
K v ? lOOV 2 lOOV
x x m m
 ol o

(Q A Q )? 1-\ (Q + 6 Q) T vf \f
+
\ + A\
0 :;:
+ + -ps
2 2
K v lOOV 2 lOOV
x x m m

subtroct lng

( A Q2 + 2Q 6 Q) A Q Tvf
PS 6\
0 = + +
2 2
K v lOOV lOCN
x x m m

Thus 6.Q a lso requ ires the solution of a quadratic equation . Note tha t if the
fl ow change is small enough that the simplifying a ssumption Q >> 6.Q may be mode, then
the equa tion reduces to

0 =
2Q 6 Q
PS
+
6 QT vf
+
6
\
2 2 2
K v lOOV lOOV
x x m m

or

- 6 T PS T vf
L
= 200QV +
m 2 2
6 Q K
x
v
x
vm2
0- 6 Q
I.()
I Th is is now a linear re lationship . Thus the value of is the cri terion used to
I
0 Q
"° decide whether the effect of a di sturbance re quires the soluti on of a quadra ti c expression,
i .e lorge-signol no n-line ar analysis, or ma y be found by small-signal linear analysis. The
pra ctical approach is to start with the a ssumption that smol 1-signal analysis is appropriate,
until It is shown thot the ass umption Q »
6 Q is invalid or produces unacceptably large
errors .

Again , on o l te rnotivo is a graphi ca l solution . Th is is ill ustrated in figure 26. The

two motor pressure /fl ow c urves c orres pond to the two value s o f coulomb friction to rque ,
They ore pcro ll e l, t pocccJ apcut hy

6 p
x

rc p rescn t inq lhi iric.. rr u§o 111 mo to 1 pressure re quired to dri ve the inc reased to rque, indepen-
dent of fl ow,

) u,Jh () wn11ld1<d p lr1 I ciho ~h ows rap idly whe the r small-signal or large-s ignal
CJn(Jly ~h h 'JPl'''1fdl"'' . II 1111 l i110 ~ in tho ope ra ting range may reasonably be represented
by ;l r'Jtc1ht I irt•1~ 111 ri r 1 I frit1111 r111 o ly <i i ~ i ~ po~s ibl e.
 i.\
1<:1d/sc c
\I
Ill

:ll ~· I tt tb 1..'ith 'I a lge brai c o r g 1ophic ol me thods) from the previous experi-
1 ~ult:- 6. "ll nd 6 (~ fo 1 a c hange of brok e friction torque from Tl = 0 to
..> . N rn [ 51 b .i n] otp, = 70bor [ 10001b/in 2 J.
vx = -0 . 5V.

I. thL a lorge - !.ignal 01 a smol 1-s ignol di sturbance?

The re. u lt o f thi calcu la t ion wil l be ve rified i n Experiment lO{b).

8 . 11 . 3 Effec t o f feedback

Cons ide r the system show n in figure 27 . This i s the val ve/motor comb i nation, os
be fo re, b u t w ith o p roportion , k, of the ROT ARY VELOCITY signal subtract ing from the
in p u t si g n a l , V j . The tacho -ge nerator constant is Krv vo l ts/(rod/ sec). Therefore the
in p u t to the va lve 1s

-v
x
= v.
I
k K
rv
g

Ko
Vx
Valve
a Motor
e 0
Px TL
'°I I

0
'°
Vrv
k - Kr v

F ig 27 Va Ive I motor with veloc1t}'. feedback

There ore two important effe cts of this 'negative feedback•. The first is that for
a give n norma l op~ro tin g ve loci ty Q, the input lo the c losed- loop sys tem mu st be inc reased
to - ,Ix -+ vr
r ,'1 from -vx in th e ope n-loop case. The second is that when 0 load
incr£;o se: is oppli£: cJ to the moto1, th e velocity and he nc e k KrvQ falls. If the input to.the
sys te rn, 11j , i> o~~ lJm 1 · d lo b e: c.om lant when the load is applied, then the fol I in k Krvg'
the fecrJbo cv ~i9r1u l, inc 1<-0'. r"• - vx. Thi s compensates to some degree for the increased
lood, so thot th' r1·'11JlliricJ lo ll in ve loc ity is l ess than in the open-loop case.
 It wi ll be shown late r tha t very high leve ls of ampl ification around the forward
path and feedback path loop make the overa ll performance of a close d-loop system almost
entirely depen den t on the (linear) feedback path characteri st ics . Thi s mea ns that fo r
many purposes the non-linear c harocteri stics of the va lve and motor in the fo rward path
ore no longer significant, and the system can be treated a s linear .

However, th e effect of a sma l l amount of feedback on a ve locity control, subject

to large - sig nal load di sturoance , w ill be examine d first.

The pre ssure/flow equation derived in section 8 . 10 states that [ and again the factor
of 100 only appli e d to SI units ]

Q Tvf T +
cf
0 = +
2
+ -p
s
lOCN lOCN
m m

When velocity feedback is appl ied

.
-v
x
= v.
I
kK
rv
Q

Q
= v. kK
rv
I
vm
and

-0 Op Q Tvf +
s -p
I
:c
0
0 = 2 2
+
2
+ s
-0 K (v . k K Q/K ) 100Vm lOOV
X I rv m m

2
Rationalizing, by multi pl y ing both si des of thi s equation b y (vi - . k Krv Q/V m) , yields
a fourth - power expression in Q . Th is presents no probl e m if Q or Q is one of the given
parameters and Vi or k is unknown. However , if Q is the unknown paramete r, exact
solution of this fourth-po wer equat ion is generally too comple x for practical purposes .
'Cut-and-try' or success ive appro xi mation methods may be used .

S imilarly, the expre ss ion for ti Q in response to ti Tl on a closed-loop system

also requires the solution of a fourth-power expression in ti Q.

Graphical methods can be used, but only to make successive approxi mations to a
solution.

The e x pressions governin g pressure and flow i n ope n- and closed-loop valve/ motor
(or valve/cylinder) velocity controls have now been derived . These are used to give the
operating point, and for d isturbances re sulting in large flow changes, the change of
operating point . The difficulty of handling the general close d-loop expre ssion hos been
shown.
 Th i conc l udl'~ tlw nl\cdy, is o f 11or1 - I i11ca1 servo performance. Th e remainder of
sections 8 and 9 i ~ c on l'1rwd w ith tlw app li cation o r line ar closed-loop theory . Thi s is
oppl icabl e to mol I chongl'\ in fl ow i11 o pen-loop sy stems or closed- loop systems, and to
la rge chang es in c los d - loop 5y\lcrm with large loop gain.

Li near c losed-loop theor y is a lso or ge ne ral application to any rea sonably linear
closed-loop syste m, be it h yd 1au l ic, e lec tro-mechanical, mechanical, pne umatic or
electronic.

Reference back to th e gcnc1a l p1 e ssure /flow exp ressions wi 11 be mode where

appropri ate.

Expe riment lO(b)

Set up the servo unit and control unit a s shown 1n f igure 28 .

Switch on electronic powe1.

Set ATTENUATOR 1 (k ) and ATTENUATOR 2 (k ) to zero.

1 2
Switch on hydroulic power.

Use the 0 FF SET control to bol on ce port l and 2 pressures.

Ad just ATTENUATOR 1 to give v = -0 . 'SV . Then the effec tive v ·I = +0.5V

(since the op-omp goin K = -1) .
0
x

Measu re v rv (= KrvG) for TL = 0 and TL = 3 . 0 Nm l 25 1b. in

'-
1
~
N
-0
I

o.sv :r:
0
W ith the value of vrv recorded for TL = 0 set k 2 t o - - - . Readjus t k -0
1
v
rv
to g1 ve the vol ue of v and v
x rv

Again measure v
rv
for TL = 3.0 Nm .

Compare the value of k 1, ond the change in \v due to TL' before and afte r the
negative feedback was appli e d .

. T 1cance o f se tting
What was the s1gni . k O.'SV
to - - ?
2
v
rv
 -- --~- -----~----~---~----~--~---

JI{
0
'-
<lJ >
'-
N >

0 0
x
> 0 Ol

0 0
-
c
-
Cl.I
Ill

0 -0
c
0 +-
c
0 0 0 0
•

..-- 0
~ '-
+-
c
0
u
>.
~
u
0
N
~ (I)

u >
Ill
>.

-
-0 L..
0
<1J
0
....
°'
'-
0
a.
0
0

E)
I
_J u
<1J
f- Ill
0
u
co
N
Ol
LL

' -
 8 . 11 .4 Return differe nce

Consider the generalized I ineor closed-loop arrangement of figure 29(a) with

gains in the forward and feedback paths of G and H respectively. The re lat ionships
between the controlled quantity C, the error or ac tuating signal E and the reference
quantity R, are

E = R + HC

C = GE

Therefore, the closed-loop gain of the system is

c G G
= =
R - GH F

where F = 1 - GH and is known as the 'return difference' . It is so cal led because,

with the feedback loop broken, it is the difference be tween the unit signal fed in and
the quantity GH which is returned around the loop . For ne gative feedback, the term
GH has negative polarity and Fis positive . The open-loop condition occurs when
H = 0 and F = 1 . The return difference is a useful measure of the effect of feedback,
because many properties including gain, gain fluctuation, distortion and susceptibility to
disturbance (reciprocal of stiffness) are divided by F when feedback is applied .

E G c E G c

H H

(a) (bl
Fig 29 General closed-loop system

Consider a disturbance to a closed-loop system which places an offset of magnitude

+D in the forward path, after the gain element but before the feedback point . This
situation is illustrated in figure 29(b). The loop equations are now

E = R + HC

C = GE + D
RG + D
Therefore
c =
GH

RG + D
= F
..
Thus the f' fftt I o l 1111 tlhu ~k l1m boo n lo redu ce the e ffect of the di sturbance o n the
output by tlH ln c to 1 I , <..<>r11purod wi th the ope n-loop c ase .

In go1w 1ul bC
5D F

Thi s If- o mpo ma t ing fco tu re of closed-loop syste ms is one of their important
advantagos , a wo5 nw nt ionoc.l in sect ion 7 .

N ote that off~ ts in tho feedback path ore not compensated for, but are much more
easily avoide d in prac ti ce.

8 . 11 . 5 Ve locity stiffness

The stiffness of a servomechani sm is defi ne d a s its resis tance to changes in load

on its output . Th e ve locity stiffness of a rotary servo is thus - ST L/ 59 w here TL is
the nett torque from the output shaft .

Comb ining the small -signal model s o f the val ve and motor g ives t he model shown
1n fi gure 30 .

Vm
08
v 1=reference 6TL

Ka
a e
Vm
'----~y~ ___,) Motor
Valve

~ 30 Valve I motor with velocity feedback

 Co nside r first the ope n- loop case , H = 0.

For o smal I change in torque

= Spl x lOOV m [ omi t factor 100 in lb. in units J

Spl
= SQ x-- x lOOV~
SQ

- s PX
[
Spf
= SQ x + x lOOV
SQ SQ J m

{~
SPX
= SQ x v - -- x lOOV m
m SQ SQ
J
Therefore the open-loop ve locity sti ffne ss is

whe re the values of are dependent on the operating point, as

SQ SQ
described in sections 8. 6, 8 . 7 and 8 . 10 . (See al so the simplified expression for :8 I

- ~TL/ LlQdevelopedin section8.11 . 2 . ) :r:

0
'°
It was shown in section 8.11.4 that the effect of an offset in the forward path of
a closed-loop system is reduced by a factor equal to the return difference F,

The torque load change 5 Tl is equivalent to such on offset s ince it produces a

proportional change in velocity in an open-loop system. In other words the application
of 5T L has exactly the same effect as on appropriate 5 Q at the output of the valve,
where
5\ 5g
= -- x
se
5 TL 5Q
= x
s9 vm
Therefore the effect on velocity, SQ, of ST l is reduced by the factor F .
That is, the closed-loop stiffness

[
lOOV
m
=
F
 In this non-linear system, note tha t both the open-loop stiffness and also the
return diffe re nce are depe nde nt upon the operot ing point. From se ction 8 . 6 . 5

s PX ~ ps (ps I PX
,,
=
SQ K
x Iv x I
Also

F = GH

= + k K k K /V
2 a x rv m

where, from secti on 8 . 6 . 5

k = K ~ (p
x x s

The static frict ion encountered in most ve loci ty servo loops is a form of d isturb ing
torque. It produces o 1deadband 1 of zero respon se as the output mo tion changes polarity.
Th is deadband is therefore reduced as the stiffness is increased.

Th is depe ndence o n the operating point is examined further in relation to a

position servo, in sec ti on 8 . 13 . 3 .

Experiment 11

I'.. Set up the servo un it and con trol unit as shown in figure 28, but with INPUT
'°:r:
I
connected di rec ti y to + l SV .
0

'° Set = 0 and = 0.

Switch on the electronic and hydraulic power .

Use the OFFSET to balance port 1 and port 2 pre ssu res.

Set k
1
to give v rv = -2 . 5V, with \ = 0.
Measure v x. Record the value of k •
1

Apply TL = 1 . 0 Nm [Bib . in J. Readjust k

1
to again give \v = -2 . SV.

Measure v •
x

The servo will be maintained in the region of these two points throughout the
experiment. The speed and pressure change due to the application of load are sufficiently
small that linear analysis con reasonably be applied .
 h tl •• tl111 11111\i 1I I ll1ti t wo va lves of v re corde d above . Then in the operat ing
h 1 11h•l1, th1\ 111111111 " 'l lllt' 101 x

x tacho-generator constant
' ' moto1 di sp la c e me nt

•
"x
x
vm
x K
rv

a:: - 2. 5V / (mea n v )
x

Th i. \\ ill b~ u ed for co lc ulating F whe n the loop is closed .

Setl..
2
= 0 . 2, TL = 0 . Re adjustk
1
togivevrv = -2 . 5V. Record the

value of 1.. •
1

Apply\ = 1 . 0 Nm [ 81 b . in J. Record the resultan t change fl. v rv

Repea t the above a t k = 0. 4, 0. 6, 0.8 and 1. 0.

2

Are k and fl. v e qual to the open-loop values x - - , a s pred icted by the
1 rv F
theory co
-0
I
:I:
0
k K K -0
2 a rv
F = 1 +
vm

and K
a = -1.
 8 . 12 Linear positi on servo

8. 12 . l General

A position servo is one in which position fee dback is applied so that o constant
input produces a constant output position . The position reference on the EHS160 is o
variabl e vo ltage which is compared with the voltage output of o potentiometer whose wi per
is dri ven by the cylinder.

The small-si gnal mode l of the closed loop is sho wn in figure 31 .

v 1=disturbi ng r efere n ce

Ah 6S
103 SF L FL

!static)
reference
position
- Klp Ka
V)(
kx
103
Ah
s s dt
s

s \..
y
)

Valve Cyl i nder

(Omit fac t or 103 for lb-in units)

Fig 31 Valve I cylinder with position fe edback

Since a position servo is fundomentolly different from a velocity servo, an

examination of servo types and error coefficients fol lows. The subjec t of position and
velocity stiffhess, while e qually applicable to the linear case, is dealt with in terms of
the rotary position servo in sec tion 8 . 13.

8. 12.2 Servo types 0, l and 2

Two closed-loop configurations ore shown in figures 30 and 31. One has velocity
feedback and theother has position feedback. They are, respectively velocity ond position
servos.

Consider the effect of breaking the feedback path at the poi nt where it leaves the
forward path output, and driving instead this feedback path with a step function o f the
controlled variable. For both the velocity and position servos this generates a corresponding
step function of voltage entering the summing junction from the feedback path . Thi s results
in a corresponding new constant flow from the valve and, with either linear or ro tary moto rs,
a new constant velocity in the mechanical output.

Note that, for the velocity servo, o step function input to the feedback path has
resulted in a new constant value of the controlled variable at the forward pa th output.
For the position servo, however, the step function input to the fee dback path hos resulted
in a new constant ra e of change (i .e romp function) of the control le d variable .
 This fundamental d ifference be tween the two conf igurati on s is due to the fa c t
that the velocity loop contains no pure in te g ration factors in its gain (GH) expressi o n
whereas the position loop contain s one such pure integration term, In fac t the number of
such integrations in the loop gain provides a fundamental means of classifying closed -l oop
systems , Servo systems of t ypes 0, 1 and 2 contain, respectively, none, one and two pure
integration terms in their loop gains .

Con trary to the impression g iven in many texts on the subject, thi s se rvo type
class ific ation is not restricted to unity feedback systems. If it were, this would exclude
its application to very many practical servomechani sms, where not only ore non-uni ty
feedback gains encountered, but also changes from positio n to vol toge, etc, in the
feedback path.

Note that the control led variable is usually defined a s that whose steady-sta te
value i5 proportional to the steady-state value of the re fere nce variable . Henc e the
name 'position servo' is applied to a closed-loop system which controls o position to b e
proportional to on input vol toge, even though , for example, it may be used to produce
o constant velocity (by suitab ly driving the input) a nd the actual position is unimporta nt.
lf this definition is accepte d then there ore no integration or derivative terms in the
feedback path . The discussion of error coefficients in section 8 . 12.3 is based on this
a ss um pt ion .

Most practical velocity servos ore of type 0. Note that if a velocity servo were
constructed with a servo valve . whose pressure (rather than flow) were proportional to the
input signal, the motor output would respond too constant actuati ng signal with a constan t
accelera tion rather than velocity . A type 1 system would th•n result.

Similarly, most practical position servos are of type 1. Type 2 pos iti on servos, 0
such as would result from the use of the pressure control valve mentioned above, are used
only for certain applications . Any loop with two or more pure integration terms is
"'I I

0
inherently unstable and re qui res spec iol treatment. '°
A type 0 position servo requires a motor which gives a position, rather than a
velocity, proportional to the actuating signal. Such motors exist but are inherently
velocity or acceleration devices modified with local (mechanical, electrical or hydraul ic)
feedback.

8 . 12.3 Error coefficients

The output of a servomechanism has been shown to be governed by

E = R + HC

C = GE

Consider the case where G is i nfinite

c
E = = 0
G
 The actuating signal E is now zero, and the gain is

c -1
=
R H

This may be regarde d as an 'ideal 1 se rvo si nce th e gain is contro ll e d e ntirely by the
feedback path .

In many cases the steady-state va lue of G is not infinite, and E is there fore not
zero . Here the servo has a ste ady-state error in its output, re lati ve to the 'ide al 1, of a
magnitude suffici e nt to provide the actuating signa l E.

The error cause d by the need to supply this actuating signal is the second form of
steady-state error occuring in closed-loop syste ms . (The fi rs t is that d ue to loading on
the output, di scussed in sections 8 . 11 . 2 and 8 . 11 . 5. ) It is de te rmine d, in any syste m,
by a set of error coefficients which d irect ly re late th e system output to th e stea dy-state
error required to provi de the actuating signal . These e rror coe ffici e nts are defi ne d as
fol lows .

The step error coefficient, K , is the ste ady-state va lue of the output of the
0
forward poth when the feedback path is driven, not from the output, but by a negative
unit step function (of the some type as the controlled variabl e ) . Under the some conditions
the parabolic error coefficient, K , is the steady-state value of the second derivative
2
of the forward path output.

Since the gain around the loop is GH

.-
K = -GH or F +
"I
0
I 0

'°
=[
d (-GH)

dt
]. = 00
or
= 00

=[ ], = 00
or
= 00

The error coefficients ore related to the system type as shown in table 1 .

System Step error Ramp error Porobol ic error

type coefficient coefficient coefficient

0 K 0 0
0

00 Kl 0
2 00 00 K2

Tobie 1. Error coefficients for system types 0 - 2.

 Tobie 1 shows that for o type 0 syste m the step error coeffic ient is fini te. Th is
implies that, for velocity se rvo of this type, with a constant input, the outpu t ve locity
1
e xhibits o steady-state error of compared with the output of on 'ideal' system .
Ko
This is the case for the velocity servo considered in section 8 . 11. There the gain wa s
not stated in terms of step error coefficient, but was shown to be

c G G
= or
R - GH F

But -GH = K0 , so thi s can be stated

=
R 1 + K
0

Subtracting this from the gain of an 'ideal' system of

c -1
=
R H

gives c -1
= [ __
+_K_:--K_K_o
R H
0 J N
I'-..
I

-1/H I
0
-0
=
l + K
0

Th is difference between the actual gain and the 'ideal' gain can be expressed as a
function of the actual gain as

[ [
-K 0 /H J=
l + K K
0 0

Thus it has been shown that the steady-state output of a closed-loop system may
be expressed either directly from the transfer gain or in terms of a deviation or error from
the 'ideal' output. In the case of the steady-state step response of a type 0 servo, just
discussed, the use of the error coefficient approach shows no significant advantage . For
most other cases, however, it is the only direct indication of the steady-state response of
a system.

Consider some further examples.

 For o type O system the romp error coefficient is zero. Thi s impl ios that for o
constantly changing (romp) input, the output ve loc ity hos a constontly increasing f!rror
which never attains a stead y-state. Si mila rly , there is on ever mo re ra pidly incrc.0~1ng
velocity error in the response (co nstant rote of change of acce le ratio n) lo o porobol 1c
input.

For o type 1 se rvo, table 1 shows the step e rro r coe fficient to be infi nite. This.
meons that the position response of o posit ion servo to a step inpu t con tains zero stcody-
stote error . (As mentioned previously, the effe ct of load o r o ther offse ts is a !.e porotc
calculation and is not included in the steady-state errors di scussed he re .) This is
ea sily understood when it is reali sed that in o type 1 positi on servo the fo rward poth
requires no actuating signal to mainta in it in a constant position, whil e o type 0 velocity
servo does require a constant actuating si gnal to maintain a constant velocity. Another
way of looking at it is thot the type 1 posit ion loop hos, because of its pure integral
te rm, infinite steady-state positi on gain. It is therefo re the 'ideal' servo , in the sense
of having infinite steady-state go in, a s referred to e arli er.

The response of o type 1 position servo to a romp inpu t (i .e constan t ve loc ity)
1
hos a finite position error, K is in terms of (rod/se c)/ rad or (m/sec )/m
1
Kl
[{in/sec)/in J, or simply sec -1 . The actuating si gnal required to produce the consta nt
output velocity is now provided by o constant position 'following' error, a s compared
with a constant velocity error in a type 0 system.

The response of the three servo types to the three input form s is shown grophicol ly
in figure 32.
("')

"I I
Type 0 Ty pe 1 Type 2
0
'°
r __ _l __ _
Unit
step 1 I f YKo

Unit
romp

I I
I
/

~
Unit
parabola /
/ /
__.... / /

Fig 32 Response of different servo types

 Note that the stop, romp and parabolic ~ -or coefficients are ofte n termed,
respe ctivel y , pos ition (KP), ve loc ity (K) and acce leration (K 0 ) error coefficients
(or con tonts) . Howe ver the la tter te rms hove lite ral application only to posit ion servos
and the i r application to th e control of temperature and other variables, particularly
ve locity, is confu ing . For thi s reason their use will be avoided in thi s text.

Experiment 12

Set up the hydraulic and control units a s shown in figure 33 .

Switch on e lectronic and hydraulic power .

Set kl = 0.

Use the OFFSET to position the rod approximate ly stationary somewhere in its
range o f free movement.

Set kl = 0. 2 and = 0. 2.
Se t the LINEAR REFERENCE POSITION control to give a rod posi tion of == 25mm.

Apply to INPUT lo lHz tri angular wa ve form symmetrical about OV, of sufficient
amplitude to move the rod approxi mately ±lOmm abou t its original position . If th is swing
is much exceeded the out put of the position error amplifier reaches its I imits and the system
becomes effec tive ly open-loop .

Observe on on osc i lloscope the INPUT 1 voltage, vi , (which is, in effect, a

moving position reference superimposed on the stationary reference) ond the POSITION
ERROR vol tage, v lp · vlp represents the difference ? e twee n the REFERENCE POSITION
setting and the actual rod position .

Either X - Y or dual-trace internal timebase display may be used .

 •
0 00 0
0 0
l >
a.

0
0 0 I
0 Oo 0 L
c 0
000
0
0
00
•
~

~ 00
0

-0
'-
c
0
(.)

c
0

(/)
0
a.
'-
0

0
Q)
c

a.
0
0
I
"O
<I>
(/)
0
u
("')
("')

Ol
lL

., ~

.. .. ·; ' ...
' t •• :..

.·
~ .. .. ~.. .... ...
 In figure 34 the actual position commanded, by INPUT 1 plus the REFERENCE
POSITION, is shown as a broken line. The following error is represented by the voltage
6. v lp '

At 1Hz, k
2
= 0 . 2, measure 6. vlp; the peak-to-peak swi ng of vlp
(representing the rod excursion); and using the scale provided, the rod excursion in
mi 11 i metres.

From the latter two measurements determine

i.e the gain of the position transducer and amplifier.

Then the steady-state posi ti on fol lowi ng error is

fl s =
.
Calcu late the rod velocity S . Then if the follow ing error is assumed to be entirely romp
error, the romp e rror coefficient
.
s
=
fl s
~ Calculate, from this, the va lve gain kx under these conditions.
I
~ Observe experimentally how L1 Vlp changes a s (a) the frequency i .e the position
romp, ond (b) the fee dback k2, ore varied. Adjus tment of k2 requires a corresponding
adjustment of ki to maintain o constant excu rsion of the rod.

If a port 1 pressu re transducer is fitted, it may be used to observe the pressure

re qui red to overcome the friction under ramp conditions. The presence of viscous
(veloc ity -dependent) friction will be 6bserved.

~v,

(aJX-Y display (b) Dual trace, rnt . time base

Fig 34 Ramp error measurement

8 . 13 Ro tary position servo

8 . 13 . 1 G eneral

The EHS160 rotary position servo uses a synchro link for position feedback . It
is thus a true unity feedback system .

The theory and experiment in this section cover load and ramp errors and the
effect o l opt:rati ng po int .

Positive feedback is demonstrated a s on introduction to stability analysis .

8 . 13 . 2 Posi t 1~n stiffness and ve locity stiffness

The stiffness of a servomechan ism wa s defined in sec tion 8 . 11 . 5 a s its resistance

to changes ii\ load on its output .

The small-signal model o f a val ve/motor combination with pos iti on feedback is
show n in figure 35.

100Vm
oe
OTL TL

Ref.
-Krp
VI
Ka kx
e fdt e
pos. Vm

e Valve Motor
7.5 "°
,.......
I
I
0
Gear box
"°
Fig 35 Valve I moto r with pos1t1on feedback
e

Consider first the open-loop case . With the feedback loop broken, the velocity
stiffness is that deri ved in section 8 . 11 . 5, mu l tiplie d by the gearbox ratio 7 . 5, if e
is now mea sured on the dial .

[~ ]
8\ 2 5 Px
= 7.5 x lOCN
m
- --
89 SQ SQ

[where the factor 100 only oppl ies to SI units. J

 The optrn-loop teody-state position stiffness is

[-~TL J
- STL

t -
- 00
=
J:se dt

- STL
= se in the steady s tote
Loo dt

= 750Vm2
L6Pf
89 ~]
8e
Loo dt
= 0

Therefore the open-loop position stiffnes is zero . That is, the application of a steady
torque will change the positi on con stantly (at o rote determined by the open-loop
vel oc ity stiffness) and there is no correcting action proporti ona l to the pos iti on error.

Now consider the closed-loop case . It wos shown in section 8 .11.4 that the
error due to on offset in the output of the forward path is reduced by the return difference .
From th is, it wos demonstrated in secti on 8 . 11 . 5 tha t the servo st iffness is increased by
the some factor . There is, however, on added comp! icotion for a type l servo since the
integral term in G means that

GH = dt

where K is the romp error coefficient (having o finite value in o type l system).
1
The return difference is

F = GH

L
t

= + K, dt

The closed-loop steady-state position stiffness of o position servo is

00

[
-5TL x F
oe
J t = co
= 750Vm2 [~
se
- 5px
se
J
x l +Kt
dt
o dt

= l:iJV
m
2 ropf _ opx
l8 e se
J x
 The c lose d-loop steady-~tote velocity stiffness of o position servo is

[
- 5TL x F
5e
Jt = co
= 750 V 2 [5pf - 5px
m 5Q 5Q
J
x

= co when K 1 > 0

This result follows logica lly from the fact thot the closed -loop position stiffness is
finite . The opplicotion of a steady torque produces o constant positi on error, and
therefore zero velocity erro r.

Note that, a s for a velocity servo, stati c friction is o form of disturbing torque
and the resul tont deodbond is reduced by feedback.

8. 13 .3 Effect of operating point

The previ ous secti on s hove deal t with the two forms of steady - state error found
in servomechanisms . One is pre sent because the forward pa th requires an input just to
maintain the control led variable at the des ired va lue . Th is is e ither the step, romp or
parabolic erro r depending on the system . The second error is that required to compensate
for the add ition of a torque or force load on the output, because of the I imi ted stiffness o f
the loop.

In the case of the type l I inear position servo the romp error was shown to be
co
r-...
I
I
fl s = m/(m/sec) in/(in/ sec) 0
'°
Similarly, for the rotary position servo the ramp error is

The load error is [with the factor 100 only applying to SI units J

[~
5 Px.
= \I 7.5 x
5 Q 5 Q J rod

For o truly linear sys te m the rcimp error would increase in direct proportion to
velocity while the load cnor would be indcp ndc nt of ve loci ty.
 From section 8 . 6 . 5 .
I-
k = K
x x

= Q/v
x

SPX - 2p Q
s
and
SQ = K 2v 2
x x
2
- 2 k
PS x
=
QK2
x

If changes in p o ver the speed range o f interest are smal I enough to be neglected,
x
then kx {and therefore K ) is a constant, but
1

-2 pk
s x
2 ,
= ex ex
QK 2
x
Q e

Under these circumstances the Ioad error becomes

60

But Q = 7.50Vm, so, if the term ~~ may be neglected,

There fore the e rror au ed b the re locity-independen t load is now p roporti onal to
ve loc i , . is th mp r r. Thi implies that fo~ a stationary positi on the positi on
e rror is zero re ga rdl ~: f tht' I ad torque (since 5 Px approaches infinity as fl ow
5Q
opproache zero, k" being a constant) . In prac tice leakage flow limits the stiffness.

Figure 36 illustra tes errors in such a position servo o ver t he opera ti ng speed
range.

60
(=Vr p)
Loaded
Kr p

Unloaded

Ro mp
error

e (: Vry)
Krv

0
CX)
I
I
0
-0

800Hz componen t
f rom demodulator

Fig 36 Hydraulic type l se rvo . position error

versus velocity (steady - state)

In section 9 it will be shown that in certain circumstances it is beneficial to hove

bo~h velocity {rote) and po ~i tion (proportional) feedback in a position servo. The steody-
stote sHffness of :;uch a ~ervo is unaffected by the velocity feedback.

For calculation of error coefficients such a servo may be regarded as being a simple
position servo, with ih fornord path modified by velocity feedback . The transfer gain of
the resulting velocity loop, formed in the forward path, is then the new forward path gain
of the position servo.

. .,
 >f I. I h l\\'1}11th <1 l ~<1 .lhu1 I( has bee n cons ide re d . Whereas ne gat ive feedback
gen~1 'I ~ 1 --t h'l 'I ~''" ltl <> tt>eJuo k i ge ne rally de lete rious.

\ ¢ , , \h b~ 'h '" 11 llrnl if th e> return d iffere nce F < 0 (GH > + 1) the
o ut ut d , :-. ... J~ I , 'f'' 't<'"' I- I tu ll y un c ontro l le d by the input. In a rotary velocity
e r" th ' l ' ih \\ ii I 11\1.' I <11\~<' l111t il 1lmi led by other factors in the syste m (e . g no
gre te-r ii ft " , lld,1(1 ) . In (1 l l nc>ar po i tion servo the output wi ll go to Q~ of the
e d t ~.

t f \ p, siti''" 'l(ll\ u ing o ynchro I ink, th is I ink automat ically compensates

fo r th p rity ii ' ,'i0n b 1 toting 180°,

E, pe rime t 14

unit and control unit a s shown in figure - 28, with or without

ine rt io 1sc .

Do no t apply the broke.

5,. i tch on e lec tronic power.

Set = 0 and k
2
= 0.

Switc h on hydraulic power.

Use the OFF SET to ba la n ce port 1 and 2 pressures.

a::i
t
::c
0
Se t k
1
to g ive vx = -0 . SV .
'° Dep ress the INVERT button firmly. Observe the change in motor d irection.

Stil I h o ld i ng do wn the INVERT button increase k to gi ve posi tive fe edback and

2
obsente the effec t .

Re t urn k l and k to zero . Change the configuration to tha t of figure 37, w ith
2
o r witho ut the inerti a d isc.

Set k to 0 . 2. Th e controll e d dial should fol low the reference dial . Press the
2
INVERT button ond observe th e e ffec t .
 •
0
'-
QI > a.
'- '-
N > >

0 0
0 GI
c
....
....
QI
0 l/l

0
c .....
c
0
•
0
'-
..-
c
0
l)

c
0
....
Ul
0
a.
>.
'-
....0
0

QI '-
Ol
'-
0
a.
0
0
I

0
-0
QI
Ul
0
u
['.
M

Ol
u.

...
 THEORY AND EXPERIMENT S:
SECTION 9
TIME DEPENDENT PERFORMANCE

9. l Servo stobil i ty

In section 8 only the steady-stote performance of servomechani sms was discu ssed .

It is also impo rtant to know the time taken fo r the output to reach its steady-state
va lue after the refe re nce signal has been changed to a new va lue . Another con sidera tion
is the manne r in which the output goes to its new value . It may overshoot the required
posit ion (or othe r cont ro lled variable) and osc i llate about it before finally settl ing do wn .
Worse st ill, the oscillations may be self-sustaining and increase until they are limited
by a non-linearity such as decreased gain at high amplitude .

These facto rs are governed by the time dependen t performance of the system,
tha t is, the way the system re sponds to transient changes and sinusioda l frequencies from
OHz (the steady-s tate condition) up to and th rough the predominant frequency dependent
terms in the system .

Frequency dependence takes the form of changes in gain as the frequency is

increased . At the same time the phase through the system, the amount by which the output
either lags behind or leads the in put, als::> changes.

Generally speaking, if there is some frequency at which the total phase lag around
the loop is equal to 180° of that frequency while at the some freq uency the gain is not
much le ss than unity, the system wil l respond to a ste p change in an o sci l latory way. If,
("") a t tha t frequency, the gain is unity or greater, the oscillation s will be se lf-sustaining
CX)
I and of that frequency . The explana tion is si mply that o 180° phase change in a sinusoidal
I
0 signal (o waveform that contains only one, pure frequency) corresponds to a pola rity
'° inversion . As noted in section 8 . 13 . 3, this gives positive feedback, i .e the feedback
signal is giving completely wrong information, and the system is always seeking a wrong,
and ever changing position.

Another view of the same phenomenon is given by considering the transient re sponse
of a system . Tok e a type l position servo whose refe rence position is changed suddenly
to new va lue, i . e a step input . Obviousl y the output or controll ed posit ion cannot follow
thi s instontoneous ly . Assume, fo r the moment, that the motor can accele rate very quickly
to a velocity propo rtiona l to the position error. As the controlled position approache s its
correct va lue (i . e the steady-state outpu t) the motor ve loci ty correspondingly diminishes,
and the system sett les smoothly to its new position. This transient response is i llustrated
in Figure 38(o) . Here is a case where the dom inant frequency dependent te rm in the
loop is that due to the motor responding to a posi tion error signal, not with a proportional
position, but with a proportiona l rate of change of position. This introduces into the
loop o phase log of 90° a nd o gain factor which decrea ses with increasing frequency.
Accordingly, the gain fal ls be low unity while the phase shift is only 90°, and there is no
oscillatory action .

Now take the same type 1 position servo, but with a motor whose acceleration
ti me is not negligibly short compared with the system transient response time. This could
resu lt from the addition of an inertia l load . When the step input is applied the motor tokes
some time to accel e rate to the ve locity demanded. As the required position is approached
it again tokes time for the motor to bring its ve locity down to zero. By this time, in fact,
it will have passed the required position and a position error will have developed with the
oppo. i tt:' p larit ' • Tin 1\\1.)h: I 1t1v ~'('S bu~ C1goi 11 overshoots the required position . Thi s form of
o cil la toc transit'lnt 1 ~f "'t f, l llu\ h o lo d in figure 38(b) .

If tht' a e lt'rotl n t'Npomo i very slow compa re d w ith the response of the closed -
loop, th moto r mny lw t'<:'gn1dcd m 1osponding to position e rror si gnal not w ith o proport ional
po ition o r, a b fo1~', o p1"0po1tiono l ve loci ty, but with a proportional acce lera tion . Above
a certa i n freciuetK)' thi ~ inti du t.' a doub lo phase log into the loop , giving o phase sh ift of
180° a nd an att nunti n which d 'C I O O es doub l y w ith increasi ng frequency . If the steody-
sta te ga in around the lo pis hi gh e nough the goin wi ll be close to unity at the frequency
where th e pha e lag b c ome 180°, and the transie nt response is oscillatory .

- - - - - - - - ------t.- t 1me . t

Fig 38 Transient response

If the gain is greater t han unity at the 180° phase shift point then a ny m inute
d isturbance to the system sets up o cont i nuous o sc illat ion . The motor con ti nually o vershoots
the requ i red posi tion with such ve loci ty tho t the overshoo t di stanc e be comes la rger ea ch
time. Eventual ly the motor velocity is limited only by o non-linearity suc h a s limited oil
flow.

It can be generally sta ted tha t , for practical servomechanisms, a s the gai n around ~
the loop is increased, up to a point, t he system performance improves . The stiffness t
I
increases and the deadband and transient response time decrease . Bey ond th is point, 0
-0
however, further increase in gain brings o tendency to o sc illate which decreases the
settling time {the time token for the controlled variable to settle to the ste ady-state value).
Further increase in gain brings sustained oscillation .

In section 8 dimensions were given in both SI and lb . in uni ts . In section 9 the

student will be assumed to understand the need for dimensional compatibility in the transfer
function expressions, ond to be able to opply any necessary correction factors.

9.2 Methods of representing time dependence

9. 2. l Differential equation

Consider the resistor-capacitor network shown in figure 39(a) or the analogous

viscous transmission and inertia arrangement of figure 39(b) .
R

la) (b)
 Fo r tin R· fh tv 1·k, th d iff re n tial e quation relating output vol ta ge to i npu t
voltoge l :

cl (t) v . (t) v (t)

I 0
=
dt R

if, fo r impl ic ity, lnitiol ondition (v (t) and v .{t) a t t

0 I
= 0) are al I a ssumed to be
zero .

The behavi our of v (t) fo r a ny form of v. {t) can be determined by sub sti tuting the
expression fo r v . (t) into thg diffe re n tial equatio~ an d so lving for v (t) .
I O

9. 2 . 2 Frequency re spo nse

The fre q uency re sponse o f a netwo rk or syste m is de fined a s the re lati o nsh ip be twee n
in put a nd o utput am pl itude and pha se o ve r the fre que ncy range of interest . Sin ce a t any
o ne po in t i n th is fre q uency range onl y a si ngle fre q uency is presen t , sinusiodal exc ita tion
o f the ne two rk is imp I ied . That is

v . {t) = V .coswt
I I

From Eu le r's iden ti ty,

jwt
e = coswt + js inwt
. t
I()
v. (t)
l
= v. I
x re al part of el<.>
co
I
:c To satisfy any differen ti al equation o f the form given in sect ion 9 . 2 . l (i. e a
0
-0 I inear d ifferenti a l equa t ion) v (t) must be of the fo rm:
0

v (t)
0
= V co s (wt
0
+ a: )
.( t + a: )
= V x real pa r t of e 1 w
0
. . t
= V x re al port of e 1 a: e lw
0

But , V e jct is th e phosor re pre se ntot.ion of the output , having ompl i tu de V 0 ~nd o phase
0
angl e (re la tive to vi (t)) of rx . V0 e l<X may be de no ted simply as the phasorV 0 . Then

"' jwt
v (t) :::: real part o f V e
0 0

and dv (t)
0 "' jwt
roal part of V jw e
0
clt

Tho cJi(f(,f',Jnti ql u<iuo llon th o n solv s to give th e steady-state solution

'/" ()
v
0
• ( jt.i) c::

v. v. + jwRC
' '
 1t1111 of figure 39(b)

jl.>(J/B)

whNe J h th-- \,,,,d llw1 th., , \1IH.l l} h the vi scous drive constant having the dimensions

of t( n.> i tt~' h'l'-1 ~ ~ 1 1,,d I N~ o~ lo t motion .

hi$ tk• ,,f i11pl1t (11\d output phasers is termed the frequency response or tronsfer
fvn tt f th 1 t"'"'-k ~'I l- ::.tt,m1 and is ge ne rol ly denote d by G (jw) .

The frequency t ransfer functi on of a network can be expressed, a s implied above,

in terms of its polar co-ord ina tes. For the R-C network under considera ti on

G(jt.i) =
+ jwRC

=' I G ( jw) I L G (iw)

.. L c os
-1
-l

~ l 4 (wRC)2

ny.:; Y,t,'Jc; f1hl h q cwiph kol roth or than alge braic fonn of representing the
frt:.';,';~r.c ; r<>"ft', r,v<;. 1 1 1;r, \1 1olly 1..oMi ~ t ~ of two plot s, usually drown on o common chart ,
Or\~ 9h f 1; (A!~ , , orr11,lll· 1d<- (j'1ir1 C (j1,1) I I,and the other is of the phase shift L G(jl.>),
bol'h 'Y..1'; ; r,·.f 'J .'1 @11 111 f1w1•1•:11r. y '1<. <~ I <: . Thi•: fre quency scale is generally logarithmic, in
1 1

either H/ ,, , ,,,,J;,,,,,/
~ 1; 1 ri(1d , <,rd n i ~ (INH rally plotted in decibels, dB. Decibels are a
it:J~;rithrti: ', rr."'J;•w ,,,, 11 tl11JJ tr lh1, vo l1 or~e; rnlio i) x the decibel value is 20 log x.
10
WhOJr~ / i~ )•,;; l ~ , .,,, ,,,,fi; ri "'' !1•111111: ck-1.ib(' I resul ts . Phase shift is plotted in
d~QI'~"!>, lo;11 I ~r l11(J r1 1' ill 1" , l11u 1111 (Jfl1 iv<) .
1
 The Bode plot for the simple R-C ne twork is shown in fi gu re 40 .

0 -- ----

IG(JWll-10 ........
dB ....._ ......_ - 2 0dB/d e c a d e
........

-20

LG(jW)
450
00
r------
90°,J_~~~~~~~~~~--..-~=====~::=:~
0·1 0 ·2 0·5 2 5 10 x 1/T
freq u en c y w
Fig 40 Bode plot

A useful feature of the Bode plo t is that certain si mpl e rule s often al low on
appro xi mate vers ion to be drown ra pidly once t he sol ient characteristics of the network
have been established . Figure 40 shows the ossymptotes to the gain plot , These may be
drawn by inspection of the transfe r functi on . The ne twork contains a single frequency
dependent element which toke s effect a t w = 1 at -6dB/octave or -20dB/decade
RC
r-.. and the pha se sh ift changes to -90°. There is, for the large group of functions classified
co
I as minimum phase, a simple re lation ship between ampl itude and phase shift . Zero
I
0 amplitude roll off implies 0°shifd ±6dB/octave attenuat ion implies ±90° shi ft, ±12dB/
'° octave attenuation i mplies ±180 shift, and so on.

A minimum phase system may be defined as one in which the phase change is the
minimum possible for the given {frequency dependent) attenuation characteristic. The
only example of a non-minimum phase function in section 9.3 is that of transport lag .

The stability of a closed-loop system may be obtained graphically from the open-
loop plot. Optimization is more of a cut-and-try nature than with the Nyquist approach
{below) but approximate values are more rapidly obtained.

9. 2 . 4 Nyquist plot

The Nyquist plot is another graphical representation of the frequency transfer

function. It is simply the locus of the function phasor as the frequency is swept from
zero to infinity (or, more rigorous ly, from minus infinity to pl us infinity through zero).
Each point on the locus represents a particular frequency. Since this is a phosor plot,
the length of the line drawn from the origin to any point on the locus is directly proportional
to the gain (not logarithmic here) at the frequency, and the angle made with the positive
abscissa is the phase shift.
 An adequate amount of fre quency infonnotion must , o f c ourse , be marked on the
locus .

For the simpl e R-C ne twork the Nyquist plot is a s shown in figure 4 1 .

- 270° (or + 90°)

-1so 0.-...~~~---<b-~~~~~~~~~----~~~ 0 °
0 W:OO W=O

W=j_
T
- goo
Fig 41 Nyquist plot

An adv an tage of the Nyqui st plot is tha t the re exists o simple stobil i ty cri terion
relating the open -loop transfer function plot with the stability of the closed-loop system .
Contours of constant closed-loop gain and phase shift may be rapidly d rown on the
CX)
Nyquist plot to a ssist optimisation of the closed-loop characteri stics . CX)
I
I
0
An alterna tive versi on of this plot is the inverse Nyquist plot. This uses
J
[ G(jw) -1 rather thon G(jw), and offers certain adv antage s in the graphical man i pulat ion '°
of the response of closed-loop systems with frequency depe ndent feedback.

As for the Bode plot there are some simple rule s governing the construction of
Nyquist plots which al low them to b e sketched foster than if they were plotted, point by
point, from first principles.

9 . 2.5 Transien t response

So for only the steady-state solution of the system differential equation has been
conside red . The frequency transfer function and Bode and Nyquist plots all indicate the
system response to o constant sinusoidal exc itation. However useful this information may
be, the response to other types of input is sometimes of more direct interest.

An input which is convenient and often typical of practical conditions is the step
input. The system time response to o step i nput is termed the step response.

Consider a step input to the simple network illustrated in figure 39(0). The
expression for on input step of unit amplitude at time t ::: 0 is

v. (t) = u(t)
I
 I ~, m11li11 hlt \ 1111pl1 c tly, the initia l cond itions o re ell assumed to be zero, the
differ1,11tl 11 1' qu11'io11 \OIV<' ' lo give

v (t) -t/T
u{t) (1 e )
0

\hi h h the ' tt'P 11'\pomo of the no lwork. Th e form of this response 1s il lustrated in
fi gut e 4 (o) .

ii
11 f
II I

0 T 2T 3T 0 T 2T 3T
( a) (b)

Fig 42 (a) Step response (bl Impulse response

O t he r stondord inpu ts which ore som eti me s of interest ore impul se , romp end
parobolo . They ore tre a ted in o simil ar fa shion to the ste p input . For the simple R--C
netwo rk the impu lse response is shown in fi gure 42 (b) .
°'
co
I
I
0 Al I these types of response moy be te rme d tra nsie n t responses , though th is term
'° generally implies the most common form, the step response .

9 . 2 .6 Laplace t ransform

The most pow erful tool in se rvome chanism onolysi s and synthesi s is one w h ich allows
the transfer function of eoc h component to be expre ssed in o form easily derived from its
governing differe n ti al e quation (and vice ve rsa) end al so ollows any linear input to be
expressed in the some form . Thi s tool is the Laplace transform.

The Laplace transform of a function of time, f(t), is given by

[ J
L f(t) =
r
Jo
00
f{t) e
- st
dt == F(s)

The var iable s i s th e compl ex frequency o + jw, and is called the Laplace
operator .

In word s, the Laplace trnnsform of o function is the time integral of the function
when drive n by an input consisting of o pair of sinusoidal oscillations, one real, one
imaginary (leading the real component by 90°), at frequency w, whose amplitude
coefficient dccl in e~ from unity to zero according to time constant 1/o . This input has
the properly of tc~ ling the function ~o comprehensively that the resultant integral (in
term\ of w ond a ) uniquely specifies the time b e haviour of the function.
 Th Pt'lkuth.'11 ,,t th h l 1,11 1 ~ l o1r11 w tll be discusse d without going into mothemat ical
oodv ti I" ,, 't "ttn\J ~Ii i 1,1l11 I t111l 1' I u~age .

tyrl I p1'bl,1in \\I ll llll1\11atc the tech nique. Suppose that it is re qu ired to
flnd the 1~~ ' " ' ) 1-'t thc1 'tn1pl c> R 11ctwo1k to a unit ramp input . Assume zero initial
con iti m. S'I' l111,1 tlw dlffe'1-c11 1tiol c quaHo n by the c l assical me thod for even this simpl e
configu r ti n 1:- k\tl ~" ,

U ing th' Loplo t' trnmfo1m it c on be state d that

l [ v (t) J = L [ v . (t)
I
J x L[ I + iwT J
From tab le 2

= --
2
x
s + sT

Th i s splits into partia l frac tions.

T
= +
2
s s + sT
0
Again from tab le 2 t he inv erse transform is 0-
I
I
- t/T 0
v {t)
0
= t u{t) T u(t) + Te '-0

= u(t) [ t T (1 e - t/T) J
In practi ce, tables of standard transforms ore availabl e wh i ch o re so comprehensive
tha t the inver>e t ra nsform of t he product con ofte n be read directly and the labour o f
spl itting into part ial fractions is avoided.

If the t ran sfer function of each element in o servo loop is specifi ed in Laplace fo1m
they con be ma ni pulate:d alge braicly, just a s for the steady state gains, to give the transfer
func t ion of the compl e te close d-loop sys tem . Again, if the input to this system is expressed
in Laplace Form, the sy stem output is the inve rse transform of the product of the input and
transfer function tron<:forms. Us ing table s of s tandard transforms, even complicated systems
con be rcpidf y onoly.sed.

Any non-ze;ro initial 1ystem conditions ore easily incorporated in the Laplace
equa tion .
 function form functio n function Laplace tran sform
f(t) f(jw) F(s)

unit impulse at t = o

unit step at t = 0 u (t)

s

ramp t
s2

parabola t2
3
s

-t/T
exponential decay e
s + l/ T

si mple lag
+ jwT 1 + sT

..-
°'I I resonance
2 2
0 -(.,) 2 + 2~jw w + w s2 + 2~w s + w
n n n n
'°
integration Jooo dt
j<J s

d
differentiation jc.> s
dt

- st
transport lag e
coswT + jsinwT

Table 2 - Some Laplace transforms.

9 . , 7 ~~ .£_1 '11

Tciking the t1 \)n, f01111 I· (, ) o f a time /fre que nc y d e pend e nt funct ion , where
= ~ i» lndi r t1 tc\\ 0 110 1110 1 u c fu l graphica l prese n ta tion . Certain va l ues of sw ill
giv . th" fltn ' th.'n infl11itc..>omp l iludo , a nd othe r particular values will give zero amplitude .
The · v l li ':-Ofi. •11't' k11 o w11 m 'pol o s ' and ' ze ros ', re specti ve ly, o f the func tion . They
c o n be- pl tt ~icl n o ~x ll' -z.1.Jl'O p lot who se axes are o (re al) and jw (complex) . Such a
p lot ll ws th ' l ei pl ·t~ t1 a n form to be vi suali sed i n te rms of its roots (of i ts denominator
a nd its m•meroto r "~' t) " t'qua to d to ze ro) .

The pol e--z. ' ro plot fo r F(s) = is shown in figure 43 . There is a zero
+ sT
located a t infi nity ; on th i nfinite ci rc le in fact . Note that any pole-ze ro plot is
symme trical about the real axis .

+jw

pole

S= ..!..
T

- JW
Fig 43 Pole-zero plot
N
There exists o graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots of the t ransfer
°' I
funct io n o f o closed-loop system a s the feedback gain is varied from zero upwards . Th is I
0
1 -0
root loc us• technique is a particularly important applicat ion o f the pol e-zero plot.

9.2 . 8 Summary

Sections 9 . 2 . l through 9 . 2 .7 have introduced the major me thods o f representation

of time dependence. D irectly or indirectly, both the transient and frequency re sponse of
any I ineor fun ction con be compl ete ly and unambiguously specified by any one of these
methods . I twas noted in sect ion 9.2 . 2 that frequency dependence and any physical
interpre ta ti on of it must inc lude the time parameter .

~Jote that non-line ar syste ms may require different methods of treatment, s uch as
us1':: of the phare- plone diagram, which hove not been discussed .

Thi:; 9f;: nerol prop(: rties of each of the methods discussed ore I isted i n table 3 .

Th!: opprouch or combination of approaches used for any particular problem depends
on the n'JltJre of th0 " Y~ hi m ond input·, which characteristics are known and which must be
&~r i·1cd, rmd to ~orr1 1 : <:..1,t(rnl on the des igne r's experience and personal preference .

In th•: fr)ll 1 Ntl no tc.xt o mph osib will be placed on the Bode plot, Laplace transform
and the ~If; p r,, ~rxm·.A1 •
 1 ~x· o! ulgub1oic fre quency
'~'pr ''~'11t\1ti ln or time ge neral properties
1.1 1 grophi c
depe nde nt

D iffo rcn t 1o l applicabl e from firs t

a lgo b raic t ime
equat1 n pr inc ipl es; c l assi cal
me thods of solu tion
laborious

F1equency derived from d iffere n tial

a lgeb rai c fre que ncy
re.pen f(iw) e quation or experimental
plots; less ve rsa t il e bu t
more 1 physicol 1 than
Laplac e tran sform

Sode plo t graphic fre que ncy e a sy to v isuali se;

mul t ip Iic o t ion of functions
by simpl e g raphic addition;
ofte n obta ine d expe ri-
mentally os basis for system
analysi s

N yqu ist plot graphic frequency one curve ind icate s system
s tab i l ity; o ften obtained
experimenta ll y as basis for
("") system analysi s
0...
I
I
0 Tra nsi e nt algebraic often corresponds to
t i me
'° re sponse f (t ) generol ly practi cal conditions

Laplace
t ransform e a sily manipulated ; many
L U(t )l , L [f (jw) J algebraic either
standard forms

Pole-zero frequency al lows Laplace form to be

graphic
plot genera ll y vi sualized; useful root
locus technique
9.3 Ba s ic forms o f time de pende nce

In th is section a numbe r of the mo re common ti me de pe nde nt ne twork s and the ir

tra nsfer fun c ti ons o re desc r ibe d . Ma ny practica l systems opproxi ma te to o ne o r a
combina tio n of these.

Re fer to t ab I e 2 for the Laplace tra nsformed fre que ncy responses.

9, 3. l Simpl e lag

The ne two rks of fig ure 39 are examp le s of simple la gs and have bee n used as
exam ples th ro ugh out sect ion ~ . 2 .

9 . 3 . 2 Reso nant do uble log

Ele ctrical an d me c hani ca l exampl es o f resona n t doubl e logs ore shown in figu re 44 .

Vj R c Vo 8; ' +rQOltu
K

y, O-·
B J
90

F ig 44 Exampl es of resonan t doubl e lag s

The fre quenc y respo nse of t he e le ctr i cal ne twork is give n by

2
v w
n
_ o {jw) = 2 2
v.I -w + 2 C: jw w + w
n n

w here w is the na tural fre que ncy of osc illation, given by

n

w
n
= rod ions/ second

and C: is th e damping fa ctor, g iven by

= 1 ~
2R j .C
If the right-hand side e xcee ds un i ty, the network is no longe r re sonant . It is the n o
comb ination o f two simp le logs and the damping fac tor is uni ty .
 G
The ve locity response ,~ (jw) of the mechanica l system is si milar, where
. 9.
I

w
n
-- jjK
~
JK rad/sec

and B
=

whe re K is the stiffness of the dri vi ng shaft.

Th is inerti ally loaded, compliant shaft a rra nge me n t is frequently encoun tered in
se rvomechon ism pract ic e.

The Bode plot for two vo l ues o f damping factor is shown in figure 45. The
co rresponding ste p responses and pole-zero locations ore al so shown , Note that

wd = wn J1
~2

w here wd is the dampe d natural frequency o f oscillation .

+10

V) IG (JW)IO
()-..
I dB
I
0
'° -10

-20
oo
LG(JWl
90°

180°
0·1 0·2 0·5 2 5 x Wn

jW x JW

- - - --!--- CJ

S= Wn
(doub le)

x
0 ST 10T
Fig 45 Re sponses of resonant double lag s
 A'\\ ii I l•tl '\.C"t'll lt1to1, many c losed-loop systems exhi b it on overol I tra nsfer
cho1(\l.' t1.'11,ti-. 'l111ilo1 lo ti lt''ononl double log . This is particula rl y the c a se when it is
attempkd t) ~1l toln tlH1 ma xim um high frequency performance from p rac tical e lectro -
h ' dmulk CllHi tlll' t1t'-rH<'chanica l components.

A di tin hon mu ~ t be made betwee n t rue in teg ra ti on , which is val id a t frequencies

right down lo and including ze ro, and integratio n w h ich holds onl y down to so me ve ry low
frequ ncy. Thi s latte r i ~ only a low fre que ncy fo rm o f a simpl e lag . It i s ofte n use d to
a pproximate to a true integration . In e lectroni c c i rcuits, for example, t rue ope ra t ional
amplifier do note ist.

An example o f true integrat io n is in the conve rsion of the ve loc ity of an ob jec t
into its position . Given infinite time with zero velocity, its positi o n wou ld no t drift back
to a settling value as it wo u ld for o si mpl e lag .

The fre que ncy response of a t rue i nteg rato r is si mpl y

f
~ (jw) =
f. jwT
I

a s sh own in the Bode pl o t of fig u re 46 .

dB
+20
-20dB / decade
0 r--- -- °'I'°
I

1 0

- 20
f I
I I '°
I
_ 900 1----~P.:-
h:..;;a:..;;s:..;;e;.___ __ __

01 10 >< 1/T 0 T
F 19 '~6 Res pon se of a n i ntegrator

The ste p rospo nso is a lso i llustrate d i n fig u re 46. The pol e-ze ro p lo t has a sin g le
pole ot the o ri gi n .

1'--lo te thcJ I -,orvo typ« , o~ d iscussed in section 8 . 12. 2 is a direct me a sure o f th e

numb () r o ~ 1ril'f' {) rcJ !lOn 'I in t ho lo op .

II• ri <1()1Jir1 , , rl h l1r 1< l ion rn u ~ t be modo b e twe e n true diffe re nt iat ion and o di ffere n -
t ir;tion 1irn l l" d Jr, 11 r 11 rt 11l 11 f1 1H11H nc y ro ngo.

; , ,, '> /' trn1,11· r1f d llf • 1 <~ n 1 in 1 io n i lho co nve rsion of the changing posit ion o f a n
ob je r, I inln ii -, ,.. 1.,. lty
 The frequency response of o diffe rentiato r is

f
~jw) = jwT
f.
I

giving the Bode plot of figure 47. The ste p response is on impul se of i nfini tely short
durat ion, and is never practically achieve d .

dB
+20

0 +20dB/decade

-20

0 1 10x 1/T

F19 47 Response of a d1 tter ent1ator

The pol e-zero plot hos a single zero at the origin.

Any t rue d ifferentiation in a servo loop reduces the type numbe r by one if it cancels
on integra tion .

9 . 3 . 5 Tron sport lag

Th is is a lag which in t roduces a c o nstant ti me dela y bu t does not affec t the

ga in . In on hydraulic system, the p ressure transmission of a length of hose may be approx-
imate d by o transport lag , A matched ele c trical transmission li ne also exhib its th is form
of ti me de l oy .

The fre que ncy transfer funct ion may be expresse d

f
-9_ {jw) =
f. c o swT + jsinwT
I

whe re T is the time de lay of the lag .

This is re present e d in figure 48 . The step response is al so shown .

 I G (jW) I 0
dB
-1---------------------
- 00

-45°
r-----
LG (jw)
-90°

-135°

-180°~~~~-,-~~~~~-,-~~~~~~~~.-~-1~~-,

0 ·1 0·2 0·5 2 5 x1
f

r-
I .
If I
I
0
I
T
fo

Fig 48 Response of transport lag

The Laplace transform, L [f{t) ] = e -st, gives a pol e -ze ro plot with a po le
a t s = - oo and a ze ro a t s = - oo . The prese nce of th is zero in the right-half plane
is charac te ri st ic of a non-minimum phase function . The more obv ious characte ris tic of
the non - minimum phase nature of a transport lag is apparent from the Bode pla t . The
phase is not related to the gain, as has bee n the case for the o ther functions cons ide re d
here . Thus while for minimum phase sy stems plotting of the Bode ga in curve alone is
often sufficient, this is not so for any non-minimum phase system .

A servo loop containing a significant amount of transport lag is part icularly

difficult to stabilise .

9. 4 Dynamic characte ri sti cs of loop components

9 . 4 . 1 General

It was shown in section 8. 11.4 that the transfer gain of a closed-loop is

c G
=
R ,I - GH

where all the terms were assumed to be the steady-state values. This expression applie s
equol ly to terms in the complex frequency domain, that is

C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) G (s) H (s)
 Th erefore the design of any c losed-loop sy stem fo r stab i l ity, speed o f response, etc,
re qui res tha t the complex frequency performance of the forward and feedback paths be
known. Each path generally consists of a number of e lements whose characteristics can
be spe c ifie d or obta ined empirical ly .

T reotment of a path in terms o f e ach e lement is much simpl er if the output

variable of any e leme nt is ind e pe nde nt of all but a si ngl e inpu t var iabl e. An example
is the va lve d rive ompl ifier . Its ou t pu t cu rrent ix is d e pen dent only o n vx , the inp ut
voltage . The inductance of the valve coils and the res ul tan t re a ctive voltage hos no
effec t on ix since the ompl ifier outpu t impedance is very high .

Wh ile the e l ectronic compone nts may generally be treated as independent

elements, the same is not true fo r the hydraulic compon e n ts . The v al ve ou tput fl o w is
depe ndent not only on ix but also on the p ressure px , wh i ch is in turn d e pen d ent o n
the load that the val ve is d rivi ng . To simpl ify the trea tmen t of the val ve it may be
regarded os having an ou tput flow dependent only on ix, and its ou t put stiffness or
viscous damping 5px is the n transferre d to the inpu t of the next e lement. Th is

50
tech n ique is generally appl icable, and will be u sed in the subsequent analysis.

The high frequency performance of most practical servomechanisms is I imited b y

that of the mechanica l components in the forward path . The feedbac k tran sducers and
the electroni c portion of the loop generally have limitat ions only at a frequency several
orders higher than those of the pre dominant mechanical freq uency limi tations. The
larger the mechanical components, the more likely this is to be the case .

It may be useful to visualise hydraulic systems in terms o f their mechanical or

°'
°' I
electrical analogs .
I
0
hydraulic mechanical electrical
'°
flow velocity vol toge
pressure force or torque curren t

Thus con stant velocity indicates constant flow through a hydraulic motor, or
constant vol toge across a d. c motor o r tacho-generato r.

9.4.2 Electro-hydraulic valve

The operating principle of the servo valve has been discussed in section 8 . The
predominant frequency term in the flow gain is due to the time token for movement o f
the f loppe r (first-stage) to cause a corresponding movement of the spool (second-stage) .

If the following symbo ls are defined

•x = diffe re n ti a l input current

Of = differential oil flow from flopper

Kf = Or/ix for constant Xs

As = spool end cross-sectional area

Xs = spool position
 Q/X
s
Or/Xs for con stant ix, i . e spool -flap per
feedback constant

X sKsf

F r th ' . .. n ~ ~k1~)<', wlH '0 ~poo l move me nt is control le d by Q f

Th re

Xs As + X s Ksf =

= ixKf in Lapla ce no ta tion

Q(s) K X (s)
s s
= =
i (s) i (s) + sTx
x x

whe re T
x
= A /K f'
s s
0
0
I
I
No te tha t fo r a given flapper position, Q f and K f are proportional to
5
0 0
'°
Therefore T oc 1/ ~
x s

The steady-<sta te value of Q/vx is kx , whe re ix/vx is the (constant) transconduc tance
of the va lve d rive ompl if ie r . The re fore the flow gain of the val ve and ompl ifier is

Q(s) k
x
=
+ sTx

For the EH Sl60 volvo Tx =- 2. 3 m sec (70H z) a t Ps = ?Obar [10001b/in

2
J
The re a rc a dd i tiona l t (} rm ~ in the flow gain, e. g due to the moss of the armature ,
but thcs ~ rnO'/ ~ n o rolly h< ne glcctod in compari son with 1/ (1 + sT ) .
x
rh u~ !he 1rnl v ho •, ch<:lroc t · ri ti cs of
1 0 simple lag.
 The output 5Px characteri stics of the valve are virtually unaffec ted by the
oQ

mass o r compliance of the contained oil, and may there fore be regarded as o v iscous
loss constant (or the sti ffne ss , referred to in section8) independent o f freque ncy .

9 .4. 3 Motorondlood

The motor has three fac tors which predominantly control its high frequency
performance .

First there is the inertia, J, of the rotating portion of the motor plus the con tained
oil plus the load . Second, there is the compressib i lity of the oil con tained in the motor,
between the drive ports and the piston faces , causing the drive to be compl ian t with an
effective spring stiffness of I(. Note that here 'stiffness' is used in a differen t sense from
t hat of the valve and has different dimensions . Fi nally, there is the damp ing B due to
viscous effects in the driving source, the motor ond load and to motor internal lea kage .

The resulting mechanical network is similar to that shown in figure 44 and discussed
in section 9 . 3 . 2 .

The compressibi l ity of o il is defined by its bul k modulus Kb, where Kb is the ratio
of pressure to the fracti onal contract ion o f a volume o f fluid . For the motor th is volume
is V c . O ther symbol s used in the analysis be low we re introduced in sec tion 8 .

As discussed in section 9 . 4 . 1 the motor may be regarded as be ing fe d from a flow

source independent of the bock pressure from the motor, if the sou rce 6p/ 6Q
..-
0 characte ristics ore transferre d and added to those of the motor . Th is means that a propor-
I tion of the i nput flow, dependent on the mo tor pre ssure, is assumed to be diverted post
I
0 the motor . Since th is is al so the effect of the motor (and v al ve) leakage flow, the source
'° stiffne ss and motor leakage can be comb ine d, as Z where

8Q
z = source +
5p

(This combi notion neglects the fact that the motor leakage is ac tuall y past the p istons
rather than across the input ports i.e after the compliance rather than before. )

If the zero pressure input flow is Q, then

Q = active flow + compression flow + leakage + e ffect of pressure on

flow source

For symmetrical 4-port operation

01 c /2) p
Q = v mQ + + Zp
Kb 2

and
JQ T
= + YV
..Q
p
m
+
vm vm
where Y is the viscous loss constant, and T the constant torque load , of the motor and load.
 5Pf
In the EHS160, Y = --, T = TL + T cf·
5Q

Substituting for pin the flow expression give~ in Loploce notation (Q(s} = sQ(s),
etc)

Q (s) +
YV V
m c
+ Vm
ZJ) s
+ (l + YZ) V m J
0(s)
( 4Kb

T(s)
+
vm
In the EHS160 , T(s) is independent of Q, (except a t the zero velocity d is conti nuity) . Such
ste ady- state conditi o ns moy be se parated out , and om itted from any analysis of the dyna mi c
perfo rman ce o f o I inear system. (If the load torque T (s) were some independent ti me -
va ry i ng functi o n its effect co uld be added into the for1ward path in a si mil ar wa y to that
sho w n i n fig ure 30. )

The motor t ra nsfe r fu nction is the n

2
Q(s) 4KbV /V J N
0
m c
= x
2 I
Q(s) vm 4K V
b m
I
0
-0
(l + Y Z)
vc J

A pa rt from the two te rms containing Z, the t ransfe r functi on is of the fo rm

Q(s) K/J
= x
2
Q(s) vm s + (B/ J)s + K/J

2 2
whe re K = 4KbV
m
/V
c
and B
m
= YV
. Th is is e xact ly the same form a s that of
a campl iont shaft wi th ine rtia l a nd viscous loa d i ng, the reso nan t system i llustra ted in
figur e 44 .
 Th e values of inertia J a re a s fo ll ows:
-3 2 ~ -3 21
mo to r olone = 0. l x l0 kg m L 0. 9 x l 0 Ib. in . sec ~

-3 2 [ -3 2 ..,
moto r+ b rake drum = 0 . 4 x 10 kg m 3. 5 x l 0 Ib . in . sec J
-3 2 [ 9 x l 0 -3 Ib • in . sec 2
moto r+ drum + smal I di sc = l .0 x l0 kg m J
-3 2 [ 30 x 10-3 lb . in .sec 2
motor + drum+ large di sc = 3 .4x l0 kgm J
6 3
The displacement/ radian, Vm, is 0 . 72 x l0- m [ 0 . 044in
3
J . Ve and Kb
o re dominated by the volume and e xpansion o f the conne cting hoses (see sec tio n 9 .4.5) .

9.4.4 Cylinder

The dynamic charac te rist ic s of th e cylinder ore close ly analogous to those of

the motor .

The transfer function is

2
S(s) 4Kb Ah /V cm
= x
2

8
Q(s) Ah
,2 + (v ~ 2 +
4ZKbm ) -

V
s-

m
+
4KbAh

V m
(1 + YZ)
I c c
I
0
'° where m is the effective moving moss o f the piston, rod, containe d oil and the external
load .

For 4-port operation Ve is a s for the motor, the total con taine d volume , when the
piston is in the central position . Actually

v ::=.
c

where V l and V ore the volumes on either side of the pi ston . Thi s being the case, the
2
performance changes a s the pi ston leaves the central posi ti on .

For .3-por t opera tion

Vc ==- 4Vh

Again the performance is dependent on the position of the pi ston .

9 . 4.5 Hydr<.Hi l ic connoc t ino lines

The o ffocl of the h o~es conne cting the valve and motor or cylinder was ignore d
in section 8 . The p1 c~wrc Px al the output of the valve was a ss umed to b e ol so tha t
across the moto1 . At high freque ncies the hoses may have a sign ifican t effe ct, and must
be con side1cd a s a se parate e le ment in the loop .

The tra nsport lag c ha racteristics o f hydraulic lines have been mentione d in
se ction 9 .3 .5. It may be sho wn that, neglecting viscous losses, the d e lay i n a fluid
transmiss ion li ne is

T =j p x length
Kb
3 2
where pis the mass density of the fluid, typically 880kg/m [83 x 10-61b.sec / in]
for a hY.droulic miner'2-I oil . The bul k modulus o f a typical hydraulic mineral oil i s
14 x 103 bar [2
x lefllb/in2J . Due to the volumetric expansi on of the flexi ble hoses
used on the EHS160, this fall s to appro ximately 3 . 5 x 1o3 bor [5
x lo41b/ i n2] . Thus
the transmission d elay i s typically l . 6m sec/m [4~sec/in] . A ny aeration o f the fluid
further lowers Kb .

Fo r a mat ched I ine, the pressure/flow relatio nshi p a t a ny poi n t in the I ine is

=
8 Q A ..q-
0
2 I
at frequencies above 1/T rod/sec . A is the cross-sectional area o f the line bore, 32mm I
0
[0 . 049in2]for the EHS160 hoses .
'°
Match ing impl ies that 8p/ 8Q is the same in the line and either, o r both, the
driving source (valv e ) or the terminating load (moto r o r cylinder) . For example , for a
motor with low damping factor

5p JKJ
SQ v 2
m

Ana lys ir. ol rnl11rnot ht d lrrtnsmi ion line is obviously beyond the scope of this
handbook.

If th l i 11<1 h 111 l\ t11ntc- h1 d ci t both 11d the n in addition to the delay characteristic
(wlii <.h h unf' l1<111 r1nd) 11 1•101 Ju1 I io11 o f th o c ontained fluid ol so appears either as o mass or
<.J'· ,, 1,ornpl ic111cn rn ldl 1ln 11•il I \) thol o f lh load . It may al so appear as simultaneous ly a
rnu;~ urn l u <mrq1l l11111•1 l l llw 111\1l<h in9 i h igh at one e nd, low at the other.

11 1 11111< 111 i> 1 Iii·· c 0 11 110 tlil fl l i n 'be tween the valve and motor or cyl i nder should
ht• lw pl <1 ° '·'''"' 11 ~ ptt•.i lld.• , l c11 q,),ld hi cJh f1 C1 qu ' 11cy p"rformonce. The bore should be
th " 11d11lr11\Jm · ( •11~ l ~ l ti l!I w it h 1<l il ·,n 1H1bk v hcou lo e and load matching.
 The line from the valve to the accumulator and the return reservoir -hould be os
sho rt and as large a bo10 a po~ 1blc si nce tht" 1r bock. pres_ure offoch the loop perfor-rance.
Th is also applies to the supply line to the rod end port on a 3-port operated C)•linder,
Hose transmission effects ore demonstrated in E periment 18.

9 .4. 6 Feedback path

The various transducers on the EHS160, any of which moy be u.ed for feedback,
have with two exceptions, a response which is constant up to at lea t 700Hz. . The
e xce ptions are the synchro link and the flow transducer. Th e synchro link. ho a simple
log with a time cons ta nt of 5 mi ll ise conds (i.e a roll-off frequency of 3 2Hz), in order
to re duce the 800H z. ri ppl e from the demodulator. The fl ow transducer re ponse rolls
off at a frequency where the compliance o f the fluid vo lume bet\.. een the tronsducer
and the me tering ori fice is equal to the conduc ta nce of that o rifice.

9 . 4.7 Operational amp I ifie r

In section 8 .2 the gain of on operationa l ampl ifier, in the inverting conne c tio n,
was sta ted a s

v - Zf
0
=
v. Z.
1 1

i .e the ratio of feedback and input impedances. In the EHS 160, Z. is res istive and Zf
1
depends on the position of the fe e dback selector .
II)
0 107
I
:r:
0
= (1 + O. Ol s) in posi tion C
1
'° s

106
= (l + O. ls) in position c2
s

(making the assumption that the amplifier itself hos infinite gain and the capaci to rs have
no leakage.)

9.4 . 8 Valve/motor comb ination

The block diagram of an open velocity loop conta ining o val ve and motor in ~h~
forward path is shown in figure 49. This representation directl y indicates individual e nd
overol l transfer functions and al lows each element to be visua lised as a simple l ag, a
resonant system, etc.

The block representation of the connecting I ines is simply tha t of a transport log .
lhe valve output viscous damping may st il I be transferred to the input of the mo to r .

If the lines ore not matched, then os noted in section 9.4.5, a proportion o f t~eir
volume is absorbed into the motor block, though the delay T remain s.
 f( I J
sVm(s2+Bs/ J-1 f< I J
op - amp valve motor +load

Fig t.9 Block diagram of open veloc ity loop

Bode plots and step responses for this loop, obtained experimentol ly on the EHS160,
ore shown in fig u re 50 .

The Bode plots show the superimposi ti on of the valve lag on the motor resonance
when the motor is not inertially loade d . The hose delay of approximately lms is not
pa rti cularly significant (e . g 30° shift at 83Hz) .

As the load inertia is increa sed, the characteristics resemble more th ose of a
resonant double lag onl y . For al l three conditions examined, the fact t ha t the gain
curve s nowhere rise significa ntly above the steady-sta te value (normalized here a s OdB)
i nd icates a we ll -damped syste m.

I
Al though not obvious from these Bode plots, an unusu al feature of hydroul ic I
0
systems should be rrentioned here . For the mechan icol resonant system of figure 44 it -0
wa s show n that the damping factor ~ = B/ ~ The dampi ng decreases as the inertia
is increased, B and K remaining constant . The appare ntly analogous system of on
inertially loaded motor is analysed in section 9 . 4 . 3. Here when Z, t he valve 5Q/ 5 p
plus le akage, is included, the term B i ncludes inertia . Thus it is possible for the dompingx
to be improved by the addition of inertia . The action of Z is analogous to including a
viscous transmission on the sha ft and a resistor in series with the inductor in the systems
of figure 44.

Now consider the step resonses of figure 50 . For each value o f inertia, two
responses ore shown . One of these is the step response under conditions of continuous
velocity, i .e whil e the valve o rifice is ope n . Thi s is the we ll-damped response,
indicated by the Bode plot . The second response is that produced by shifting the valve
spool from a conti nuous flow position to the null, ze ro flow position . Th is condition,
where the only flow is le akage , gives the minimum damping . In the moto r transfer
function Z = K , it s minimum value.
1
 t ~'
dt'
)
I ;H( 11111
~\~ H
~'

\'l
o~

4 ,,
LGH(J ~I)

90°

13~

180°
2 s 10 20 100 Hz

~
I
I
0
'<>

1 = Mot o r 2 d<iotor +sma ll d isc 3 = Motor +l a rge disc

Fig 50 Op en - loop responses of velocity loop

Thi s depende nce of dampino factor on the spool position shows up a weakness in
th~ use of Bode (or Nyqui st) plot s in such non-Ii ne ar systems. The ne e d for an adequa te
amplitude mfI'/ rnerm thol a >ignif icontly non-linear range is being covered, and the
~rforrnonc".! at()()(; parti cu lar point in that range cannot be examined. If a system is to
be operol'!'J o 1<;r u non-I inr or reg ion, a combination of frequency and transient re spon se
t~ ~ti ng i> r<; q11irc d .
Experiment 15

Set up the servo and control units general ly as shown in fig ure 9, but wi thout
the connection to INPUT l .

Do not apply the b rake .

Conne ct a si newave generator to INPUT 3 .

Set ATTENUATOR 2 and the sinewave amplitude to zero .

Switch on the electronic and hydraulic power un its .

Adjust the O FFSET to balance port l and port 2 pressures .

Conne ct an osci ll oscope to observe I NPUT 3 and ROTARY VELOCITY (vrv)

vol tages, on either X-Y, or dual trace, internal timebase .

Appl y a lH z sinewave of sufficient ampli tude to give ±3 volts peak at the ROT AAY
VELOCITY test point . The gain through the system at thi s fre quency may be regarded as
th e steaa'y-state gai n . Measu re the phase sh ift between input and output . A variable
phase ou tput on the waveform generator makes such measurements much easier . The
osc illoscope is then connected to thi s variabl e phase output rather than to INPUT 3 .
The system pha se shift may then be read directly off the inst rument dial when the
osc illoscope sho ws 0° shift . (Variable phase o utputs are provi ded on Feedback Instrume nts
types TWG500 a nd VP0230 . ) Figure 51 illustrates typ ical osc illoscope di splays .
_ j_ co

-1
a ttenuati on
0

I
0
I

'°
I
I
I I
~ sin-1 tag --1
Fig 51 Oscilloscope displays sinewave testing
Al te ring t he fre quency but not the ampli tude of INPUT 3, plot gain and phase
against frequency as shown in figure 50 . (Any harmonic distorti on in the si newave will
cause spurious readings . )

Now drive INPUT 3 w ith a 0 . 2Hz square-wove of sufficient amplitude to g ive

vrv a sw ing of ±1 . 5 volt. (If on X-Y display of this is required drive the X channel not
from INPLJT 3 but with a synchronised romp waveform . ) The re sultant velocity waveform
should resemble the better damped of the two step responses for that inertia value sho wn
in figure 50 . Record the complete waveform graphically . Adjust ATTENUATOR 2 un ti l
the motor stops dead on one half cycle of the square-wave . Again record the step response .
This corresponds to the worst damped case shown in fiture 50. It al so imposes the maximum
stress on the motor (limite d somewhat by the opening of the reli ef and replenishing va lve
by-passing the servo valve output) and this mode should be generally avo ided .
 Repeat t he Bode and step re sponses for o ther val ues o f inert ia .

Do not al low the oil to overheat .

Ca l culate the effective value of~ from the experime ntally ob served wn (90°
phase shift) and the prev iou sly given va lues o f Kb, V m and J . Neg lec t YZ .

9.5 Rotary ve loc ity servo

9. 5. l G enera l

If ve loc ity feedback is appl ied to the summing junction, as described in sectio n 8. 11 ,
th e system becomes a ve loc ity se rvo . The block diag ram of this system is shown in fi gure 52 .

V1 kx Ki J e
sTx+ 1 Vm(s2+Bs / J +K/J
op-amp valve motor+ l oad

vrv

Fig 52 Block d iagram of closed v eloc1ty loop

g;
I
I
0 The transfer func tion o f the closed loop is
-0

C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) G (s) H {s)

l /H (s)
=
,1 l / G (s) H (s)

Consider a system dominated by the resonant characteristics of a motor with an

ine rtial load

G K/J
0
G(s) = 2
s + (B/ J)s + K/ J

where G 0 is the steady-state value of G(s) at t = oo , s = o.

H (s) = -H 0
 The closed-loop transfer fun ction is then

C(s) 1/rl
= 2
R(s) s + (B / J )s + K/ J
+
G H K/J
0 0

G K/J
0
= 2
s + (B/ J)s + (l + G H ) K/ J
0 0

and the natural frequency of resonance

w = ~ (l + G H ) K/ J
n o o

= ~ F
0
x ope n -l oop "'n

where F is the steady-state value o f the return d ifference . Sim il arly the damp ing factor
0

= B/ ~ (l + G 0 H0 ) JK
0

= 1/ K 0
x open-loop <: {for a system tha t is resonant in I
1

the open-l oop condition) 0

'°
Thus the velocity (proporti onal) feedback results i n an increase in wn a nd speed
of response, but al so a corresponding increase in l/<: i.e the te ndency to oscill a te .
This last is the limiting factor in the amount of simpl e velocity feedback appli cable to
such a forward path .

Toke, for example, a loop gain G(s)H{s) having <: = 1. Th is is the borderl ine
case between o resonance and a pair of simple lags at "'n · Then a steady-s ta te return
difference of F = 2 gives <: = 0.707 . This corresponds to criti ca l damp ing, the
0
minimum value of 5 before the ste p response overshoots the final value a t an y po int a nd
before G(jw)H{jw) exceeds G H0 at any frequency. F0 = 4 gives C. = 0 .5 1 a nd
values of damping much belo~ this are impractical for most servomechanisms .

Such I imited values of F0 ore often quite inadequate for the steody - stote stiffness
required.

9. 5. 2 I ncreosed stiffness

The stiffness of the simple velocity loop con be increased , ot least for lo\.v
frequencies, by the inclusion of an integrating network in . the forward po th . 0 l"l tne
EHS160 this is obtained by switching the op-amp feedback to positions c 1 or c 2 . This
gives the op-amp a d .c gain limited only by its internal forward ga in . The goi n fo ils
off at 20dB/decade until unity gain is reached at w = lCOrod/sec (cl) or 10rcd /~e.:
(c2). Above this frequency the gain remains at unity and the phase shift int rod\.•Ced is
zero.
 lh" bl ,,, I, •ll•1u1 11111 1d 11 ' >· pl • tJ I , r1e n1 ;., •,howr1 in fi gure 53 . The Bode plot of the gain
Ot(,~11\d ~ q11)l l( j•.1) 111 11y l>" ,imply pro c.luce cJ by graphic add ition o f the plots
tlw ''t'-•11 l''"I'
(ph•hJ iHhl "'u•1dth111h u·il11) 111 n1 1111 l \J<lfl f' l c mc nt incl uding that of the integrati ng network .

~
t
l ltJCl(t 10 It
.,
k )(
!:>Tx +1
Kl
Vm(s2+Bs/J+K/ J)
e

t_r': ~ j""P
volv e motor + load

vrv

+L - Actual
- - As s ymptot1c
dS
-1-10

+S

-5

- 10
I
I if
0
"'
- 45'

-90°

- 135° Phase margin = 55°---

180°
02 0·5 2 5 10 20 Hz
1 = Open- loop re s pon se 2 = Clo se d - loop re sponse (unity f bl
F19 53 Velocity loop with increased l f stiffness

From th i.; o pen- loop plot o me a sure of the closed-loop performance con be rapidly
obtained . The 'goin rnor~1in' is the att e nuation of the open-loop ot the 180° phase lag
fre:r;'enc:y . Similarly th e 'pha•.<1 margin' is the absolute value of the d ifferenc e between
180 and th~) loop ph<J',c ·.hift ot tho OdB cro s~ ing frequency. Gain and phase marg ins ore
both indicator~ of th o ·.y-.f() rn :..tabiliry, in a simila r way to ?:. bu t with more general
application . In a sirnpl ifit>d form Nyqui s t'~ stability criterion sta tes that if the ga in around
a ne gative feed ba ck loop e qual ~ unity when the phase shi ft around the loop is 180° (plus
the polarity rever~o l) then the loop wi l I osci I late continuousl y. If it exceeds unity the
osc il lotion ompliludc w ill g ro w cont inuously . The oscillati on frequency, w , is tha t
freque ncy at which 180° phase shift exis ts (Thi s is not a rigorous version o? the
crite rion but 1s ade qua te for most purposes. ) This implies that if the ga in margi n is
zero or negative the syslc m is unstab le, A phase margin of 0° likewise ind icates instability
0
and 90 indicates critical damping .

It is important to appreciate tha1, for unity feedback, the closed-loop ga in and

phase a ssymptotes ore give n by trun c ati ng the open-loop plot at the OdB level. This is
eosil y proved . For unity feedback H (jw) = -1 and

C(jw) G(jw)
=
R{jw) + G(jw)

Above the OdB line G(jw) >> l and

C(jw)
0
= l or OdB, 0
R(jw)

Below the OdB line G( jw) << l and

C(jw)
= G(jw) = open-loop gain and phase
R(jw)
I
I
0
Extending this rule to non-un ity feedback systems: mul ti ply the resul ti ng c losed- -0
loop plot by l /H {jw) .

While this si mpl e method doe s not give the ac t ual curves, a good idea of the
system stability and spe e d of response con be rapidly obtained, particularly when the
gain and phase margins are al so token into a ccount .

Another important parameter that can be read dire ctl y {to a good approxima tion)
off the Bode plot is the re turn diffe re nce F{jw) .

F{jw) = - G (jw)H (jw)

Therefore for usefu l vol ues of F(jw) , i . c ignificontly g rea ter than uni ty .

F(jw) ::.: -G(jw)H(jw)

This is simply the portion of 1hc open-loop where the ga in is above the OdB leve l. It wos
previously shown that thC' ~ y s tcm stiffness is dire ctly proportional to the return difference.
Thus F(jw) indicatm not only tlw rc\pon~c lo s tcody-~tote d isturbances (w = O) but the
dynamic response, to the \lldd1·n oppl i,· otion of load for example.
 Experiment 16

Set up the servo a n d con tro l units as shown in f ig u re 28 .

Conne c t a wa ve form generato r to INPUT 3 .

Set ATTENUATOR S l {k ) a nd 2 (k ) and the INPUT 3 am pl itude all to zero .

1 2

Swi tch on the e lec tron ic a nd h yd ra ul ic power units .

Ad just the OFFSET to bal a nce port 1 and port 2 pressures .

Connec t on o sc i lloscope, on in te rnal ti me base, to observe INPUT 3 a nd

ROT ARY VE LO CITY voltages . If an X-Y d isplay is re qu ired, dr ive the X channel no t
fro m INPUT 3 , but with o synch ron ised romp wa veform (exce pt for si newave testing) .

Apply a 0 . 2H z square wave to INPUT 3 of suffi c ie nt amplitude to gi ve a ± 1.5

vol t RO T ARY V ELOCI TY outpu t (vrv ) . Me a sure the se tt ling t ime , ts , from the appl ico ti o n
o f the IN PUT 3 ste p to the point wh ere Vrv hos fin o ll y sett le d to within ±5 % of its steady
val ue . For symme trical mo tion thi s should be app roximate ly the same in bo th d i re c t io ns .
Reco rd al so any o ve rshoo t, k 0 s, a s a perc e ntage of the sw ing .

Inc rea se k in steps o f 0 . 1 a nd readjust kl to give vrv = ±1 . SV a s be fore . At

2
e ach set ti ng o f k2 me a sure ts and ko s· Find the value s of k2 which gi ve (a) cri tica l
damp ing , i . e the step response shown in f igu re 4 2, (b} minimum ts, a nd (c) continuou s
o sc il lotio n . Record the o sci l lo t ion fre que ncy ,wn .

I
If add it ional ve loc ity feedba ck gai n is neede d , conne c t INPUT 4 to INPUT 2 .
I
0
The n k2 = 1 + ATTE N UATOR 2 se tting .
'°
Repe a t, a s for a s possi bl e , wi th the op-amp FEEDBAC K swi tched to Cl and c •
2

W ith the op-am p in e ach of the se two conf igurat ions d isconne ct the square-wa ve
input , se t k 2 to gi ve a stabl e system and set k l to give Vr v = -0 . SV . Wha t e ffect
does the sudde n appl ico ti o n o f broki ng torque have?

Expla in the effects se e n, by tak ing the Bode plot o f the previous exp e rime nt ,
adding the veloc i ty fee dback factor k 2 , and there by producing graphicol ly on app roxi mate
closed-loop frequenc y response.

The e x periment moy be re pe ated for smaller values of inertia.

The closed-loop Bode plots may be ve rif ied e xperimentally . De ta il plo tti ng is
necessary only in the region of the one or two major 'bre ak poi nts ' in the sys tem, such as
the resonant fre que ncy . See Experiment 15 for technique .
9 .6 Rotary position servo

9 .6. l G eneral

If position feedb ack is applied, a s described in section 8 . 13, the system becomes
o position servo.

The block diogrom of a ty pical system and its ope n- and closed-loop Bode plot
ore shown in figure 54. Note the presence of the log at 32Hz in H (jw) due to the synchro
link de modulator smoothing .

kx K/J 0
~ sVmls2+Bs/J+K/ J l
op-amp v al v e motor + lo ad gearbox

Vrv

vr

+1 0
dB
+5

I
0 I
0

'°
-5

-10

-15
00

t.5°

90°

135°

180°
02 0·5 2 10
1 and 2 : open and closed simple pos ition loop
3 = open l oop wi th If integrator
t. :: open loop · with velocity minor loop

Fig SL. Position loop with- velocity · damping

 Thi s Bode plot has a distinct simi larity to that of the ve locity loop with an
integrator in t he forward path, disc ussed in secti on 9 . 5 . 2 . Thi s is not un reasonable
since the (proportional ve locity) motor acts a s an inte g rator in o posit ion loop . Howeve r,
du e to t he acti on of load on the mo1·or, this does not yie ld an infin ite ly stiff sys tem for
steady-sta te position, onl y for steady-sta te velocity, and a fu rt her low frequency
integrating network in the forwa rd path may again be des irable .

Note that if, as shown by the b roken line in fig ure 54, on integrating network is
include d in the fo rwa rd pa th, there is o nly a small range o f loop gain tha t wi ll cau se the
OdB line to cut the -20dB/decade (90°) a ssymptote . If the gain were either too high o r
too low the phase shift would approach 180° and the loop would loose stabi li ty . Thi s
loop is said to be 'conditiona ll y stab le' .

9 . 6 . 2 Ve loc ity damping

In add it ion to improved I . f stiffne ss, a prod icol positi on se rvo spec ifica tio n may
al so coll for o higher speed of response (or freq uency ba ndwidth) than is possible with a
simple position loop alone . It may be possibl e to achieve this b y the use of ve loc ity
feedbac k in a dd iti on to t he posit ion feedback . Th is combination of feedback terms
(ro te plu s proportional) is shown in the block diagram of figure 54.

Th is may be treated in either of two ways, that is, eithe r a s havi ng o feedback
pa th which is the algebraic sum of t he two terms, or by consi dering that the forward
path and ve locity feedback form a 'minor loop' wh ich then, w ith the position feedback,
forms the'major loop ' . The latter method is probably easier to visualise .

It was sho wn in se ction 9. 5 . 1 that the frequency range over which the va lve/
motor combination respond s with proportional velocity is increased by the addition of
I velocity feedback . Th e increase is limited by the resonant nature of the sys tem .
:r:
0
'° If some improvement in the velocity bandwidth of the forward path is possibl e by
incorporati ng this minor (v eloci ty ) loop, then the modified forward characte rist ics are
multipli e d by tho se of the positi on feedback as shown in figure 54 . Th is wi ll be see n to
al low incre ased position feedback with a corresponding increase in speed of response
and al so stiffness . This is done without sacrifi cing stability, compared with that of the (
posi tion servo without ve loci ty damping . Alternatively, if t he speed of response and
stiffness of the original position loop were adequate , but the response had osci llatory
characteri stics, then the velocity loop wo uld increase the damping, if the position
feedback gain were unchanged .

9.6 . 3 Limit cycling

The characteristics of the hydraulic portion of the forward path, particularly

the damping, hove been shown to be dependent on flow-pressure operating point . Thus
often a system will oscillate under low flow conditions but as soon as the oscillation
builds up to give an increa sed flow the c haracterist ics change to limit the oscillation
to thi s amplitude . This behaviour is typical of o non-linear system, which is then said
to be 'limit-cycling' . A similar phenomenon appears if, in on otherwise stab le system,
backlash {a I imited range of disconnected movement} is introduced into the loop, for
example between the motor and inertial load.

A small amplitude limit-cycle may well be acceptable, even desirable to reduce

the effects of stiction.
 Experiment 17

Set up the se rvo and control units as shown in figure 55.

Connec t a wa veform generator to I NPVT 3 .

Se t k 1 = 0, k = 0 . 2 and INPVT 3 ampl itude to zero .

,.
2
Switch on the e lectronic and hydraulic power units .
,.
Adjust the O FFSET to balance port 1 and port 2 pressu res .

Connect a n o sci llosco pe on in te rnal timebase to obse rve I NPVT 3 and ROT AAY
PO SI TION ERROR (Y rp) vo ltages. If an X-Y di splay is requi re d, drive the X channe l ,
not from INPUT 3, but with a synchron ised ramp waveform (except for sinewave testing) .

Appl y a 0 . 2Hz square wave to INPVT 3 of suffic ient amplitude to give a swing
of appro ximately ±10° on the dial (vrp :::: ±0.65) .

Measure the time, ts, from the application of the INPVT 3 step to the point
where Yrp hos fi nally settled to within ±5% of its final value . Also measure the percentage
position oversh oot, ko s• For symmetrical motion the se could be approxima te ly t he same in
both d i re ct io ns .

Inc rea se k in steps of 0 . 2 and readjust INPVT 3 ampli tude to give the ±1 0° swin g
a s before . At eoc~ setti ng of k2 measure ts and kos · Find the values of k2 whi ch give
(a) criti cal da mping, i.e t he ste p res pon se o f fig ure 42, (b) minimum ts, and (c ) con t inuous
o sc ill a tio n . Re cord the oscil lation frequency, Wn•
I
I
Observe the 'l imit c yc l ing' effect . 0
'°
If add itio nal positi o n feedback gai n is needed, connect INPVT 4 to INPUT 2.
Then k 2 = 1 + ATIE N UATOR 2 setting .
No w i ncre a sing k l , the ve locity fee dback in steps o f 0. 1, reco rd at e ach step the
ne w values of k2 givi ng critical da mpi ng, mi nimum ts and conti nuo us oscill a tio n . Record
minimum ts an d the o sci ll ation fre que ncy, Wn •

Taking min imum ts as the speed o f response c riterion, wh ich comb i nation o f
pos it ion and ve loc ity feedback gives th e fas test syste m? What li mits the appl i catio n o f
velocity feedback to th is po sition se rvo?

Now re turn k2 to 0 . 2 a nd k1 to ze ro . Usi ng the OFFSET control introduce o n

offset into the forward path (e quival e nt to a load o r speed d isturbance in a positio n servo) .
Obse rve the e ffec t on the rxn ition error. Now swit c h the op-amp FEEDBACK to c2 a nd
again obse rve the e ffe ct of on off.se t, pa rt icularly one introduced sudde nly . Ex plain the
effect.

Why is it impo·,; ibl c to sto bi I ise t·he loop if the op-omp FEEDBACK is sw i t ch to
 ~
.>·. '".
.).~ ~ .• ,. ~ : \

.. :; ... ''.:·:~:,::~/~;:~;:·~t;~;it,;;~,'
 y. ~ 10 K/J s
I
s Tx+1 sAh (s2+Bs/ J+K/J)
va lv e hose cyli nd er

VI

+5
dB

0
IG(jw)I
Go
-5

-10
00

1..50
LG(jw)
90°

135°

180°:+-~~~~-..-~~~-..-~~~---r-~~~--'~~~~---....L-~~--

2 5 10 20 50 100 200 Hz

1= Cylinder direct 2 =Cylinder v ia transport lag hose

F ig 56 Position loop and forward path (velocity) response

 The exper ime nts may be 1e peot e d, in whol e o r in port, for small er value s of
ine rtia.

Closed-loop Bode plots may be p ro duce d expe rime ntall y fo r det a i led exami na tion
of the effects . Detail e d plotting is necessary only in the re g ion of the si gni fican t bre a k
frequencies .

See Experiment 15 for technique.

9.7 Linear pos it ion servo

9. 7. 1 General

In the EHS160, an importan t difference between the linear and rotary posit ion
servo characterist ics is the virtually flat response of the linear position feedback transduce r
over the frequency range of interest . This compares with the 5m sec time constan t o f the
synchro l ink .

A typical blo ck diagram and Bode plot are shown in figure 56. The response is
dominated by that of the valve and the connecting hose si nc e the cylinder mass load ing
is very low .
J
Again velocity feedback may extend the c losed-loop bandwi dth, but only ~ l
marginally. A low-frequency integrator in the forward path may again be desirable to
increase the dynamic and steady-state stiffness. The use of such an integrator would
again give a conditionally stable system, a s discussed in section 9.6. l .

9.7.2 Effect of transport lag

1 Figure 56 sho ws the effect of adding a considerable length o f flexible hose

5 be tween the servo val ve port and the cylinder d rive port.
'°
The general effect of the hydraulic connecting lines has been d iscussed in
section 9.4.5 . Here the mass of the unloaded piston is too low to prov ide a good
terminating match to the line characteri stics ( f, p/ 8 Q too low) . For small and
moderate openings of the valve, the source stiffness is too high . Hence the increased
resonant tendency shown in the open-loop gain plot. However, large valve openings
give a reasonably good match to the line, a s will be seen in Experiment 18 .

Experiment 18

Set up the servo and control units as shown in figure 57.

Connect a waveform generator to INPUT 3.

= = 0 and I N PUT 3 amp Ii tu de to zero.

Switch on the electronic and hydraulic power un i ts.

Adjust the OFFSET to hold the rod approximately stationary somewhere in its
free range of travel.

= O. l. The rod should move to an approx imately central position.

 Connect an o sci ll o scope to observe INPUT 3 and LINEAR VELOCITY (vi)
voltages, on ei ther X-Y, or dual trace, interna l timebase.

Apply a 2H z si newave of sufficient amplitude to give ±2 . 5 vol ts peak at the

LI NEAR VELOCITY test point . The go in through the system at th is frequency may be
regarde d a s th e ste ady-state gain . Measure the phase shift between the input and output .
A variabl e phase output on the waveform generator may be used to read . the phase shift
direc t ly (see Experiment 15) .

Altering the freguency but not the amplitude of INPUT 3, plot gain and phase
against freguency as shown in figure 56 , (Any harmonic distortion in the sinewave wil I
cause spurious readings . )

Note that al though th is plot has been taken with o smal I amount of position
feedback, the effect of this feedback is confined to very low frequencies and is not
visible in these experimental resu lts. If no posit ion feedback were applied, the rod
would tend to drift to one or other of its end stops .

The true open-loop transfer function of the system may be obta i ned if a 'transfer
function analyser', such os the FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS SRA225, is used. Such an
instrument allows the presence of position feedback to be automat ically compensated for .

{At this point a series of experiments very simil ar to those of Experiment 17 may
be performed, if required . Th e op-amp configuration cl may now be used to give a
stab I e system. Why?)

Repeat the open-loop Bode plot for the system including the 3 . 15 metre (124in)
transport log hose . Refer to section 5 . 10 . Agoin the resultant plot should resemble that
of figure 56. I
I
0
From the difference between the two plots , calcula te the effective transport lag '°
or delay time ~f the extra hose. Ca_lcula te the effective bulk modulus, _ K~ of the hose
fluid by assuming that the mass density, p = 880kg/m3 [ 0 . 0321b/in3J

The delay time of the transport lag hose may be verified by an interesting
demonstration usi ng the port 1 pressure transducer. Di sconnect the transport lag hose
at the cylinder end, this free e nd be ing automatically sealed. Dr ive the servo valve
{via the op-amp in the unity gain position) with a 0 . 2Hz sguare wave and observe this
and the dynamic port l pressure on on oscilloscope {internal timebase).

For small drive levels the pressure at the line input will be seen to change in a
series of steps. As the drive amplitude is increased these steps become larger in amplitude,
and fewer since the total pressure swing is I imited by p 5 • The time occupied by each step
is that taken for the flow pulse to travel down the line, and to return after reflection at
the blocked end. Thus it represents twice the time delay down the transport log hose plus
the permanent additional fluid path length of 0 .7m [28in J.
The increase d ste p amplitude a s the valve orifice size is increased demonstrates
that the valve is more close ly mal'ching the hose characteristics. At full opening the valve
is virtually a g_:rfect matc.h , os might be expected from a c~m~rison of the orific.e area and
the 6.35mm L
0.25 in] diameter bore of the hose (and taking in to account the different
effective values of Kb in the valve and the hose). This effect is di scussed briefly in
section 9. 4 . .5 .
 >
>

0 00 0
0 0
• -a.
> CTI
c
......
......
<li
Ul
0 ") 0
•c:-- -+-- 0 0
.......
0 c
....,
I....

c
<li
u •

c
0
......
a
Ul
N
c
<li
~ a.
\:) E
I.... 0
a u
:J
C.'.)
L
......
~

0
>
I....
<li
Ul

c
0
......
Ul
0
a.

L
0
<li
c
....J

!:'-..
lf)

0)

LL

..
I •

..
 lh p1 "\ ''~' t1t.11 i, d L11.c- t \ (, 11ain ga uge bridge type) on the valve output po rts
m "' ,,~ 111!1 1du i n t~ cmo th c 1 fee dba ck te rm . The effect of a p ressure feedback
~),,,I \ ' tc-1111' tu 111a kc tha t valve a ppe a r to be a pro portional pre ssure device
p1'P1.'dl1.'111' I rl (l\\ d('Vicc. An i nerlia l ly loaded motor then responds w ith
,, ' l ~·i.itl1.)I\ 1ntlw1 them a constant ve locity. Thus pressure feedback is
c'lc'1,,til.'n ll'\'dbo I , in the fre que ncy ra nge whe re the inertia load
p redo m\n t e~ ov~'' vi~ ,~<H" a 11d ' tat ic lo ads. Fo r the fre quency range where ine rt ia does
not p rt' min t~ a P'''~~ U1't' focdbock minor loop has the di sadvantage that the st iffness
of an , I i ty 01 positio11 ~)' tern i less than that w ith true acceleration feedback, though
th is can be compen~a ted f 1 b y add itional ne tworks . At the same time it has the ad vantage
that on line dela L n t inc l uded in the pressure loop, a s it would be if accelera t ion
feedback were taken from t he motor shaft .

The use o f acce leration feedback in a ve locity servo is analogous to that of

veloc ity feedb ack in a position servo . Bo th are exampl es o f ra te feedback, on type 0
a nd type l loops respectively.

O n the EHSl 60, a pressure feedback si gnal is available from the appropriate test
po int on the con t ro l unit. Thi s si gnal may then be applied to one o f the op-amp input
po ints .

9 . 8 . 2 Flo w feedback

O n the EH Sl 60, dynomic flo w mea surement is b y a pressure t ransducer located

I
I
upstream of a restri c to r orifice in the return line . It is p r imarily fo r d ispl a y purposes . As
0 a feedback e lemen t it is only appropriate to the control of unidi rec ti onal motion of the
'° motor o r t o the re tract ion (-ve) st roke of the cylinder .

Beca use of its location it suffers from an attenuation at higher freguenc ie s,

depe nden t on the o rifice size. It is al so characterised by the la w pa:: Q2 .

Th is flow si gnal may be used a s the only feedback term i n a velocity (or flo w}
type 0 servo, replacing the tac home ter feedback . However, it does not provide any
improveme nt i n ve loc ity o r po sition se rvo performance .

The flow signal is a vailable at the appropriate control unit test point, when the
ampl ifier in pu t swi tch is in posi tion 3 .

9.8.3 Fo rcC: fof: dbo c k

This rneo::urw1(; nl of pi ston force is again provided by a strain gauge bridge

twnsd uc.t r , Wh'; n olloc.hc cJ lo the force transduce r, th e rod has an extremely small range
o f rnC>•t f.: rn(;nl , ri<; nlioibl1, fo r mo~ t purposes . Thi s being so the force signal can be used o s
th': fo~d~/JC.V tr; rrn <iril y in o force ~c rvo loop, not to improve the performance of a veloc ity
or po ~ iliC>n lv}p ,
 For sma ll openi ngs of the valve, the lood may be choracterised as a leakage
in parallel' ith a c omplaint v olume. The goin around a simple force feedback loop is
then dominated by a simple log and the servo is type 0 . Since the force transducer is
effectively a c linder press ure transducer, the pressure signals down a long length of
hose may be exami ned .

The force signal is available at the appropriate control unit test point when the
amplifier in pvt switch is in position 4 .

9 . 8 .4 Digital Feedback

The forward facing shaft on the E HS160 rotary tronsducer is the correct height to
accept either of FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS shaft Encoders SE 254 or SE 266 . These ore
5-<:hannel rotory psoi tion encoders {Gray code) for digital position control, with an
additiona l 60-<:ycle impulse channel for velocity control.

Digita l con trol of servomechanisms using Feedback Instruments Shaft Encoder SE254
1
end LOGIKIT 1 or with Shaft Encoder SE266 and 'INTIKIT' is the subjec t of Application.
Notes, avail able on request.

9 . 8 .5 Compensa ti on techni9ues

The design of compensation networks for inserti on i nto the forward or feedback
poths to improV1:! the speed of response, stabi1ity and stiffness of servomechanisms has
heed discussed to some extend in the preceding sections . For further d iscussi on o f the
design criteri a and additional compensat ion techniques reference must be mode to
standard t:exts on the subject . "->
0
I
 I ' ", ' ' tt " ' " h<..' ' tott.>d, the fol lowing operoti o ns shoul d be performe d os nee -
· '" ' ' , ,,~ '.:"~ t '' <.' 1' ti rc0 month .

h' t'' tire er o unit, including the bro ke d rum ond inerti o d isc s.
d<.' .. I : . lv.,.nt if nece ssory. Wipe cl eon the hyd ro ul ic powe r un it.

l ·-

C ~-= ' e ~cu rit ot oll hydroulic c o up lings, o nd o f o i l c riti col me c ho nicol
fo.te~ i .,g.s. ~· ~bo ts
l d ing the e - h vol ve to the mon i fol d, the mo to r ond c ylinde r
~o ··-~ o l ·, t ~force transduc er tie ro ds, etc ).

l . p€Ct the h drouli c hoses for chofing, c uts o r ony sign of weakne ss.

10 . 3 Lec-<s

Co .. r ec• pon 1 to the ro tory moto r ond to the c yl inde r in turn o nd 1 with ful l
s ppl) pr-e>s~·e , se the o ffse t co ntro l to vory por t 1 o nd po rt 2 pressures . Check for
0 ·1 lecb Frc~ · re sy s•em. Any o il lea k thot remoins o fter ti ghten in g (pa ra 10. 2) must
be due ~o c ce fec·ive sea l o r sea ting.

Tum off •he supply o nd remo ve the suspec t seol. Inspe c t it o nd the sea ting o reo
for d irt o r co-::se . Re p lace o r rect ify os oppro p ri ote.

If c"'ly o<Jic k - connect coupling is le a king the fault is genera lly caused b y dirt on
the pcppe" v o 1 1e seo l. Depress the poppe t vo lve o nd c lea n the seal ond seating with
scfve n• c r.d ·~e E: '1d of o bookmotch. Be carefu l not to introduce pa rti c les of d i rt, rubbe r
o r meta l in·o t'ne sy:: tern.

TO A Filter

Under full flo-11 conditions check th o t the fi lter te l l - to le is with in the gree n are a.

ff th£:: te ll - tole is in the red oreo , the fil ter e le me nt is clogged. Unscre w the
(ow·er hclf of th~ hou~ing (being corefu l of sp illage) unscrew the el eme n t o nd re p lace
wif,. a ne 11 c ~e,

t 'ew el~mentj r.m~ obtai nabl e thro ugh FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS LTD or t heir
J.{;el'itL

TO, 5 h ,wrr.utat.or

C~•; -:.V th';

r,rr;-r,hor<J<:: gos press ure 1n the ac c umulator (at zero o i l supply p ressu re ) .
Th i ~ rr '»/ !-/ ; 1!<-r.'; 1tllh 1' 91JtJq'· on the c harging Sc hrode r va lve at the top . A lternative ly,
')( d ( ' 1'; (<; ;w rA I I l~..C; ~·Jpr l I rre sSU((; go uge may be use d . The techn iq ue is to c on nect
z, rl 1 / ~ t\•; 1~ ; f lr1'!r r 1 11 1th no '. 1gnol lo the valve , fo r minim um flo w. Bri ng the suppl y
p r'; ~~ tl'""/ /1_, full 1'1lw , lh<,n turn o ff. The occumuloto r w ill try to hold up the p ressure by
 uppl ino <.)II I thci ' \l t.1111 to t-o placc that lost. When the pressure hos fallen to a point
wher-e the ~ ~ t\)I01 l <10 o upit1~ tho whole volume of the accumulator, there is no
longt-' r On)' ti t' \ l1ppl y ctlld the j.>ross ure fa ll s rapidly to zero. Thi s point corresponds to
th prt'- h 1\l~ 1)0\ pt ( 1 Ul •

2
The p1·t: - l\Org1.1 pro sure should be 35 ±4 bar {500 ± 50lb/in ) . Restore the pre -
c ha rge if ne O ' ory with o xygo n- free dry nitrogen. On no account must oxygen be used.

Th Ncommo ndod c ha rg ing procedure is as fol lows :-

Attac h the poc iol charging hose assembly di rectly from the nitrogen cylinder to the
accumul otor .

Slowly ope n the va lve on the nitrogen cylinder allowing the separator bog to r
inflate . Intermitte ntly close the va lve, depress the charging assembly handle and allow
the gouge pointer to settl e. This wi ll indicate the pre-charge pressure .
r

When the required p re-charge is reached al low the pre ssure to settle for two
minu tes and again note the gauge reading . If the reading indicates o foll in pressure,
very slowly open the nitrogen va lve and again bring up the pressure to the required value.

C lose the v alve on the nitrogen cylinder securely and remove the charging hose .
A slight release of pressure w ill occur when the hose is removed, but this is from the
N
hose alone and does not affect the pre-charge pressure . N
I
I
On no account leave the charging assembly connected while the equipment is 0
-0
unattended . The cylinder valve may leak sligh t ly in which case the accumulator pressure
will build up unnoticed .

Test the accumulator gas connections for leakage b y pouring soapy water in and
around the Schroder va lve when pre-charging is complete. Tighten all connections.
Allow no gos leakage.

Charging equipment or service may be obtained through FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS

LIMITED or their Agents .

10 .6 Valve

With the servo unit e l ec trically di sconnected from the control unit and port 1
connected to the motor, oppl y hydrou l i c pressure to the system.

Using the screw odjuntmo nt on the right-hand side of the valve balance out port
and port 2 press ure ~.
('
 Adju~ t tl w .c.oro ~t, H i ng w ith lhe screw locate d beneath the rubber plug on the
bac k of eo h gou~10. R.o pl ClCt' the 1 ubbe r plug.

Check tho ac tio n of th e 1cs t riclo rs (snubbers} in the port 1, port 2 and flow
gauge pipo • Th ' t' lim it th e o sc illation of th e gauge pointers under pulsing and
o scillatory flo w.

10 .8 Torque me ter

Swing the brake arm back against its magnetic retainer. Wipe clean the moving
shaft of the torque me ter. Do not oil thi s shaft .

Swing the lower port of the brake arm forward aga inst the brake drum. Attach
the front brake calipe r and se t the pods so that th e y just bear on the drum with neg-
1igible p ressure.

Mo ve the top of th e brake arm and check that the damper unit is stil I completely
oil-filled . The damping action must b e firm and not spongy .

Check the torque meter zero setting, and adjust the coil spring retaining nuts if
necessary . Elimina te frictional effects by topping the front panel .

If the position of the leaf spring is accidenta ll y disturbed at any time, it wi ll be

necessary to recalibrate it. To check the cal ibrotion set the broke pads so thot they just
bear on the drum with minimum pressure {as for the zero odjustment above} . Now apply
to the bock of the broke arm, where the screw bears on the leaf spring, a known force
nonnal to the plane of t he front panel .

For on 5 . 1 calibrated unit, o force of l.25kg {wt) should produce a reading of

3 . 66 ne wton. metres . If the gauge is calibrated in lb . in, a force of 31b should produce
o reading of 35 . 251b . in. Again eliminate frictional effects by topping the panel .

If adjustment is nec~s sory slacken the two screws at the bottom of the leaf spring .
Move the retaining plate s up or down {to reduce or increase reading, respectively) re-
tighten, and check.

As each col ibration adjustment is made , again check the zero setting .

10. 9 Lubrication

Oil the exposed screw thread behind the orifice calibrator knob.

Lightly oil the synchro and tachometer shaft bearings.

Grease the torque meter leaf spring where the broke arm bears against it. (Do
not oil or grease the moving shaft of the meter) .

10. 10 Electronic checks

Check tho + 15V, -15V, +5V and -5V supplies. With the rotary transducers con-
nected, check tho 400Hz supply and the alignment of both synchro dials .
 Check the va lve drive amplifier offset trim.

With t he line ar transducers connected , check the l inear velocity amplifier offset.

Re fe r to the C ircuit Notes, Sect ion 11, for measu rement and adjustment proce-
du res.

10 . 11 Hydraulic power unit (HPS161)

Maintain the correct o il level in t he reservoir .

Grease the motor bearings . Two grease nipples are located on the si de of the
motor, one supplying the uppe r bearing, the other the lower bearing . They ore normal ly
covered by pro tective caps . Diame trically opposite these grease points are grease
reli ef screw s (the upper one is under the fan shroud) . During greasing the se relief screws
must be removed.

Every twelve mon ths pump in new grea se to compl ete ly replace the old .

Use She l I 'Al vania 3' or approximate equivalent. Do no t use a h igh-me I ti ng-
point grea se a s it gives ina de qua te lubrica tion at room temperatures.

Every twelve months i nspect the motor b rushes.

10.12 Hydraulic e qu ipme n t overhaul

If and when necessary, the o verhaul or repair of t he servo val ve (inc luding re -
placement of the internal pilot stage filter), cyl inder, motor, ac cumulator or power uni t "'<7
N
may be arranged through FEEDBACK INSTRUMENTS LIMITED, or their Age nts. I
I
0
_s:heck the s~ply pressure, on the servo unit gouge. This should be approximately '°
70 bar L1000lb/in2Jun~er low flow conditions.

If necessary, adjust the powe r supply pressure relief valve . Remove the cover
and loosen the locknut . Rotate the exposed screwdriver slot clockwise to increase
pressure, or vice verso. Retighten the locknut and replace t he cover .
CIRCUIT N OTES SECTION 11

ll .l Opera tiona l a mpli fi e r

Refer to figure 58(o) for the sche matic diagram . The action of the op-amp
circu i t ho be e n gcncroll y co vered in sect ion 8 . 6 . The actual amplifier used, OA l,
is an inte grate d c irc uit, ge ne ra l purpose type having o typical d . c voltage gain of
45,000 . Diodes Dl a nd 0 2 pro tec t the inpu t from excessive voltages . Resistors RlO
and Rll l imit the voltage at the OP-AMP OUTPUT test point to between approximately
+3V and -4V . R109 pro tec ts the amplifie r from any short circuit applied to this test point.
Similarly, R7 protec ts the amplifi e r input from any voltage applied to the SUMMING
JUNCTION test point.

Cl, R9 ond C4 provi de inte rnal woveshaping to the amplifier so that feedback
around the op-amp does not ma ke it unstabl e.

ll . 2 Val ve drive ampl ifier

Refe r to fi gures 58 (a } a nd 59 for the sche matic d iagrams .

The val ve dr ive a mplifie r tokes its inpu t from the ou tput of the op-amp, through
an inve rting switch SW2 a nd o ffset ad justme nt circui t . Its output drive s the split winding
of the servo val ve (or optionol moto r, a s describe d in Appendi x A. 2) w ith a differential
current proportional to the input voltage .

For normal ope rat ion the links from the i nve rsion switch ore normally connected
to A+ and A- . The links o re con ne c ted to B+ and B- only when o higher (+600mA} current
is requi red to dri ve a motor fie ld .

W ith t he swi tch in the non -i nve rt ing position, the amplifier output is applied to
R12 and g round is oppl ied to R 13 . The ompl ifier output appears differentiol ly, level
shifted and attenuated be t ween the bases of TR l and TR4 . The front panel offset adjust-
ment, R21 steers the curre nt drain through R20 towards e i ther Rl8 or Rl9 . Rl5 is pre-set
to compensate for any ossymme try in the circuit components . To check its setting, set the
op-omp output to ground, and R21 to its central position. The servo valve output should
then give equal port 1 ond port 2 pressures across a locked motor (assuming that the valve
internal zero adjustme nt is corre ct, a s described in section 10.6) .

Trans istors TRl - 6 form o differential power amplifier . The differential current
output is determined pre dominantly by R29 and the voltage across it . Drift is minimised
by making the voltage indepe nde nt of transi stor goin and of the base-emitter drops ofTRS
and TR6 which ore subject to te mpe rature fluctuations. The total current into the load
(valve or motor) is de te rmine d by the me an of the voltages across R30 and R31, which is
substantially inde pe nde nt of inpu t signal .

The valve (and motor) windings ore significantly inductive. If the current drive
to one of them is re duce d rapidly, such as occurs during transient or high frequency test-
ing, the inductance wil I toke the coll e ctor of the drive transistor rapidly positive. Diodes
03 ond 04 limit this pm iti ve excursion to less than +3W. Current continues to flow
through the winding and diode for a short time until it falls to zero.

The rot e of chcmgc of voltage across the windings during such on inductive 'kick'
is reduced by the pre\cn co of the <:opocitor C6.
11 . 3 Rotory tochometer

Refer to figures 58(o} and 60 for the schematic diagrams.

The tachometer produces a voltage proportional to speed (26mV/roq/sec} . The

resistor-capacitor filter, R58 and Cl5, reduces the commutation noise and ripple super-
imposed on the signal. The tachometer type used here exhibits only a small amount of
ripple (o function of the field uniformity ond the number of commutator segments} . The
filter rolls off the output at 6dB/octave above 700Hz.

11.4 Synchro pair

Refer to figures 58(a} and 60 for the schematic diagrams.

The operation of the synchro pair has been generally covered in section 8 . 8 .

The transmitter dial should be ol igned such that at the 0° (±5°) position the S l
winding voltage c rosses o null . This null should be the one that causes the 51 voltage
and the 400Hz supply to be in phase a s the t ransmitter is rotated clockwise beyond the null .

With the transmitter dial in the 0° posi ti on the transformer dial should indicate
0° (±1/2°} as the demodula tor outpu t crosses the zero volts level . This crossing should be
in the negative direction as the transformer is rotated clockwise.

Adjustment is by removing the dial from its shaft, rotating the shaft to the required
position, then replacing and retightening the dial.
-.0
N

Resistors R59, R60 and R61 effectively ground the centre point of the three synchro I
I
windings through a 33k0 resistance. 0
-0

11 .5 400Hz supply

Refer to figure 58(a} for the schematic diagram .

The supply is nominally 100\/ peak-to-peak, 400Hz sine wave. 400Hz is the
most commonly used standard synchro carrier frequency .

Since each end of the secondary of transformer T 1 is I inked to ground via l OkQ
th is voltage appears as 50\/ peak-to-peak at the 400Hz test point .

The supply circuit consists of an L-C oscillator followed by a power amplifier with
a trnnsformer - coupled output.

The resonant circuit is formed by the inductor L 1 and capacitor Cl 1. The res-
onance is excited by the positive feedback loop including transistors TR7 and TR8 . The
amplitude of oscillation is limited by non-linearity in the feedback path. To adjus t this
amplitude the feedback gain is varied with trimming potentiometer R47. Note that
excessive amplitude results in noticeable distortion of the sine wave.

When the rotary transducer assembly is connected to the input socket, the lower
end of R44 is linked to ground on the plug. Thi s closes the feedback loop and starts the
oscillation. When the rotary transducers are di sconnected R44 is open-circuited and
oscillation stops. This eliminates any 400Hz 1 cross-talk' from the system.
 The o sci llator output is transmitted vi o the e mi tte r fo l lowe r TR9 and coupl ing
capacito r Cl2 to the powe r ampl ifie r input. The in ver tin g am pli fi e r TR1 5 dri ves the
compl ementary pai r of output e mitte r fo ll owe rs , TR 13 and TR 14 . TR 12 is a cons tant
current source to provide h igh ga in and low d iss ipation in TR15 . 0 7 re duc es the dead-
band between the ope ration of TR 13 and TR 14 whil e pre ve nting thei r simultaneous con-
duction . The vo l ta ge gain (at 400Hz) of th e powe r ampli fi er is se t by the ratio of R54
and R53. Th e symme try of th e output vol tage sw ing is adjuste d by tr imming pot e ntio-
meter R57 . Thi s should be adjuste d, wi th t he rotory trans duc e~ d isconnected, to give
0 ±0.SV at the emitters o f TR 13andTR14.

The output transformer Tl gives further voltage ampli fica t ion (x 6 whe n driving
the transmitter). The coupling capacitor Cl3 is necessa ry to e liminate any d . c com-
ponent in the output current .

11 . 6 Demodulator

Refer to figure 58(a) for the schemat ic diagram .

The function of the de modulator is to pha se sens itively rectify the input sine wave
and then to filter the rectified signal . Thi s produces , ideally, a d .c signa l output whose
amplitude is proportionol to that of the a . c input, and whose polority is de pendent on the
phase of the input relati ve to a reference signal . The operat ion of the demodu lator is
discussed in secti on 8.8 .

The grounding switches ore tro nsisto~ TRlO and TRl 1, driven on for alternate half
cycles by the 400Hz supply . Note that each of these opera tes in both the normal and
inverted mode s depending on the polarity of the demodulator input signal. R39 a nd C8
in the feedback roll off the output a t 6dB/octove above 60Hz, to provide the necessary
~ filtering .
I

~ 11.7 ±5Vsupply
'°
Refer to figure 58(b) for the schematic diagram .

The ±SI/ supply is ac tually a lOV supply held appro ximately symmetrical about
ground. It supplies the linear potentiometer and the strain gouge transducers (p ressure,
fl ow and force).

The -5V (nominal) leve l is referenced by R64 and R72 . R71 reduces the dissipation
in TR 19.

The -5V (nominal) leve l is used as a reference for the +5V leve l. Transistors TR20,
TR17 and TR16 form a simple lOV regulator . The lOV output is attenuated and compared
with the voltage across the zener diode 014 . Trimming potentiomete r R74 is used to fine ly
adjust the +SI/ level to be lOV ±0. lV above the -SI/ level .

11.8 Linear tachometer and amplifier

Refer to figures 58(b) and 60 for the schematic diagrams .

The linear tachometer produces a voltage proportional to speed. This voltage is

amplified by the operational amp I ifier OAS. The tachometer has an internal resistance
of 64ohms.

Ar.y offset introduced by the amplifier can be adjusted to zero (with the I inear
tachometer connected) using trimming pot entiometer R77.
 11 . 9 Linoor potontiomotor and amp lifi er

Refor to fig uros 5 0(b) and 60 for the schematic diagrams .

The position sensing ond reference potentiometers ore bo th connected across the
±SV suppl ies. TR21 and TR22 form a d ifferential ampl ifier with o summing junc ti on ot
the base of TR21 . Ovcral I feedback from th e output stage vi a R103 gives o gain of X5
from the posi tion sensi ng pote nt iome te r input . The gain from the reference poten ti omete r
is somewhat higher to e nsure that, allowing for component tolerances, the full positi on
range con b e covered .

11. 10 Pressure, flow and force transducers and ampl ifiers

Refer to figure s 58{b) and 59 for sche ma ti c and connectio n diagrams .

The press ure, flow and fo rce transducers ore al l of the stra in gouge b ri dge type,
two anm of the bridge being ac tive and the othe r two pro vi d ing o reference to compensore
for temperature changes etc . The bridges ore energised by the ±SV supply. The ou tput
resistance of the pre ssure and flo w transducers is 33<X2 nom ina ll y, and that of the fo rce
transducer is 24<X2 (nom) .

Three-position switch SW3 shorts the d ifferential output of either transducer l,

tra nsducer 2 or neither . The output o f transduc er 2 is arranged to oppose th a t of transducer
1, so that w ith the switch in its centre position the ampl ifi e r out pu t is proportional to the
d ifference between the two transduce r outputs .

Switch SW4 is only two-posi t ion and al lows e ither the f low or fo rce to be monitored.
co
The operational amplifiers ore integrated circui t types wi th compensatio n and pro- N

tec tion facilities similar to those di scussed in section 11 .1. I

I
0
-0
The front pane l trimming po tentiome te rs , R99a ndR105 allow any offsets from the
transducers oncJ in th e omp l ificrs to be trimme d out. Resistors R83 and R86, R95 and R98
give true ampl ification of a floating diffe re ntial input, at the appropri ate gain .

Note that if o full comple me nt of standard transducers is not fitted, these amplifiers
may b e used with the u so r's own transducers or for any othe r d es ired purpo se. Input should
a lways b e v io tho plug on tho b ock of th e se rvo unit.

11 . 11 Powor ' upply unit

Rofor to f ig ur 6I fo r tho ~chc matic diagram .

The pow 1 ~ 11pply un i t pro vides rogulated + lSV and -lSV, and an unregulated
+26V (norn l riu l) .

'fru11 ~1~ 1 0 1 i: IR ~, llU> n11d TR I ~ form a conve nt ional series regulctor for the + lSV
supply . Slrnilwly II< I, II~ 10 <i11d l"Rl 2 fo rm a series regulator for the -lSV supply .

ff{/ 1, " ( 1111MI l l111 l 1l11q cltWi " · It turns on if the c u rrent through the sensing
re ~ i ;lo r, I( Ill, P /.t • • •l d~ 11lirni1 I , '.)A, nnd r•• duc c~ the base d rive to TR6 . TRl l acts similarly .
 If overloading couses the + 15V to drop out of regulation, TR2 and TR8 tum off.
This causes TR5 to turn off, TR4 to turn on , The overload indicator lamp in the control
unit, connected between R8 and the +26V supply, then lights. A similar sequence
involving TRl, TR9 and TR3 occurs if the -15V supply is fo rced out of regulation . As
noted on the control panel, this condit ion should not be allowed to exist for longer than
30 seconds si nce if the suppl ies are being pulled much below their correct levels TR12
anq/or TR13 will heat excessively .

Dl and D2 prevent reverse voltage being accidentally applied to either supply .

The a. c input to the supply is protected by a 1 amp fuse, F2, mounted on the
printed c ircuit board . The +26V suppl y, used externally for the overload indicator lamp,
as a 'catch' level for the val ve drive ompl ifier and for motor armature current {see Appen-
dix A . 2) is also fused on the PCB, Fl, at 2 amps.

Access to the power supply components and PCB is by removal of the four screws
at the lower edge of the top cover.

The+ 15V and -15V level s are adjusted using, respectively, trimming potentio-
meters R28 and R16 on the PCB .

°'-
N
I
:c
0
'°
 CIRCUIT DIAG RAMS SECT ION 12

M
I
I
0
-0
 9S
10 S£RVO VALVE { ~IS'.--------------------------------------<r-'1
INPUf 1 C6
10

TO· aY
.--+---+-+-- - - , SHEE! 21
INPUT 2

OJ 04

INP UT l
R6 IOOK l/(W • \'/,

EXTERNAL FHOSACK{ HEOB ACK R6

SWCIOR IOOk
O>------o 1/(W
SW\ - - - - - •1'/.
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TRUSFORMER
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OEMOOULATOR
POS ITl~ ERROR IROrARVI

VELOCITY IROTARVI ~
&T R58 410
TO ROfARY
TACHOMETER { )131 HT I C\7
M7

11! RL4 lk
OSCILLATOR
ENABLE
UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED
All RESISTORS •5'/, l/ftW
ALL CAPACITORS ·10"1. ,,2sv IPOLARIS£0 · 50'1.-20'4}
All OIOOES 8AX\J
ALL OP AMPS TVPE 709C

FEE D8ACI INST RUM£U S LIO Fig 58(o} EHS160 Control Unit
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-m -ISV
~
TO Pt WU um :JUP r IOI
I - ISV

BlllU
{ 2'.6'
-=-
fl rowu URIT
JS.II S
ro SERVO lltllf
mm
11\W

nus~m
TO OJ 04 SMHT 1
'""" {
-SY

+SY
-1sv----------

•av RU JOOl
•26V

OVULO.lJl llOICATOl
ca
'700p
llS

SS

TO PRESSURE flUSOUCEAS 115

Rel 1l tl"l.114W
's
swn
PRESSUlE U4P OUTPUT
l91 1l
7S
TO FLOW TlUSDUCEI { R91 ll
ISS

R9J U
IS

ID 10m TOU!DO<El {
liS

FLOW/FORCE AMP OUTru!

RIOO J901
ZERO l99
TRIM 100l
R71 ll
SI

-=- TO ll"EU IACMOMHC~ Al~ U

{ 'r
zc•o ~·-1~os_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _-JA~10~1A1~90_~_ _ ___,
UIM lOOK

"=" VELOCITY I ll•W I

POSI (lAOl 1wrrn o- - Ull

8CV70

10 ll"lAR POll•llOMI ll R
uurss UMEAWIH SIA!ll !AH
All USISfO AS •S"/. l/IW
All Dlot!S 8Ul1
All CA,.Cll OA ~ olO'L l~V
tSV}
AIOI
8Cl07

•m
I POL um D •sn. - 70"1. I IOI u
All OP AMP S I HI JOH ~v l ~V -ISV

fUDIACl IUIAUMlm 110 I I 1 'ill~> ) f I t ') I tiO Co 11 t ro I lJ n i t , Mu-sm m. 1. J

I
 e- h valve

SS
(yellow)

pressure transducer (1)

13S
(bl ue)
6S
(yellow)

pressure t r ansducer (2)

14S
(blu e)
7S
(yellow)

flow transducer (3)

15S
blu e)
SS
(yellow)

force transducer (4)

16S
(blue)
t.S
(wh ite or green)
12S
(red)

·--...;:3;. .; S;. ;·.;11. .; -"S-----11•~ cable sh 1e Id

Fig S9 Servo unit schematic

 12T

1T

syn c h ro
3T
tran sformer
10T

2T

~::T
L.T
¢ ro t ary
tachometer

~ T

Fig 60 (q) Rotary transducer schematic

I inear

T potentiometer

linear
tachometer

8T

:;J
Fig 60 lb) Linear t ran sducer schematic
 [ •;•
I
2 6V
IO~VERLOAO
.lll RESISTORS •5'!. 1/ &W unless olhrrwiu
\l&ltd I •----~
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ams
t 9
rn 1o &w
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I
- f f f f
8
u u o1c.noR
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All CA?ACITORS •50'/, -20'/, 25V unlm
~ thrrw1u slilrd A& RIO a'
J90 820 690
1W

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R19 1K

R29
lS:O
lHW
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CJ I
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100 11 R12
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no

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820
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cw Cl
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VOL!AGE mmo~ 1-- - - -...____i~vvv

R2S l·O 6W
I' '

3-160 - 5362 ISS 1

FHDB.lCK l•STROME•TS Fig 61 El ectronic Power Unit
 C Hydraulic circuit in CETOP symbols

Figure 63 shows the hydraulic circuit of the servo unit. The power unit is shown
mere ly as a pressure source and a tank .

With the excepti on of the press ure transducers the symbols used are those recommended
by the CETOP European Oil-Hydraulic Commission, whose membership includes all EEC
and EFTA countries. The CETOP document covering these symbo ls is RP3.

quick
release filter
coupling __ _ __ _
' '
accumulator) ( )(
pressure
relief
valve
quick
release
coupling
' '
0--or.4. >---'"---
! -<{}

L ___ _J hydraulic
motor

r-

1
I
,,_.. ' pt
I I
°'.....
("')
I
I
I _ _ _ _J
0
'°
quick release
coupling
(no check valves)
pressure
relief hydraulic
-
va lve cylinder

@ pressure tr ansducer
Fig 63 Hydraul ic circuit
B Use of the control unit with an electric motor

Certain users of the EHS 160 may wish to toke adv antage o f the fact tha t the
control uni t is copoble of driving 0 smoll d . c motor directly. This may be used to set
up a purel y electro-mechanical servo loop .

The valve dri ve amplifie r hos a push-pull output capabil ity of ±200mA differ-
entially into o split field, a t up to 20V. Alternative ly a differenti al current of ±600mA
(at up to 12V) is available if resistors Rl2 and Rl3 on the con t rol unit printed circuit
board ore bypassed . Thi s al so incre a ses th e amplifier gain to 220mA/V . To do thi s, simply
move the two leads with push-on connectors from pos it ions A+ and A- to B+ and B-,
respectively on the PCB . Remember to restore the leads to the A position before using
the se rvo valve .

An unregul a ted d.c voltage of 26V is available to provide on armature cur ren t,
up to l.5A, through a suitable dropping resistor .

To connect the motor, wi re it to a 16-woy McMurdo DRPl 16 plug (Feedback Port

No. 2537-335) as shown in figure 62 • Take the f lyi ng lead socke t that normal ly connects
to the servo unit and connect it instead to th is plug . Note that the 26V supp ly is fused at
2 amps (Fl) on the printed circuit board insi de the e lectronic power uni t.

Since the control un it is used independently of the hydraulic se rvo unit, it may be
convenient to detach the control unit and set it horizontally on the be nch .

It is logical to u se the EHS160 ro tary transducer assembly with the motor . To do

this the motor must be mounted a t a he igh t o f 92mm (3 . 625in) above some surface to which
co -
t he magnetic feet of the transducer assembly con attach . The motor shaft shou ld be 6 . 35mm (")

(0.250in) in diameter . The Feedback MS150 inertia disc and viscous load unit (150L) may I

al so be mounted on ·the motor sh a ft. 5

'° -
The re sulting configuration is similar in many ways to the Feedback MS150 Modular
Servo , and the MS150 Handbook, Parts I, II and Ill may be used for guidance on experi-
mental work .

dropper
resistor
Note:- pin 1 negative 2 _ _ _..;._"'
for clockwise rotation

split field
armature

9 ---------..J
(gnd)
3

Fig 62 Motor connections to 16-way plug

APPEND IX '\ ~ Mtl ) l 'i U ~ LD IN Tll[ THEORY

= phton C1i~C1 , h \HI 111Hl Q = flow

= pi t n ni 'C1 1 1 HI •~ nd = valve out put flow
= vis L'' dC'1mplnn ·011\!1.mt = leakage flow
= opo i tern t = referen ce, resistance

C0 = o rifi di ~ hrn g,, o ffi c iont r (subscript) = rotary

c (sub c ript) = u lomb f1 iction s = I ineor position (S = velocity)

E = error , ignol = Laplace operato r

F = return differ nee , force T = t ime constant, torque

F(s) = Laplace tran formed func;tio n = va l ve time constan t

f = funct ion = time

f (subscript ) = friction = volume constant of motor

G = for.41ard po th go in v = instantaneous vol toge

H = feedback path gain v {subscr ipt) = vel oc ity, viscous

{friction)
i (subscri pt ) = 1n

= va lve d rive current

vx = valve drive amp I ifi e r input
'x y
= inertia
= hydraulic 'a dmitta n ce'
(analogous)
= fixed constan t, spring constan t
z = impedance {ele c tri cal or
= b ulk modulus hydraulic analog)

= vol ve fl ow gain at Ps !::. = I a rge change

K0 , 1, 2 = error coefficients 0 = smol I change

k = gain factors l; = damp ing factor

= act ual valve flow gain p = moss density

= induc tance e = gearbox output angular position

L (subscript) = load g = ~otor angular position

(Q = velocity)
I (subscript) = linear
w = freque ncy in radians/ second
p (subscript) = pos ition
w '= frequency of natural osci 11 otion
Pf = pressure drop due to fri c tion n

Ps = supply pressure
Px = vol ve out put pros~ur

p ,
12
= port I, 2 pr~ ','1 ur ~

I hh I i ~ t i . not oxhoustivc.
D. Additional reading

The'Hydroulic Handbook' publ ished by th e Trade and Technical Press ltd.,

Morde n, Surrey, England, covers o wi de range of hydraul ic components, pra ctice and
applications. This is ol so availabl e in G ermon ond Spani sh editions.

'Electrohydraul ic Se rvomechan isms' by Al len C . Morse, publ ished by the

McGraw-Hill Book Company, deal s in detail with the design a spects of e-h servo valves.

There are numerous texts on general servomechan ism theory . The most difficult
task the student o f servomechan ism theory faces is that of combin ing the various approaches -
Bode, Nyqui st , Laplace, root locus, etc . - into one cohere nt picture. The answer to this
is ultimately on ly provided by practice, but wide reading wi ll a ssist.

0
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I
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