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Water Resources in the Philippines : An Overview of its Uses, Management,


Problems and Prospects

Article · January 2008


DOI: 10.7132/jrcsa.KJ00004978343

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JapanRainwater Catchment
Japan Rainwater Catchment Systems
Systems Association
Association {JRCSA)
(JRCSA)

JouFnat of
Rainwater
Catchment
JburnalofRaimvater
Catchmentsystems
lol.141?Vb,1mp.57-67 Systems

Water Resources in the Philippines


-An Overviewofits Uses, Management, Problems and -
Prospects

Edward Lapongiand Masayuki Fejihara2


Abstract: Philippines isa country richly endowed with natural resources, includingabundant surface and groundwa-
ter resources. Itstotal internal water resource isestimated at 130 km31year. However, despitethe vastness of this po-
tentialsupply, the country has a low freshwater avaitability per capita and experiences water-related problems.Ana-
lyzedholistically, the problemswill redound to institutional and management failures, The water governancesector is
fragmentedand the institutional framcwork isweak, as itisalso given lesspriority by the government.Though there
isalready the consciousness of solving the seemingly worsening problem and several moves were already undertaken,
much hasto be doneforthe country to attain supply and demandbalance",
`Lwater
as there arealot of things to do to
very important
's
conserve ene of the nature resource- water.

keyworxts:Waterresource;PPktersector;
integratedPititer
ninnagement,'Pftitenghedc\u)roach;Philmpines

1 Introduction Includingfishingand forestry,


it also accounts fbr the
Philippinesis an archipelagic nation comprising 7,107 isl- second major employment sector with 36% ofthe country's
ands with a total landarea
299,404 km2. It liesbetween
of laborforce. The total cultivated area isestimated at 95,OOO

40N and 21[N iatitude


between 116eE and 1260E lon-
and km2, ofwhich 56% accounts fbrannual crops, The average
gitude; and bounded by three largebodies of water: by farm size per farmer-household is2.2 ha (NSCB,2005).
SouthChina Sea on the east and north, by Pacific Ocean on
the east, and by CelebesSea on the south (Figure 1).Owing
1co" E 1an: E
to itsarchipelagie nature, topography variations charaete-
rizes the Philippines, ,cr e
t/ suew,s{il't#.s/ii'i
didi.# 2cKlkm
The climate ef the country istropical and it
-
monsoonal. xva・

is characterized by uniformity of temperature with an av-


/

isii・,itde'il)t.・
erage annual temperature of 27eC, high relative humidity Meter
30SO15256103os153Sba
(above70% throughout the year),high solar radiation, di- tme::e#,#var.:me

versity ofrainfa11, high frequency of tropical cyclones


and

which contributes 38% of the annual rainfa11. And with an i60 N


'
it
ret'dii'itr'
average annual rainfa11 of 2,400 mm, the mean runoff is ,,ww;,/'tig'

estimated at about 257 km3 with 90% probabilityof occur- krel


renee.

The Philippines has abundant having resources ss


X,il,ag,,
water '

endowed with 59 lakesand 421 river basinswith drainage


area ranging from 40 to 25,649 km2. From among the prin- su.':・・r・g"es w",,
,(.Iagm
12' N' 'vag'S}i'ea・.firaj.,.
cipal river basins, 18 were identified river basins
:Xignf"ul',t
/・
as major "I,s

drainage areas of at least 1,400 km2; while theother ,thtedi

te
":e.bt,",pt:""tkpt"
,.
with ・uew'
river basinshave an area of at least 50 km2.More- ''
smaller t.-gestw Stwu

gpm.Oltw
'
.. ,ifs' ,,ws'e
oyer, there are 1 km2 of freshwater dig;li-f・felawues・ge.
swamps.
,OOO
・w Ngio ・ra
-w..

The country is also underlain by extensive groundwater di


m vca' r4
reservoir (aquifer)
covering approximately 50,OOO km2 with ptk#"gg,, .l",hlg,--.ge.tilllllii,;k.:ltt

tve.,gil/,"::tsg,A{
251 km3.There are sO N
an estimated

fburmajor
storage capacity of about

67% of
l;,.mat2-ew・:in'll
groundwater reservoirs which comprises
・,.'i'g・1'i・llik".',r・.'gal
nty"/wte..tu.tttt'ttyopqgoeu-J
the total. 't;:r{igas..fe,'
Agriculture
isthe prime mover of the country's economy, Siha '!gli.lgkij.iaf
being at presentthe leastimport-dependentactivity. .t?g!l}ipelqgo)
;:,.'e,.-

gW#sii
1
Graduate Studcnt,Graduatc School of Agriculture,Ehime UniveTs{ty,
3-5-7Tammi,Matsuyama,Ehime790-8566,Japan
2
Professor,Faculty of Agricultsrre,
Ehime University,3-5-7 Tarumi, Figure1:Map of the Philippines showing arehipelagic
Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8566, Japan (Corresponding author) ftijiha- boundary, elevation and major islands.
ra@agr.ehime-u.ac,ip

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2 Water Sources and Uses However, there is an observed and expected significant
shift of water use from agriculture to domesticand indus-
2.1Water Sourcesand Uses by Sector trialpurposes, Based on a 25-yeardata(1975-2000), agri-
The potential supply from surface water sources is esti- culture water use droppedby 11% which was a:ansformed
mated at 126 km31year, Thiscomes from the draining rivers to 3% and 8% increasein industrial and domesticwater
and streams of 421 identifiedbasinsbut excluding those uses, respeetively (Figure
4).
from small upland catchments whose intermittent or ephe-
meral streams sometimes swell to three times itssize dur-
100
ingtherainy season. Of the surface water supply tapped, as
shown in Figure 2, more or Iess3f4 is used foragricultural 80U60・g-P-
purposes and theremaining shared by domesticand indus- ge
trialpurposes(FAO, 2007a),

40tsut'a-
Industrial
2o

oAgriculture
Domestic
Water sectorIndnstrial

Figure4: Change ofwater demand among mqjor water

users, 1975 and 2000


Figure2i Sumbce water use distribution,
by sector (Source/FAO, 2007a)
(Source/
FAO, 2007a)
The datafrom World Bank (2004) reveals that the coun-
Groundwater supply is approximately 20 km31yearor try'sfreshwateruse isjust 11% of the totalwater resources
about 14% of thetotal water resources potential, Of this, and itstotal water withdrawals as percentage of actual re-
80% would constitute the base flow of the river systems newable water resources isjust 13,3%. However, despite
which fbrms a basicpart of the surface water. The total this figures, Philippines ranks low in terms of freshwater
internalwater resources would, therefore, amount to i30 availability per capita at 1,907 m3, cernpared with the av-
km3/year,On its use, as shown in Figure 3, 63% of erage of7,405 m3 worldwide and 3,668m3 inAsia.
groundwaterextracted goesto domestic users, 17% to in-
dustries, 13% to agriculture purposes, and 7% to power 2.2 Agricultural
Water Use
generation and other uses (Concepcion, 2004).
2.2.1 Irrigationapplication
Agriculture is the highestwater user with approximately
Powur(leneratlonOthers 3f4share ofthe totalwater supply. In 2003, the agricultural
water withdrawals in the Philippineswere estimated at 91%
Agricul13%Industry of the supposed agricultural water use. The remaining per-
centage accounts for the use of rainfa11 as directwater
source (Lansigan,
2006).
Practieallymost of the water inputin agriculture sector
17%
gocs to inigation with a very little pereentage accounting to
livestock raising and other related activities. In the Philip-
pines, inigation is always associated with [lowlandlPaddy]
Figure 3: Groundwateruse distribution,
by sector rice production which iswater intensive and as much as
(Sourcc:Concepcion,2004) 60% of water inputtedat the head gate or intakeworks of
irrigation and water supply systems is lost during con-
Groundwater/[stapped using privatewells which are ex- veyance (Wbrld Bank, 2004; NIA, 2004; NWRB, 2004).
tensively used in rural areas fordomesticpurpose; water- The low water use efficiency is due to the interactive ef-
works wells drilled by the Local Water UtilitiesAdminis- fectsof various physical, technical, institutional, and so-
tration (LWUA) fordomesticand commercial purposes; cio-eeonomic factors. Moreover, there is a low levelof
and deep wells drilled by companies for industrial
use; and public awareness on the efficient use and conservation of
NationalIrrigation Administration (NIA)fbr irrigation water (Concepcion,
2004).
purposes(FAO, 2007b).
On a study conducted by Japan International Coopera- 2.2.2 Sources of irrigationwater
tion Agency (JICA)as cited by Kho and Agsaoay (2006), There are three sources of irrigationwater which also per-
water demand inthe Philippineswas 49 km3 in 2005 and is tainsto the method of accessing the water. These are the (i)
expected to dran/Laticallyincrease up to 86 km3 in 2025. River Divenyion, which pertains to water directly diverted

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from theriver throughconstructed channels, pumping, or Out of the 15,500 krn2 approximated irrigated area, 13,400
retention dams, (ii) Reservoir, which pertainsto water km2 is served by the NIA systems. The remaining are
stored in reservoir dams foruse in agriculture especially small-seale irrigation projects (SSIP)like Shallow I'ube
duringdry season, and (iii) Pumping, which pertains to well (STW),SmallWater Irnpounding Preject (SWIP)and
water accessed from the groundwater. Figure 5 shows the SmallFarm Reservoir(SFR). Figure 7 shows the extent of
ratios of irrigation water sources. service area by irrigation
scale and Figure 8 shows the dis-
tributionofserviee area by type of SSIR

Reservoir
14%
Pumi
11

system
NIAS- Nationa] ITrigationAdministration
SS[P- thnall
scaleIrrigation
Project

Figure5: Sourcesofirrigation water Figure7: Extent of service area by irrigation


scale

(Source/
WRI, 2007) (Source:
BSWM, 2005 and NIA, 2004)

The totaldam capacity in 1995was 4.75km3, consisting


of 54 small dams (with a totalof approximatety 1 km3) and SWP
6 largedams.In the Philippines, a dam isconsidered large
when the storage capacity exceeds O.5km3 and the struc-
tural height is more than30 m. A recent survey on surface SFR13%60knf)
water storage has identifiedpotential sites for 438 major
dams and 423 smaller dams(FAO,2007b).
STW -suallowTube Well SFR -thnall Farm Reservoir
2.2.3Irrigatienpotential SWIP - sunallWater Impounding Project
The inigation potentialof thecountry is31,OOOkm2. The
dataisprovidedby the NationalIrrigationAdministration Figure 8: Distributionofservice area by type ofSSIP

(NIA)whose primarydefinition of irrigation potential in (Sourccl BSWM, 2005 and NIA, 2004)
the Philippines is a landon slope lessthan 3%, unless a
steeper landis already terraced.Practically, thisdefinitien Most irrigation systems inthe Philippineswere designed
refers to areas fbrpaddy rice production, to irrigate rice through network of open channels, canals,
This was recently changed by the Bureau of Soil and structures and control facilities (surface irrigation system).
Water Management (BSWM), with survey assisted by On theother hand,pressurizedinigation systems (sprinkler,
Wbrld Bank, to landswith 18% slope or lessbutwith con- micro-sprinkler and dripsystems) have been adopted and
sidered tillability)wateT resources availabilityl water re- used primariIy to irrigate high value crops such as vegeta-
sources development,fioedcontrol, drainagefacilities and bles,ornamentals, citms, banana,coffee, sugarcane, fruit
all eost attuned to it.Thus, at present, based on trees,among others and are widely used forgreenheuses.
BSWM-Wbrld Bank data,the potential inigablearea is However, the latter system eomprises only a very small

46,600 km2, Of the identified potentially irrigable area, fraction ofthe inigated areas, as shown in Figure 9,
only approximately 15,500km2 ispresently irrigated (Fig-
ure 6).
ed

Area te be Irrigated

Figure 9] Distributionof service area as to surface type


and pressurizedinigation
systems

{Source/
NIA. 2004}
Figure 6: Extent ofirrigation in the Philippines
(Source:
BSWM, 2005 and NIA, 2004) As to management schemes, irrigation
systems in the
Philippines can be classified as NIS (National
Irrigation
2.2.4Irrigation
systems System),CIS (Communal InigationSystems),or PIS (Pri-
vate IrrigationSystem),Figure1O shows the extent of ser-

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vice area by type irrigation


scheme.
/of In principle,
all schemes have been designedto provide
supplementary irrigationto the entire irrigable
area during

the wet season. The cmpping intensity(areaact'ually irri-


gated duringthe season) should, thus, be 100%. However,
in aetual practice,thislevelisnever reached due to various
problems such as optimistic designof service areas, flood-
ing,and waterlogging in the wet season, complexity of the

irrigation system, low pump perfbrmance, and confiicts


betweenwater supply, power,and irrigation,
The actual irrigatedarea varies significantly from one
NISNationalIrrigationSystem CISCommunalIrrigation season to another, but itisalways much lowerthan the area
Svstcm PIS PrivatelrriEation
twstem equipped fbr fu11 or even partialeontrolled irrigation(see
[[bble1).
Figure1O:Distributionofservice area by type of
irrigation
schemes 2.2.6 Problems associated with irrigation
schemes and

(Soiirce:NIA,2004) irrigationsystem development


On all NIS schemes, the feescollected by the N][Ashould
a. NIS schemgLt are those constructed, operated, and cover the costs for operation, maintenance and even the

maintained by NIA. The cost ofthe system isentirely borne investmentcost within a reasonable periodof time to an
by NIA (government)
and farmers have to pay fees to cover extent consistent with govemment policy.However, in
operation and maintenance There are about
expenditures. practice,
capital isconfined
cost recovery to the communal

150 NIS schemes spread throughout the country. Three scheme the fees collected cover only about 80%
sector and

by the water origin: (i)


main sub-types coexists, differing of expenditure. Furtherrnore,in most schemes, drainage
Largesschemes, which are backed up by multipurpose re- water from one fieldgoes intoanother fielddownstream
either throughthe irrigation or directly. Therefbre,it
servoir and are actually conglomerates systems served by canal

multiple diversion stmctures that utilizes supplies from isdifficult to estimate thedrainedareas. This also causes
uncontrolled rivers crossing the irrigatedarea; (ii) water-related diseaseslikegastro-enteritis,
schistosomiasis,
Run-oj:the-riverdiversion
schemes, which are relatively and (David,
hepatitis 2000),
small diversionschemes with several intakesand re-use The stM remaining vast potentially
irrigablearea (refer
systems that often develop over time in response to to Figure 6) indicatesa very low irrigation
development in
observed drainageflows. The largestschemes of thistype thecountry. As discussed by Coneepcion(2004), the diffi-
are located inalluvial plains;and (iii) Pump schemes. culty inattaining developedirrigation
secter may be due to
b. CIS schemes are predominantly diversionschemes the fo11owing constraints:
created either by farrners themselves, or by NIA and then a.PPktensheddegradotion andnatural calamities

turned-over to theirrigation associations forO&M (opera- The denudationof watersheds due to uncontrolled log-
tion and maintenanc ¢ ),At present,there arc about 6,200 ging and shifting has cultivation
affected the quantityand
communal schemes with an average area of 1 15 ha. qualityofwater fbrinigationwhile natural calarr].ities such

c. PIS schemes- are generallysupplied through pumping as typhoons, floodsand droughthave severely affeeted the
and found thcir origin in publicly-assisted
river lifts
and functionality ofthe existing systems.

groundwaterdevelopmentprojects, b. Cbnrpeting use qfland and water


The conversion of agricultural landsto residential, com-

2.2.5 Croppimg season and cropping intensity mercial and industrial


use has significantly reducedthe area
There are two cropping seasons in the Philippines,
the wet more suitable fbr irrigatedagriculture. Moreover, water
hydropower,environment,
fishing,
and dry cippping seasons, which corresponds to major
the supply,

management are irrigation


competing
and watershed

forwater. And,
with
climatic seasons ofthe country.
when the water islimited, isgiven to domesticuse
priority
fable 1 :Actual irrigatedarea inNIA-managed inigation so thatwater supply forirrigation
isconsiderably ]:educed.

schemes, 2004 c. Increased cost ofirrigation


cleveiopment

As easy-to-develop and accessible areas are beingpriori-


Servicep tAtllItd m tized, areas fartherfrom the source and having
of water

Schemes Aream wtS


steeper slopes beingconsidered
are now which means an
p DS increasing trend inthe cost of inigation development. And
(kmb km2 %" km2 %' the highcost of energy hampers the developmen:of pump
CISNIS5,5007,9002,7505,60050711,8704,8203461 irrigation systems. The present pump systems are no longer
economically viable ifdevotedsolely to paddy rice produc-
tion.
Total13,4008,350626,69050 ofexisting
d Ropid deterioration irrigationsystems
*Crqrping The gap betweenservice areas and actual irrigated
areas
lntensiij,
<Source/
FAO. 2007b) continues to widen due to inadequate maintenance and un-

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timely repairs of damaged structures. This is particularly There are cases where inigationprojectscannot be im-
tme to CISs where Irrigators Association cannot cope with plemented or completed due to worsening peace and order
proper mamtenance practlces. situation inthe area,
e. Ihadequate .fiinding
and support services to improve
thepembrmance ofexJisting irrigation system 3 Water Management Sectorand Institutional
This results to the continued degradation of the system Deyelopment
and rising cost of operation and rehabilitation.
f Absence ofsigntficant Researchand DevetQpmentofl 3.1Water Management Sector
forts
in support to irrigationdevelopment and irrigntion In water management, Philippinesisunique in such a way
managementfieseaiTh that there are so governmentinstitutionscomprising
many

Research, if there are any, are poorly-funded and not the water management sector, The national and local insti-

management-oriented. Hence, itbecomespurely a technical tutions are listed in [fables2 and 3, respectively, and their
undertaking. interference in terrnsof the three basic water functions is
g. Peace and oider situation in some areas depieted
inFigure11.

1table
2:GovernmentInstitutions (National
Goveming WaterResourcesinthe Philippines Level)

Institution
MandateandFunction
(IVationaiLevel)
DENR:Fma,EMB
<DepartmentofEnvironmentandPrimarilyresponsibleforthemanagement,eonservationanddevelopment
NaturalResources/Forest
offorestlandsandwatersheds;andmaintainingwaterquality
ManagementBureau.Enyiron-
mentaiManagementBareau)

DA:BSWM Authorityonmattersrelativetotheutilizationandmanagementofsoiland
(DepaitnientofAgriculture/ waterasvitalresources;
BureauofSeilandWater
Management) Dcsign,constructionandmaintenanceofSWIPs

NPC
fallforpowergeneration;completejurisdictionandcontroloverwater-
(NatienalPowerCorporation}Authoritytotakewaterfromanypublicstream,river,creek,lakeorwater-
shedssurroundingthereservoirsofplantsandiorprojects

PNOC Jurisdiction,control,management,protection,developmentand
{PhilippineNationalOil rehabilitationofwatershedreserves
CooraLion}
NIA Improve,constructandadministerallnationalirrigationsystemsof
(NatienallnigatienAdministra- thecountry
tion)
DOE Alloeatereforestation,watershcdmanagement,healthand/orenvironrnent
(DepartmentofEn
¢ rgy) enhancementfund

NWRB
(NatienalWaterResourcesBoard)Coordinateandregulatewaterresourcesmanagementanddevelopment
andwateruses
DOH Setqualitystandardsforwatertesting,treatmentandsurveillance
(DeparimentofHealth) andsanitarypractices
DPWH Settechnicalstandardsforengineeringsurveys,designandconstruction
(DepartmentofPublicWorksand ofLevel1WaterSystems
Hihwas)

NEDA Policymakingandinfrastructure,coordinationofactivitiesofvarious
(Nationa!Eeonomicand sectors
DevelomentAuthori
NCIP Formulatesandimplementspoliciesfortheprotectionofindigenous
CNationalCemmissiononIndi-
enousPeople) people,e.g.,ancestraldomainincriticalwatersheds
JointExecutiyeand Addressthewatercrisisincludingsupply,distribution,finance,
LegislativeWaterCrisis priyatizationofstate-runwaterfacilities,protectionandconservation
Commission ofwatershedsandwasteandpilferageofwater

SANREM CRSP-SEA, 2002)


<Source/

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Tbble 3iGovernment Institutions (Local


Governmg Water Resources inthe Philippines Level)

Institution
MandateandFunetion
ocatLevel)
LGUs
(LocalGovernmentUnits)Implementcomrnunity-basedforestryprojectsandmanagecommunalfor-
estwithanareanotexceeding50km2,andenforcelaws,etc.
LWUA Ownandoperatewatersupplyanddistributionsystemsfordomestic,in-
(1.ocalWaterUtilitiesAdrninistra- dustrial,municipalandagriculturaluses
tion)

Maynilad;MWSS
ResponsibleforwatersupplyinMetroManilaandnearbysub-urbanareas
(ManilaWatervvorksandSewerage
Services)

(Source/
SANREM CRSP-SEA, 2002)

NWRB
[iilllil][lilillill]pm@
Ept[gtc][SNEi!]
NationalLevel

ttttttt tt.t ttttttt-ntttt


t/tdedellseselatSl eteevvvtvvtnye
tttttttttttt.tttttttt
'ilmeiAS}ilg}\gtsh'itiii'
・liliwa・islee'lllpa・etk'ts':i#lit
,ii・pa..-IS・il';li'pa..ileei!,
.,i.ll・lli・l・l,iV';el"'iee:l'IE.::,.
eelettevvttttvevvtwttfittttt
:glgpa,,.g,ww,
mtt,tettttstttSttStet ex,l・l{::l;;iigi.gi..wa...Gglff.xi・ifl:
tttttt,ttttttttttt"ttt
tttt,tttttttttttttt tttttttttttt.ttttttt
tttttttttttt ttttttttt.tttt
ttdett,ettttSssttetetVtbtt

ttttttttt
t・t#ttttttttttttt

LoealLevel

LGUs [WUA MWSS

Figure11:Theinterference
ofmajor institutions
inyolvedinwater resources g overnance
(Seurce/SANREMCRSP-SEA,2002)

The NWRB isthe leadgovemment agency in thePhilip- few areas of the northern and southern partsof the country
pine water sector, conferred with policy-making, regulatoryl (FAO, 2007b and WRI, 2007).
and quasijudieialfunctions, The NWRB isresponsible fbr In doingthis regionalization, the NWRB works with yet
ensuring the optimum exploitation, utilization, develop- another government agencM the NationalStatistical Coor-
ment, conservation and protection of the country's water dinationBoard (NSCB) on policy initiativesconceming
resources, consistent with the principlesofIntegrated Water Philippine
ecenomic-environmental and natmal resources
Management(IWM). accountmg.

With a vision "PlaterforAli",


ithas three-foIdfunctions Over the years, a
number of decrees,executive orders
of (i) formulation and coordination of pelicies,programs and billshave been issuedaifecting the manner by which
and standards relating to Philippines water sector, (ii) the production and use of water in the Philippinesare ma-
management and regulation of all water-related activities, naged and reguLated. This includes the RD. (Presidential
and (iii)
regulation and monitoring ofwater utilities. Decree) No. 198, also known as Provincial uaiterUirilities
Sincethe varied physiographicaland climatic conditions Act of1973; PD. No. 1067 of 1976, referred to as the PVhter
of the Philippines greatly affect the availability of water Code ofthe Phiimpines which empowered the NWRB to
resources across the eountry, the NWRB dividedthe coun- regulatc the country's water resources; IVZitional
PhaterCri-
try into12 water resource regions to serve as management sisAct of i995; and the Executive Order 374 of 1996,
units forthe comprehensive planningof water resources known as the Piesidential
7inskhorce on PPlrter
ResouJ es ℃

development (David 2000, as cited in SANREM Develqpment and Adanagenient,to name the few important
CRSP-SEA, 2002). ones.
Major considerations taken intoaccount in the regiona- However, despite
thisnumber of governing laws, water
lization were the hydrologicalboundariesdefinedby phy- resources management developmentinthe country lags
and
siographic features and homogeneityin climate. However, much behind other national programs and prioritiesin
in fact,these water resources regions generally correspond ternis of attention, budget and politicalinitiatives.
And this
to the existing political regions in the country. Minor devia- aggravates the burgeoningproblems ofthe water sector.
tions,though, dictatedbasicallyby hydrography affected

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3.2Irrigation Water Management and Development inadequate


infrastructure
to store wateg low water use effi-
At present, the management of irrigationwaters in the ciency, and management weaknesses.
country isunder the NIA which isa publiccorporation un- Thus,according to Barba (2004), the challenges ineffec-
der the Office of thePresidentand an attached agency to tivelymanaging the water resources of the country are the
the Department of Agriculture.However, NIA is basically failureto adopt an integrated, holistic approach in address-
engineering hardwarein orientation with emphasis
or on ing the inherently interrelated issuesof developmentand
infrastmctures(David,2000). management planning, implementation and operation, de-
Itisnotable that,forall regions and forall seasons, the mand management, pollution control, and watershed and

actual areas inigated were much lessthan the estimated groundwater protection, Moreover, the water pricingpolicy
service areas (refer to Table 1).This isbecauseirrigation undervalues the water as a scarce resource.
service area as used by the NIA refers to the design The major constraints and challenges inpromoting effec-
irrigable area. It is the projected area during stages of tive water resources management as discussedand pre-
projeetpreparation and the area for whieh irrigationfacili- sented by Barba (2004), and as also mentioned by David
tiesare designedand censtmcted. Due to thedesignmis- (2000) and Lansigan (2006), are as fo11ows:

takes, water supply constraints, overlaps in the service a, F)'agmented management and weak institutional.frame-
areas of various modes of irrigation, irrigation systems work

shutdown and inefficiency in the operation of irrigation One of the most critical issues confronting thePhilippine
systems, the actual area served ismuch lessthan the design water sector is the lack of an appropriate institutional
service area, This is yet another proofof NIA beingbasi- frameworkto address issuesof developmentand manage-
cally infrastructure in nature (David, 2000). ment efwater and related resources.
As furthernoted by David (2000), the emphasis in new At present, there are over 30 governmentagencies and
irrigationsystem development was on medium and large departments (the major ones are shown in Table 2) sepa-
seale gravityirrigation systems butthe policy biastowards rately dealingwith water supplM irrigation, hydropower,
1argegravityirrigation infrastmetures which praetically flood control, pollution, watershed managernent, etc,

gave NIA complete control over irrigation development. However, there isan absence ofriver basininstitutions. Itis
With this,inigation was heavilysubsidized and under gov- fragmentedapproach to water management bringingabout
ernment monopoly. This aiso results in a very little partici- an overlap of work and confiicts arnong agencies that result
pation ofthe privateseetor inthe development. in fractional management plan and inadequately met the
The privateirrigation systems ineluderun-ofthe-river requirements for sustainability. Many projects are being
systems, Shallow Tube Wells (STWs), Hand Tube Wells implementedin many cases without considering the inte-
(HTWs), Lew Lift Pumps (LLPs), and small farm ponds. ractions between hydrological and economic systems, thus,
Some NISs and CISs also includeany of these systems; and, resulting in inefficient resource use, economic and social
though assisted by NIA, the investmentand the manage- issues, and environmenta1 degradation.
ment are basically private. The total area presently served While there may be nothing wrong, by itselain involv-
by these systems, as estimated by BSWM, is4,OOO km2 and ing a number of institutions
in the management of water

constitute a quarterof the totalirrigatedarea. resources, theissueisthelackof integrative


mechanism to
interrelatethe differentfunctions of the institutionsor
4 Water ResourcesManagement Problems and agencies. For instanee,one entity isresponsible forplanting
EmergingIssues of treesin a watershed area but another agency isgranting
In 2000, the VVZiter
lixploitation lhdex (tota1
water use as theperrnitto cut the trees.In thatcase, one agency's scope
percentage of the totalrenewable water resources) of the ofresponsibility isconfined only to a limited area or partof
isjust
Philippines approximately 7%. This figuretends to a watershed while the other parts, though they closely afi
suggest that the need to manage water use and conserve fectthe condition of the watershed, are in the hands of oth-

water resources is not a pressing concern, However, the er groirpsor institutions. As there ismultiplicity of agencies
reality isthatthereis a decline in per capita water availabil- coneerned, the institutional arrangement and responsibility
ity in the country. Moreover, the Philippine freshwater must be elearly delineated and made known to all parties
ecosystems facessevere problems ofpollution and the costs concerned from the very start.
ofsupplying potablewater are rising. Despite the prornulgation of the Water Code three dec-

The Bank Water Sector(ascited in BSWM, 2005) be- ades ago and thecreation of the NWRB to coordinate the
lieved that the causes of water scarcity involveswater activities of water resources agencies, the goal ofIntegrated
availability limitations,depletion of groundwater resources, Water Resources Management (IWRM)is still fhr from
degradation of freshwater sources, and the increasing cost beinga reality. Specifically, the weakness ofNWRB as the
of new water source development.However,the problems water regulator agency include limited funds and staff; no
may redound to the water supply and demand management regional or local presence, weak enforcement of Water

factors, and the inability to establish a good social, legal, Code, ineffectivemediatiQn of conflicts in water demand,
and institutional
support for effective water management and inadequate planning and coordination due to deficient
system. waterresource data.
Overall,the problem isnet absolute shortage of water. b.Lack ofwater allocationformula

The problemismismatch of supply-demand, mainly due to Most of the problemsencountered by the PhilippineWa-

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ter Sectortoday arise from an issueof conflicts ofuse and difficulties


under the current institutional
and /regulatory
water allocation. With the inerease in population eoupled envlronment.

with worsening pollutien of water bodies,lackof infra- Other emerging issuesofpressing concern to the Philip-
structure and facilities
and dry spell causes water shortages pine water sector, as extracted from the works of Barba
regularly in many areas resulting in allocation issuesand (2004),
Lansigan (2006),
and Kho and Agsaoay (2006)
are

conflicting rights over the water supply. as fo11ows:


The principle inthe WaterCode of in timepriority
';first
a, Environmental clegradution andpoiiution
in right" may ]no longerbe an equitable approach in Most of the watersheds in the Philippines are in critical
resolving such confiicts. Currentallocation procedureis eondition as manifested from recent and recuning calami-
insuffricientto cover all aspect of water allocation sueh as ties. Massive deforestationand soil erosion is evident and
eeonomlc aspect. frequent flooding, water pollutionand contamination isjust
c.PVZiakwater use regtdation andetgforcement butfew of itsconsequences - with 16 to 18 times increase
In the Philippines, only a handfu1knows there is such in suspended and dissolvesolids in rivers and draining
thingas rights (right
f`water

grantedforthe use of water


"
streams and bodiesofwater as one proof
beyond domestic purpose)and that a permit" is Water qualityin the country has been impairedseverely
"water

grantedby the gevernment,In contrast, many water users owing to population growthand misuse of water and land.
do not havepermits as proof of water rights. Domestic sewage contributes approximately 52% of the
NWRB is the sole authority that allocates water rights pollutionload while industry contributes the remaining
fbr the various uses. However, the basic structure of 48%. The steadily increasing water pollution could se-
NWRB isthemqior sethack to theeffective discharge of its riously compromise the country's capability to provide
functions. The investigation and proeessing ofwater permit adequate supplies of good qualitywater for domc:stic,agri-
applications constitute a function fbrwhich NVVRB isnot culture and industrial
use.

properly equipped in terms ofeither manpower or resources. Furthermore,


the indiscriminate
groundwater abstraction
Besides, deputation of such functions to other government results to salt water intrusionto the aquifers especially in
agencies has not been proven satisfactory. coastal urban areas. The indiscriminate use of groundwater
Enforcement of the provisionsof the Water Code is wells fbrresidential, commercial and industrial areas due to
lackingowing to resources constraints, In many ease, di- the failure of major utility providersto serviee these areas
rectives NWRB
of are ignoredsince itdoes not have "en- isthemajer cause forthe depletion of thegroundwater re-
fbrcementpowers" to exaet compliance with those direc- sources in the country.
tives.d The review of the current situation in the Philippines
Outtlatedframeworkpian andreseareh makes itclear that the lackofwater pollution centrel facili-
For the pastyears,the governmenthas steadfastly pur- tiesissevere and calls for efficient water services and ade-
sued itsdedication to developinga regime of efficient water quatesanitary facilities to improvethe environment, public
resources management system. There had also been several health,and quality oflife.
studies of paramountimpact to the sector such as frame- b, inqfiicientvL,ater use and low water use qO7ciE'ncyin ir-

work planthatare expected to providethe implementing rlgatlon


agencies with a betterappreciation of the problemsoutside A major concern at present isnot only water sc;arcity but
their individual sector, mechanisms for developingjoint also inefficient management of existing projects. Most of
projects, and a basis for a well-coordinated agencies, the existing water supply prejects are inadequately ma-
However, theseplansrequire updating from time to time naged, as characterized by low service efficiency resulting

butvery little etTbrt is directed to the commissioning of in supply deficiencies to meet the water demand,In addi-
similar studies and research. tion,thereistremendous waste ofwater indistribution lines,
e. Economicpricing conveyance canals and at homes, Inefficiencyin water
The existing water pricing inthe country doesnot reflect usage was exacerbated by the absence of regulations, eco-
the realities Qf scarcity or abundance ofwater and there has nomic incentivesand institutional arrangements needed to
been a rninimal attention on the economic value of watcr, It promote water conservation and rational use ofwater,
also does not serve the function of allocating thescarce Moreover, in irrigation, the unsatisfactory perforrnance
resource to the most productive users and doesnot provide of NIA has ledto the poor efficiency of existing inigatien
economic ineentive for efficient use and conservation of systems and aggravated the limited supply ofwater.
water, c. Limited water resourees and their spatialand temporai
The basicdilemma facingthe government is that a distribt{tion
change isneeded from viewing water as a freeor public Although the Philippines isendowed with abundant wa-
good to an economic good where ithas a price. Such con- ter resources, the distribution of these resources varies
cepts are difficult fbr elected executives to accept especial- widely in time and in place as a result of the differentgeo-
ly incircumstanees where constituents eajoy frecwater, graphicand climate conditions prevailingthe diff:rent parts
Specifically, policychanges have not been enacted due of the country. Several factors and processesadifeet local
to lackofwill to change, difficulties in selling the concept and regional water resources. Human activities, in particu-
to consumers and businesses,lack of technical capabilities lar,influencethe hydrologic cycle through ehange of water
to designand implementsuch policy reforms, and political and landuse.

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In recent years,the issueof climate change due to human supply,prompting government to take greater control over
activities posed a major concern to water managers, plan- water resources
especially in the highlands (mostly claimed

ners and policymakers. Thisoccurred becausethe present by IPs) to ensure supply fbr the rapidly growingcities and
water management practicesare mainly based on industries in the lowlands,at the expense of customary
semi-stationary geophysicalproeegseswith inadequate rights.
eonsideration beinggiven to increasingdemands owing to
population and landuse changes, 5 Programs, Initiatives
and Prospectsin the Water Sec-
ct Lack ofdota torThe
The established observation stations formeteorelogical, water resources sector continues to
policy and
address

hydrological, geological and water qualitymonitoring are operational gaps in water resources to ensure
management

not sufficient in quantity and location. In the Philippines, adequate water supply. The government pushes for the
the water resources dataare beingcolleeted and processed strengthening of a working commitment toward a more
by various goyernmentagencies and keptin their indepen- wide-ranging course of action to effectively dealwith the
dentdatabase. The absence of reliable water resources in- country's water-related issues.
The imperatives
needed to
formationsystem diminishesthe capacity of concerned harmoniouslyconnect all water resources management in-
authorities diffieult
to make
and controversial water alloca- itiatives
include the river basinapproach, supply optimiza-
tion decisions. Beside, itwould be difficult fbrthe private tion, demandmanagement, equitable access of water, im-
sector to investinthe water sector when reliable water re- proved policy regulatory and frameworks,and
institutional
sources-related dataare scarce and the means of obtaining inter-sectoral approach, (Barba,
2004)
them are unavailable. In 2004,the NationalWater Forum was heldcalling for
Therefore, the improvementof datacollection and estab- the immediateadoption and subsequent implementation
of

lishmentof an integrated nation-wide databaseon water an Integrated Water ResourcesManagement framework,


resources isofutmost need. seeking to change the existing water-based develop-
e. Ihtei:faceand conj7ict betrveenstatutoTp, and customary ment-planning paradigminto a more rational, integrative,
rules on water rights and total approach.
Customarywater lawsequate the right to access the use Based on the reports of the different
water-related gov-
of waters with landownership, which iscommunal in na- emment ageneies, some initiatives
and projects had been
ture. Insofar indigenous peoples or IPs (commonly
as undertaken, as fo11ows:

in the Philippines,
differentiat- a. Enactneent ofihePhilippineClean PVlrterAct on 2004
"cultural
called neinority"
ing them from the majority of the Filipinos who have assi- The CleanWater Act is a very important pieceof legisla-
milated lowland cultures) are concerned, land and the re- tion thatwould pursue all issues that affect the state of the
sources fbundtherein constitute one integrated
ecosystem. country's water quality. providesfora comprehensive
It
This was upheld by thepassage of Republic Act No. water management program to protectthe country's water
8371,otherwise known as the Peoplek Rights
`7hdigenous
bodiesfrom landbasedsources ofpollution such as indus-
Act or IPita which was passedand took effect on 1997,
",
tries, mining, agricultural operations, as well as community

Thiscomprehensive statute addresses the rights of the in- householdactivities.


digenous people to social justice and human rights, Moreever, it recognizes the role of the LGUs in the
selfgovernance and empowerrnent, and cultural integrity management and improvement of water qualityin their
as closely anchored on theirrights and values attached to respectiye jurisdictions, Itdoes not proposeforthecreation
theirancestral domainfland, which inthatcase, includes the of a new water body but, instead,it assigns the lead fimc-
water resources fbundtherein, tion to the DENR with the NWRB having the administra-
In contrast, statutes, particularlylaws thatpertainto Iand tiyefunctions.
and natural resources, are grounded on the Regalian Doc- b.strengthening ofthe ArMRB
trine which provides that ownership and control over natu- EfTbrts to strengthen the NWRB have been initiated by
ral resources belongto the state. On the basisof thisprin- thegovernmentby transferringthe office (under the Office
ciple, the Stateenacted laws regulating the extraction and of the President)to the DENR. The strengthening involves
utilization of the different resources, including water. the changes in the membership of the Board, strengthening

Rightsto these resources ean only be acquired through a the planning, enforcement and monitoring capability of the

grantgivenby the state. This is where the conflict with the ageney and modification of the Water Code and itsimple-
customary rights and IPRA comes in. menting rules and regulations.
The Water Code is silent insofaras eustomary water c. PVinter resout=es assessment andplanning

rights are concerned. It still operates under the Regalian With so many agencies in the country that are involved
Doetrinebutll'RA still is instrumental for recognition of in water data collection, some important activities con-

customary rights, However, IPRA is beingchallenged be- ductedare the fo11owing:


cause itisperceived to give too much power to indigenous i,The UNDP (United Nations Development Pro-
peoples and can be used to bloek major resource exploita- gramme)-funded Groundwater Data Bank which
tion likewater diversionfor agricultural, domesticand was recently insta11edin NWRB.
power generatlon uses. ii. Operationof the National Water Data Coordination
The pressure will increaseas demand for water exceeds Center(NWDCC) in order to providea statistical

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overview of existing water resources datanation- As such, to increase the efficiency of water use, mar-

wide. ket-basedmechanisms shall be introduced, The use of


iii.
Operationand maintenance of NWRB Information market-based instmmentsin assessing the tme value of
Center water would be leviedon users, as well as water-related
iv.Implementation of water resources development services or damages.One way isto charge water priceat
projects, like National Water Data Collection fu11cost and clearly definethepropertyrights to water use
Network forgroundwater, surface water and water and access. This may also include raising water tariff9 and
qualityland WILter Inforrnation
Network. imposingsewerage charges and effluent taxes.
d SVnall PlhterimpoundingPrQl'ects asMll'st A thresholdvalue below which water isprovided freeof
The SWIP is a small water-scale dam structure con- charge can be set; and above it,water isprogressivclyva-
strueted aeross a narrow depression or valley to holdback lued. A socialized system for water-user fees can be
water and develop a reservoir that will store rainfa11 during adopted to balancethemarket-based value with the social
the rainy season for immediate or future use, The long-term nature ofwater as a publicgood,In fact, thisisalready be-
benefits of SWIPs to the environment and ecological stabil- ingimplementedby LWUA thatprovidewater fordomestic,
ityare floodcontrol, reduced soil erosion and water chan- corrmiercial and industrialusers in urban and sub-urban
nel sedimentatien, good groundwater recharge, and water areas.c.

molsture conservatlon. 1inprovement oj'


water governance at dit7Z]Jen"ffor
levels
The prQjeet
which in 1986 has gainedimpetus
started eeuitable access to water resourees and Fegi`)nal coop-
latelyand, at present, has completed the construction of eration in wseareh and dlavelqpment
994 SWIPs and other small diversion darnsall over the Empowerrnentand strengthening of the different levels
country providingsupplemental to around 46,OOO
irrigation of managernent is very importantas itwill strengthen and
ha farmlands. stabilize the whole water resource management stmcture.
The potentialof SWIP in the country isgreat.The tribu- In thisaspect, and the support of
participation
community
tariesof the country's 421 principalrivers offer a lot of the differentlocal governmentunits (LGUs)is of para-
rooms fordevelopmentof sueh projects.Thisisalso taking mo unt lmportance,
into consideration that the country has predeminantly
roll- The above-mentioned areas of concern in watershed ap-
ing to hillytopography such that most depTessions and in- proachto water resource management are depictedin Fig-
landvalleys in between hills in the upland areas are ideal ure 12.
sites fbrSWIPs. However, these are yet to be explored and
harnessed.
Furthermore, based on the outputs of several plan-
ning-workshops and policystudies conducted, implementa-
tionand prospects on thefollowing
areas had been laidand
plannedout:
a. PVZitershed
approachto water resourees management
In water resouree management, what isneeded isto de-
finea watershed unit that a givengroup of administrative

units could manage togetherina co-management scheme.


The watershed has a strong economic
approach logic.
Many externalities involvedwith alternative landmanage-
ment practicesaffecting water supply and quality are inter-
nalized when thewatershed is managed as unit, Environ-

mental irrrpacts of land-use activities, water uses and other


upland disturbances can also be readily examined within
the watershed context.
It isneted thatwatershed has longbeen an
management
element of natural planning management
resources by and

the DENR. However, thisapproach has been largelylimited Figure12:Waterresource management strategy
to the upper watersheds where the fbrestslie.The linkand (Source,BSWM,200S)
interrelationbetween the upper watershed and the down-
stream water resources has not really been tackled in the 6 Summary and Conclusien
context of a watershed unit. Philippines is endowed with abundant water resources.
b. Platerpolicyandeconomie qfficiency Both itssurface and groundwaterresource potentialare far
[[hisisto manage water not only as a social good but more than enough fbr the eurrent demand. Howeyer, de-
more importantly as an eeonomic good, As such, water spite the vastness of the potential supply, itrariks among
becomes a thatisassessed fbritsscarcity value
commodity the lowestin theworld in terms of freshwater ayailability
and whose distribution
exists in the context of market per capita and now tends te experience several water
processes;and isbalancedby the view that water isa basic supply-demand-relatedproblems.
need, The present "water
situation" ofthe country ifanalyzed

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holistically,
leadsto institutional
and management prob- Report In: Gateway te Land and Water Information, Na-
lems as the root causes ofwater supply and demand imbal- tional Water ResourcesBoard, Integrated Water Resources
anee. With this, thecountry need to further
strengthen the Management, Thematic paper presented during the Nation-
al wnter Forum, 22 March 2e04, Manila, Philippines,
water resources management and developmentto a more
integrated and holistic
fashion.The management of water [4] David,WilfredoP.(2000): Shairow 71ibePPZillb'rigation
77ieoi),and Practice, Universityof the Philippines Los
as a critical resource shall be dene in a sustainable manner
Banos, Laguna, Philippines,145 p,
taking intoaccount theneeds ofthe present and future gen-
erations. In thisrespect, sustainable management of water
[s] FAO (2007a): Water and Food SecurityCountry Profile,
Food and AgricultureOrganization(FAO)of the United
resource shall take intoconsideration the that
principles Nations,[http///'ww,fao.org,'countryProfilefwater(Accessed
water resources management shall be decentralized,
parti-
cipatory and community-based and conducted at the lowest 11-16)]FAO
appropriate level. {6] (2007b): Water Profileof the Philippines In: Enqyc-
As regard issue of participatory
to the planningand lopediaofEarth. CutlerJ,Cleveland(Ed.), W}ishingtonDC,
management, assistance in policy dialogueand awareness Lastupdated June22, 20e7.
maybe required. Advice on approaehes may also be needed [http:lfwww,eoearth.org larticlei'water
profile of the Philip-
in the areas of private sector participation, community pines(Accessed2007-10-29)]
based organizations and analysis of developmentoptions. [7] Kho, James and Agsaoay-Sano, Eunice (2006): Cbuntili
Capacitybuildingwill also be needed to strengthen the studyon Cttstomat), PV2iter
Laws andPractices: Philijrpines,
FAO LegalAdsen,e,Makati,Philippines. pp. 1-26
cemmunity-basedorganizations.
Further,
a weak regulatory ageney will be unable to per- I8] Lansigan,FelinoP. (2006): Water Securityand the Envi-
ronment: ChallengingIssuesfor Growing CitiesofAsia, A
form itsmandate. There isa need to strengthen and regio-
nalize the NWRB to be able to fu11yand effectively per- paper proceeding of the GWSP-Asia Seconcl Meeting.
Guangzhou, China.pp. 2 1-34
form itsmissions, The decentralization of regulatory func-
[9] NIA (2004): Ayertingthe Whter CrisisinAgriculture, NIA,
tionsisnecessary in the pursuit of an IntegratedWater Re-
Manila,Philippines, 124 p,
source Management Plhtenshed Approach
(IWRM). The [10] NSCB (2005): The PhMppine Countrysidein Figures,Na-
with rnulti-stakeholder involvementis the idealmodel
to tional StatisticalCoordination Board,Philippines.
integrate
and coordinate all water-related effbrts to a more [http//Lwww. nscb.gov.ph (Accessed 2007-11-15)]
focusedapproach. [11]NWRB (2e04): Philippines: National Water Resources
Beard, A country paper submitted to Asian Development
Bank, Manila,PhiLippines.
References
[http:11www,adb.org (Accessed 2e07-11 -15)]
[1] Bafba PacitaE (2004):
The ChallengesinWtiterResources
[12]SANREM CRSP-SEA (2002): Plhter Resou,=e Minnage-
Management in the Philippines,
NWRB, QuezonCity, ment: A P,zv'ect Fblio,PIDS-USAID Project,pp, l-22
Philippines.
[13]WbrldBank (2004): Environment at a Glance20e4: Philip-
2007- 11-
[http:tlwww.wrrc.dpri,kyoto-u.acjp
(Accessed pines,Environment Department, The WbrldBank, WAsh-
15)]BSWM ington D,C, USA, [www.worldbank,org (Accessed
[2] (2005):Win-win WtiterManagement Approach in 2007-11-15)]
the Philippines
In:Tbwards a Watershed-BasedWater Re-
[14]WRI (2007): WttterResourcesand FreshwaterEcosystems-
sources Management, Bureau ef Soiland Water Manage- Philippines.Earth TrendsCountry Profile,World Reseurce
ment,Philippines. Institute,[http:ffwww.earthtrends.wri.org(Accessed2007-11-
[http:ffwww.bswm.da.gov,ph(Accessed2007-11-16)]
[3] Coneepcion,Regelio N. (2004):
The PhilippineCountry
Discussionopen until June 30,2009

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