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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 CASTING AND ITS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND [1]:

Casting is one of the earliest metal-shaping methods known to human being. It

generally means pouring molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape
to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is
taken out from the refractory mould either by breaking the mould or by taking mould
apart. This process is also called founding.

The casting process was probably discovered around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. In

many parts of the world during that period, copper axes and other flat objects were
turned out in open moulds made of stone or baked clay. These moulds were essentially
in single piece. But in later periods, when round objects were required to be made, such
moulds were split into two or more parts to facilitate the withdrawal of the round
objects.

The Bronze Age (2000 BC) brought far more refinement into the casting process. For
the first time perhaps, a core for making hollow pockets in the objects was invented.
These cores were made of baked clay. Also the lost wax process was extensively used
for making ornaments and fine work.

1.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF CASTING [1]:

The casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many

advantages. Molten material flows into any small section in the mould cavity and as
such, any intricate shape (internal or external) can be made with the casting process. It
is possible to cast practically any material, be it ferrous or non-ferrous. Further, the
necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for trial production or production of a small lot, it is an ideal method. It is
possible in casting process, to place the amount of material where it is exactly required.
As a result, weight reduction in design can be achieved. Castings are generally cooled
uniformly from all sides and therefore they are expected to have no directional
properties. There are certain metals and alloys which can only be processed by casting
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and not by any other process like forging because of the metallurgical considerations.
Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons can be made.

However, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal sand casting
process would not be adequate for final application in many cases. To take these cases
into consideration, some special casting processes such as die-casting have been
developed. Also the sand casting process is labour intensive to some extend and
therefore many improvements are aimed at it, such as machine moulding and foundry
mechanisation. With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects arising out of
the moisture present in sand castings.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF CASTING [1]:

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes and even today it is the first step in
manufacturing most products. Applications of casting vary from very basic parts of any
machine component to very large and intricate designs. Typical applications of the
casting process are cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill
rolls, wheels, housings, water supply pipes and specials, and bells. Casting technique is
used in various departments ranging from railways, highways, defence, space, navy,
aircrafts, power and many more.

1.4 DEFECTS IN CASTING [2]:

The defects in a casting may arise due to the defects in one or more of the following:
i) Design of casting and pattern.
ii) Moulding sand and design of mould and core.
iii) Metal composition.
iv) Melting and pouring.
vi) Gating and risering.

The following defects are most commonly encountered in the sand mould castings :
i) Blow: A fairly large, well round cavity produced by the gases which displace the
molten metal at the cope surface of a casting.
ii) Scar: A shallow blow, usually found on a flat casting surface.
iii) Blister: A scar covered by the thin layers of a metal.
iv) Gas holes: The entrapped gas bubbles having a nearly spherical shape.
v) Pin holes: The tiny blow holes, which occurs either at or just below the casting
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surface.
vi) Porosity: The very small holes uniformly dispersed throughout the casting.
vii) Drop: An irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a casting.
viii) Inclusion: A non-metallic particle in the metal matrix.
ix) Dross: Lighter impurities appearing on the top surface of a casting.
x) Dirt: Sand particles dropping out of the cope to the top surface of the casting
xi) Wash: A low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate.
xii) Buckle: A long, fairly, shallow, broad, v shaped depression occurring in the surface
of a flat casting of a high temperature metal.
xiii) Scab: The rough, thin layer of metal, protruding above the casting surface, on the
top of a thin layer of sand.
xiv) Rat tail: A long, shallow, angular depression normally found in a thin casting.
xv) Penetration: The liquid metal flown between the sand particles up to a distance
into the mould, when the mould surface is too soft and porous.
xvi) Swell: The moulding sand is deformed by the high hydrostatic pressure caused by
the high moisture content in the sand.
xvii) Misrun: Due to insufficient superheat, the liquid metal may start freezing before
reaching the farthest point of the mould cavity.
xviii) Cold shut: Misrun shown up at the centre for a casting with gates at its two sides.
xix) Hot tear: A crack that develops in a casting due to high residual stresses.
xx) Shrinkage cavity: A defect due to an improper riser.
xxi) Shift: A misalignment between two halves of a mould or of a core.

Fig 1.1: Casting defects

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INVESTMENT CASTING [3]:

Venture giving (referred to a role as lost-wax throwing in craft) is a process that has
been polished for many years, with lost wax procedure being one of the most seasoned
known metal framing strategies. From 5000 years prior, when bumblebees wax shaped
the example, to today's high innovation waxes, unmanageable materials and pro
combinations, the castings guarantee top notch segments are handled with the key
profits of precision, repeatability, adaptability and uprightness.

Speculation throwing determines its name from the way that the example is contributed,
or encompassed, with a hard-headed material. The wax examples oblige amazing
administer to they are not solid enough to withstand powers experienced throughout the
mould making. One playing point of venture throwing it that the wax could be reused.

The methodology is suitable for repeatable generation of net shape parts, from an
assortment of diverse metals and superior amalgams. Despite the fact that for the most
part utilized for little castings, this procedure has been utilized to generate complete
airplane entryway outlines, with steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminium castings
of up to 30 kg. Contrasted with other giving courses of action such a role as pass on
throwing or sand throwing it could be an exorbitant procedure, however the parts that
might be transformed utilizing financing throwing can consolidate multifaceted forms,
and much of the time the segments are thrown close net shape, so obliging practically
no revamp once cast.

2.2 PERMANENT MOULD CASTING [3]:

Changeless mould throwing (regularly for non-ferrous metals) obliges a set-up time on
the request of weeks to set up a steel instrument, after which processing rates of 5-50
pieces/hr-mould are attained with an upper mass point of confinement of 9 kg for every
iron amalgam thing (cf., up to 135 kg for some nonferrous metal parts) and a more level
cut-off of about 0.1 kg. Steel pits are covered with an obstinate wash of acetylene
residue before transforming to permit simple evacuation of the work piece and advertise
longer instrument life. Changeless moulds have a constrained life before wearing out.
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Worn moulds oblige either revamping or replacement. Cast parts from a perpetual form
by and large show 20% expansion in rigidity and 30% increment in lengthening as
contrasted with the results of sand throwing.

The main vital info is the covering connected normally. Normally, perpetual mould
throwing is utilized within framing iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper based
amalgams. The procedure is exceptionally robotized.

2.3 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING [3]:

Diffusive throwing is both gravity- and weight-free since it makes its constrain food
utilizing a makeshift sand mould held in a turning chamber at up to 900 N (90 g). Lead
time changes with the requisition. Semi- and genuine-diffusive transforming allow 30-
50 pieces/hr-mould to be generated, with a useful point of confinement for clump
preparing of roughly 9000 kg aggregate mass with an average for every-thing utmost of
2.3-4.5 kg.

Mechanically, the radial throwing of track wheels was an early provision of the strategy
created by German mechanical organization Krupp and this capacity empowered the
quick development of the undertaking.

2.4 CONTINUOUS CASTING [3]:

Consistent throwing is a refinement of the throwing procedure for the nonstop, high-
volume handling of metal segments with a steady cross-area. Liquid metal is put into an
open-finished, water-cooled copper mould, which permits a "skin" of strong metal to
structure over the still-fluid focus. The strand, as it is presently called, is withdrawn
from the mould and passed into a chamber of rollers and water splashes; the rollers help
the slim skin of the strand while the showers uproot heat from the strand, progressively
hardening the strand from the outside in. After cementing, decided beforehand lengths
of the strand are cut off by either mechanical shears or voyaging oxyacetylene lights
and exchanged to further framing techniques, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can extend
from strip (a couple of millimetres thick by something like five meters wide) to billets
(90 to 160 mm square) to sections (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Once in a while, the
strand may experience an introductory hot moving process before being cut.
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Constant throwing is utilized because of the easier expenses connected with consistent
generation of a standard item, and likewise builds the nature of the last item. Metals, for
example, steel, copper and aluminium are ceaselessly thrown, with steel being the metal
with the best tonnages cast utilizing this technique.

2.5 SAND CASTING [3]:

Sand throwing is a standout amongst the most mainstream and easiest sorts of throwing
that has been utilized for a long time. Sand throwing takes into consideration more
modest clusters to be made contrasted with lasting mould throwing and an extremely
sensible expense. Not just does this strategy consider producers to make items for a
great cost there are different profits to sand giving such a role as there are next to no
size operations. From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to prepare cots (one
throwing can make the whole couch for one rail auto) it is possible with sand throwing.
Sand throwing additionally takes into consideration most metals to be thrown depending
in the kind of sand utilized for the moulds.

Sand throwing obliges a lead time of days for processing at high yield rates (1-20
pieces/hr mould), and is unsurpassed for expansive-part creation. Green (soggy) sand
has very nearly no part weight limit, while dry sand has a down to earth part mass
utmost of 2300-2700 kg. Least part weight ranges from 0.075-0.1 kg. The sand is
fortified together utilizing muds (as within green sand) or synthetic folios, or
polymerized oils, (for example, engine oil.) Sand in most operations might be reused
ordinarily and obliges minimal extra include.

Sand throwing, otherwise called sand formed throwing, is a metal throwing

methodology portrayed by utilizing sand as the mould material. The expression "sand
throwing" can likewise allude to an article handled through the sand throwing
procedure. Sand castings are handled in particular processing plants called foundries. In
excess of 70% of all metal castings are prepared through a sand throwing methodology.
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CHAPTER 3

SAND CASTING: PROCESS AND METHODOLOGY

Sand casting, the casting process more widely used, using expendable sand moulds to
form complex metal parts that can be made from almost any alloy. Because the sand
mould must be destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting
typically has a low production rate. The sand casting process involves the use of an
oven, metal pattern, and the sand mould. The metal is melted in the furnace and then
strained and poured into the cavity of the sand mould, which is formed by the pattern.
The sand mould separates along a parting line and the solidified casting can be
removed. The cycle of the sand casting process consists of seven main steps, which are
explained below.

3.1 PATTERN MAKING [4]:

The first step in the process of sand casting is to create the pattern for casting. A pattern
is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process with some modifications and
is used to prepare the mould cavity. The main modifications are addition of pattern
allowances, the provision of core prints and elimination of fine details which cannot be
obtained by casting and hence are to be obtained by further processing. The making of
patterns, called patternmaking, is a skilled trade that is related to the trades of tool and
die making and mould making, but also often incorporates elements of fine
woodworking. Patternmakers learn their skills through apprenticeships and trade
schools over many years of experience. Although an engineer may help to design the
pattern, it is usually a patternmaker who executes the design.

3.2 MOULD MAKING [4]:

In an expendable mould process, this step must be performed for each pour. A sand
mould is formed by packing sand in each mould half. The sand is packed around the
pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is
removed, the cavity to form the casting remains. Any internal features of the cast part
that cannot be formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores which are made of
sand prior to the formation of mould. More details about the manufacture of moulds are
described in the next section. Weather mould making includes positioning the pattern,
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packing the sand, and the removal of the pattern. The mould manufacturing time is
affected by the size, the number of cores, and the type of sand mould. If the type of
mould requires heating or cooking time, the production time increases substantially
mould. Furthermore, lubrication is often applied to the surfaces of the mould cavity in
order to facilitate the extraction of the casting. The use of a lubricant improves the flow
of the metal and the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant used is selected based on
the temperature of the sand and the cast metal

3.3 CLAMPING [4]:

Once the mould is made, be prepared for the molten metal is poured. The surface of the
first mould cavity is lubricated to facilitate removal of the casting. Then, the cores are
positioned and the mould halves are closed and clamped together. It is essential that the
mould halves remain tightly sealed to prevent any loss of material.

3.4 POURING [4]:

The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in an oven. After the mould has
been clamped, the molten metal can be slipped from the holding vessel into the furnace
and poured into the mould. The discharge can be manually or performed by an
automatic machine. Sufficient molten metal is to be poured to fill the cavity and all
channels in the mould. The filling time is very short in order to avoid early
solidification of any portion of the metal.

3.5 COOLING [4]:

The molten metal is poured into the mould start to cool and solidify after it enters the
cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and molten metal is solidified, the final shape of
the casting is formed. The template cannot be opened until the cooling time has elapsed.
The desired cooling time may be estimated based on the wall thickness of the casting
and the temperature of the metal. Most defects that can occur are the result of the
solidification process. If some of the molten metal is cooled too fast, the part can exhibit
shrinkage, cracks or incomplete sections. Preventive measures can be taken in the
design of both the part and the mould and will be discussed in later sections.
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3.6 REMOVAL [4]:

Once the predetermined solidification time elapsed, the sand mould can simply be
broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called tremor is typically
performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the flask.
Once removed, the casting will probably have some layers of sand and attached to the
surface oxide. Blasting is sometimes used to remove the remaining sand, particularly of
the internal surfaces and reduce the surface roughness.

3.7 TRIMMING [4]:

During cooling, the material solidifies in the mould channel attached to the part. This
excess material must be cut or wash manually piece by cutting or sawing, or using a
press clipping. The time required to trim excess material can be calculated based on the
size of the casting. A larger smelter will require a slightly longer time. Waste material
resulting from this cut is discarded or reused in the process of sand casting. However, it
is possible that the waste material to be reconditioned at the correct chemical
composition before it can be combined with non-metal recycled and reused.

Fig 3.1: Sand casting process

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CHAPTER 4

INVESTMENT CASTING: PROCESS AND METHODOLOGY

Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dating back thousands
of years, in which molten metal is poured into an expendable ceramic mould. The
mould is formed by using a wax pattern a disposable piece in the shape of the desired
part. The pattern is surrounded, or "invested", into ceramic slurry that hardens into the
mould. Investment casting is often referred to as "lost wax casting" because the wax
pattern is melted out of the mould after it has been formed. Lost wax processes are one
ton (one pattern creates one part), which increases production time and costs relative to
other casting processes. However, since the mould is destroyed during the process, parts
with complex geometries and intricate details can be created.

Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using aluminium
alloys, bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel. This
process is beneficial for casting metals with high melting temperatures that cannot be
moulded in plaster or metal. Parts that are typically made by investment casting include
those with complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components. High
temperature applications are also common, which includes parts for the automotive,
aircraft, and military industries.

Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry, furnace, molten
metal, and any machines needed for sandblasting, cutting, or grinding. The process
steps include the following:

4.1 PATTERN CREATION [5]:

The wax patterns are typically injection moulded into a metal die and are formed as
one piece. Cores may be used to form any internal features on the pattern. Several of
these patterns are attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers),
to form a treelike assembly. The gating system forms the channels through which the
molten metal will flow to the mould cavity.

4.2 MOULD CREATION [5]:

This "pattern tree" is dipped into slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated with more
coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating
 P a g e | 11

system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the molten
metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven and the wax is melted out
leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a one-piece mould, hence the name "lost
wax" casting.

4.3 POURING [5]:

The mould is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000°C (1832°F) and the molten
metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system of the mould, filling the mould
cavity. Pouring is typically achieved manually under the force of gravity, but other
methods such as vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.

4.4 COOLING [5]:

After the mould has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into
the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part,
thickness of the mould, and the material used.

4.5 CASTING REMOVAL [5]:

After the molten metal has cooled, the mould can be broken and the casting removed.
The ceramic mould is typically broken using water jets, but several other methods
exist. Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by either sawing or
cold breaking (using liquid nitrogen).

4.6 FINISHING [5]:

Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth
the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.

Fig 4.1: Investment casting process

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CHAPTER 5

OBJECTIVES AND THE PRESENT WORK

A turbine impeller which is usually manufactured by investment casting and other

manufacturing techniques can also be easily manufactured by using sand casting
method.
The geometry of the blades of impeller is such that, if we make the pattern for its
manufacturing using casting process, there will be curvature on the blade which will
create complications while removing the pattern from the mould. The removal of these
parts will affect the mould boundary thereby affecting the dimension of the cavity
produced.
In order to overcome this problem, these portions can be treated as loose pieces and
these loose pieces are attached to main pattern body loosely. When the main pattern is
withdrawn from the mould, the loose pieces slip off and remain behind in the mould.
After the main body of the pattern, the loose pieces are taken out by first moving them
laterally and then lifting them through the space vacated by main pattern. The step by
step work plan of our project is as given:

i) Design of the pattern on any designing software e.g. AutoCAD, Solid Works etc.

ii) Realisation of the designed pattern using wood and various carpentry tools and
processes.

iii) Preparation of a green sand mould by placing the pattern and core at their places.

iv) Filling the mould with the molten aluminium metal and leave it for cooling.

v) Removal of the cooled casting from the mould and finishing the casting by
machining, grinding, filing, etc.

vi) Recording the expenses and time during the casting process.

vii) Comparing the results with the available data of the investment casting.

viii) Analysing the result for testing the feasibility of the process for the small scale
industries.
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CHAPTER 6

PATTERN DESIGN

6.1 PATTERN AND ITS TYPES [6]:

In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into
which molten material will be poured during the casting process.

Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics or other materials.
Patterns are made to exacting standards of construction, so that they can last for a
reasonable length of time, according to the quality grade of the pattern being built, and
so that they will repeatedly provide a dimensionally acceptable casting. There are
basically ten types of patterns which are as mentioned below:

i) Single piece pattern: This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the desired
casting. For making a mould, the pattern is accommodated either in cope or drag. Used
for producing a few large castings, for example, stuffing box of steam engine.

Fig 6.1: Single piece pattern Fig 6.2: Split pattern

ii) Split pattern: These patterns are split along the parting plane (which may be flat or
irregular surface) to facilitate the extraction of the pattern out of the mould before the
pouring operation. For a more complex casting, the pattern may be split in more than
two parts.

iii) Loose-piece pattern: When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts
which lie above or below the parting plane, it is impossible to with drawit from the
mould. With such patterns, the projections are made with the help of loose pieces. One
drawback of loose pieces is that their shifting is possible during ramming.
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Fig 6.3: Loose piece pattern fig 6.4: Gated pattern

iv) Gated pattern: A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having
attached gates and runners. Because of their higher cost, these patterns are used for
producing small castings in mass production systems and on molding machines.

v) Match plate pattern: A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and
drags portions mounted on opposite sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the "match
plate" that conforms to the contour of the parting surface. The gates and runners are also
mounted on the match plate, so that very little hand work is required. This results in
higher productivity. This type of pattern is used for a large number of castings. Piston
rings of I.C. engines are produced by this process.

Fig 6.5: Match plate pattern Fig 6.6: Sweep Pattern

vi) Sweep pattern: A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is
rotated about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of rotational
symmetry. This type of pattern is used when a casting of large size is to be produced in
a short time. Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns.

vii) Cope and drag pattern: A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope
and drag portions each mounted on separate match plates. These patterns are used when
in the production of large castings; the complete moulds are too heavy and unwieldy to
be handled by a single worker.
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Fig 6.7: Cope and drag pattern Fig 6.8 Skeleton pattern

viii) Skeleton pattern: For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton
patterns are used. Just like sweep patterns, these are simple wooden frames that outline
the shape of the part to be cast and are also used as guides by the moulder in the hand
shaping of the mould. This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor moulding process.

ix) Shell Pattern: It is an expendable mould casting process that uses

a resin covered sand to form the mould.

Fig 6.9: Shell pattern Fig 6.10: Follow board pattern

x) Follow board pattern: A follow board is not a pattern but is a device (wooden
board) used for various purposes.

6.2 PATTERN ALLOWANCES [7]:

A pattern is always made larger than the required size of the casting considering the
various allowances. These are the allowances which are usually provided in a pattern.
So the actual dimension of the pattern is going to be changed accordingly.
 P a g e | 16

Size of the pattern = size of actual product+ allowances

The various types of allowances are as explained below:

i) Shrinkage allowance: The various metals used for casting contract after
solidification in the mould. Since the contraction is different for different materials,
therefore it will also differ with the form or type of metal.

Table 6.1: Shrinkage allowance for various metals [4]

ii) Draft allowance: It is an angle that is given to all vertical walls of pattern for easy
and clean removal of sand pattern without damaging the mould cavity. It can be
expressed in millimetres on one side or degrees. The amount of taper varies with the
type of patterns. Wooden patterns require more taper than metal patterns due to
increased frictional resistance of the wood surfaces.

Table 6.2: Draft allowance for various materials [4]

iii) Machining allowance: The subsidy is provided in the model if the casting to be
machined. This grant is in addition gives shrinkage allowance. The amount of this
benefit varies from 1.6 to 12.5 mm, depending on the type of metal casting, the size and
shape of the casting. Ferrous metals require more excess of non-ferrous metals.
 P a g e | 17

6.3 DESIGN OF TURBINE IMPELLER:

After having the proper dimension of the wood pattern considering the above mentioned
allowances (shrinkage, draft and machining), a complete three dimensional drawing is
designed using high end software like solid works. Using this design, we can get a three
dimensional view of the wood pattern properly which is as shown in the following
figures:

i) Hub design:

Fig 6.11: Top view Fig 6.12: Isometric view

Fig 6.13: Front view Fig 6.14: Side view

 P a g e | 18

ii) Blade design:

Fig 6.15: Top View Fig 6.16: Isometric View

Fig 6.17: Front view Fig 6.18: Side view

iii) Assembled design:

Fig 6.19 Assembly of parts Fig 6.20 Final design

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CHAPTER 7

PATTERN MAKING

7.1 MATERIAL SELECTION [1]:

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics. The most commonly used
pattern material is wood, the main reason being the easy availability and the low weight.
Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is
its absorption of moisture as a result of which distortional and dimensional changes
occur. A good construction may be able to reduce the warpage to some extent. Hence,
proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a prerequisite for large scale use of
wood as a pattern material.

The usual varieties of wood commonly used for making patterns are pine, mahogany,
teak, walnut and deodar. Besides the wood, the plywood boards of veneer type as well
as the particle boards are also used for making pattern. Because of their availability in
various thicknesses, their higher strength and no need for seasoning are the reasons for
their usage.

The choice of pattern materials depends essentially on the size of the casting, the
number of casting to be made from the pattern, and the dimensional accuracy required.
For a very large casting, wood may be the only practical pattern material. Moulding
sand being highly abrasive for large scale production, wood may not be suitable as a
pattern material and one may have to opt for metal patterns.

Because of their durability and smooth surface finish, metal patterns are extensively
used for large-scale casting production and for closer dimensional tolerances.

Plastics are also used as pattern materials because of their low weight, easier
formability, smooth surfaces, and durability. They do not absorb moisture and are
therefore, dimensionally stable and can be cleaned easily.

7.2 PATTERN MAKING TOOLS [7]:

Tools used for pattern making are generally the same as that used for wood working by
a carpenter, with the addition of some special tools. Pattern making tools can broadly be
classified into the following categories:
 P a g e | 20

i) Supporting or holding tools: The commonly used supporting or holding tools in a

pattern making shop are Carpenter’s work bench, Carpenter’s vice, Bench hook, Hand
screw, Bar cramp, C-cramp and Pinch dog.

A pinch dog is commonly used by a pattern maker for holding wooden pieces together
while gluing. It consists of wedge shaped prongs. The piece to be joined is pushed into
it, so that it does not come out. After sufficient time, when the joint become permanent,
the component is taken out of it.

ii) Marking and measuring tools: These tools also include tools used for setting,
marking angles, marking of parallel lines and measuring tools. These tools are common
with wood working tools. The various tools are Try square, Bevel square, Straight edge,
Carpenter’s folding rule, Marking gauge, Scriber, Calliper, Divider and Steel rule.

iii) Striking tools: Hammers are the commonly used striking tools in wood working or
pattern making shop.

iv) Planing tools: Commonly used planing tools in wood working and pattern making
shop are different types of planes. Circular plane, Router plane, Rabbit plane , Core box
plane and Draw knife plane are also used for making patterns.

v) Parting and cutting tools: These tools are the same as used in the carpentry shop for
parting and cutting purposes.

vi) Drilling and boring tools: These tools are used for making holes in wooden pieces.
The commonly used drilling and boring tools are Ratchet brace and bits, Gimlet, Auger
and Hand drill.

vii) Miscellaneous tools: These tools are Plier, Screw driver, Pincer, Trammel, Rasp,
micrometre, Drills, Oil stones, Counter sinking tools, Punches and Fillet iron.

viii) Pattern making machines: A perfectly round shape cannot be made by hand
tools. For this, a wood turning lathe is used. Other pattern making machines are Band
saw, Circular saw, Bench grinder, Wood jointer, Wood shaping machine, Drilling
machine and Mortiser.
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Fig 7.1: Loose-piece pattern

Fig 7.2: Assembled pattern

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CHAPTER 8

MOULD MAKING AND CASTING

8.1 MOULD MAKING [2]:

Material selection: Moulds can be classified on the basis of either the material, i.e.,
green sand mould, plastic mould, or on the method of making them, e.g. shell mould
and investment mould. Metal moulds are permanent in the sense that a large number of
casting can be made from a single mould on the other hand, moulds of refractory
materials can be only once. Generally, the green sands moulds are used, in what
follows, we shall consider some of their important characteristics.

The material for a green sand mould is mixture of sand, clay, water, and some organic
additives, e.g. wood floor, dextrin, and sea coal. The percentage of these ingredients on
weight basis is approximately 70-85% sand, 10-20% clay, 3-6% water and 1-6%
additives. This ratio may vary slightly depending on whether casting is ferrous or
nonferrous.

Sand is an inexpensive refractory material, but natural sand may not have all the
desirable qualities of moulding material. The sand used as a moulding material should
have a specified clay, water, and additive content. Clay together with water acts as a
bonding agent and imparts tensile and shear strength to the moulding sand.

The success of casting process depends greatly on properties of moulding sand. These
include strength, permeability, deformation, flowability and refractoriness.

Moulding process: Moulds are made by hand if the number of moulds to be prepared is
small. If a large number of simple moulds are required, moulding machines are then
used. To facilitate an easy removal of pattern, a parting compound, for example, non-
wetting talc is dusted on pattern. Fine grain facing sand is used to obtain a good surface
on the casting. Normally a dead weight is placed on the cope flask to prevent the cope
flask from floating due to hydrodynamic forces of the liquid metal. For a large mould,
care should be taken to prevent the sand from falling off the cope flask when it is lifted
to remove the pattern. This can be done by providing extra supports, called gaggers,
within the cope flask. For an easy escape of gases, vent holes are provided in the cope
flask.
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8.2 CASTING [8]:

Material selection: Various ferrous as well as non-ferrous materials are used for
casting as per the requirements for example: cast iron, aluminium, copper, tin, etc.
Among these materials, aluminium has some advantages which make it more suitable
for us to use it as the casting material.

Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al, atomic
number 13, a melting point of 660°C (1220°F) and a boiling point of 2270°C (4118°F).
It is a silvery white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal. Aluminium is the third most
abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal in
the Earth's crust. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability
to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made
from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in
other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of
aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulphates.

More and more casting applications are making effective use of aluminium as a metal as
it is not only superior in performance but also offers low cost to production ratio as well
as are light in weight. The use of aluminium metal also allows providing highly
engineered and complex parts that are conducive, light-weight, corrosion-resistant as
well as versatile, thus finding application in many industry applications.

Casting process: Firstly the aluminium is melted in a furnace and then molten metal is
poured in the mould. A proper care during melting is essential for good, defect free
casting. The factors to be considered during melting include gases in metals, selection
and control of scrap, flux, furnace, and temperature.

The furnaces used for melting metals differ widely from one another. The selection of a
furnace depends mainly on the metal chemistry, the maximum temperature required,
and the metal delivery rate and mode and size and shape of the available raw materials.

After melting, the metal is poured or injected into the mould cavity. A good gating
design ensures distribution of the metal in the mould cavity at a proper rate without
excessive temperature loss, turbulence, and entrapping gases and slags.
 P a g e | 24

Fig 8.1: Unfinished casting

Fig 8.2: Finished casting

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CHAPTER 9

COST ESTIMATION

9.1 PATTERN CASTING:

We have recorded various expenses in the loose-piece pattern casting process (pattern
making, mould making, casting and finishing). The various expenses are as given:

Pattern making:
Wood used = 2 kg.
Rate = ₹25 per kg.
Cost of wood used = ₹50
Time consumed = 3 hrs approx.
Labour cost = ₹200
Total cost = ₹250
Since, one pattern is used for about 50 castings.
Therefore, cost of pattern = ₹5 per casting.

Casting process:
Aluminium used = 650 gm.
Rate of aluminium = ₹123 per kg.
Cost of aluminium used = ₹80
Coal used = 20 kg.
Rate = ₹5 per kg.
Cost of coal used = ₹100
Time consumed = 2 hrs approx. (including mould making, casting and finishing)
Labour cost = ₹100

Total cost:
Total cost per casting = 5+80+100+100
= ₹285

Setup cost:
According to the data obtained from “Kinetic Die Casting Company”, an American job
shop aluminium die casting company,
setup cost = $1,500
 P a g e | 26

9.2 INVESTMENT CASTING:

We have collected approximate data for the various expenses in the processes of
investment casting from “Linit Exports Pvt. Ltd.”, an ISO 9001:2008 Certified export
oriented manufacturing company. The various expenses in wax pattern making, mould
making, casting and finishing are as mentioned below:

Pattern making:
Wax used = 600 gm.
Rate = ₹ 42
Cost of wax used = ₹25
Labour cost = ₹25
Total cost = ₹50 per casting.

Casting process:
Aluminium used = 650 gm.
Rate of aluminium = ₹123 per kg.
Cost of aluminium used = ₹80
Coal used = 20 kg.
Rate = ₹5 per kg.
Cost of coal used = ₹100
Time consumed = 2.5 hrs approx. (including mould making, casting and finishing)
Labour cost = ₹125

Total cost:
Total cost per casting = 50+80+100+125
= ₹355

Setup cost:
According to the data obtained from “Kinetic Die Casting Company”, an American job
shop aluminium die casting company,
setup cost = $22,000
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CHAPTER 10

RESULTS AND COMPARISON

According to our finding about the pattern casting and the data collected for the
investment casting, we found that investment casting is more costly and time taking
than the pattern casting and the difference is up to ₹70 per casting. Also we have seen
that setup cost for the pattern casting is far less than the investment casting. Various
other parameters which make pattern casting more advantageous over the investment
casting are shown below with the help of a table.

Table 10.1: Pattern casting vs investment casting [9]

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CHAPTER 11

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The analysis of results indicates that the investment casting process is a very slow and
more expensive process due to the involvement of large manual labour and also due to
the wax lost in the process. The investment casting process is also limited by the size
and mass of the casting. While the loose-piece pattern is a low cost process and also a
less time consuming process as compared to the precision investment casting process.
The precision investment casting process attains better surface finish than the loose-
piece pattern process. Although the loose-piece pattern process does not attain a better
surface finish than the precision investment casting process, nowadays good quality
grinding machines are available, hence using good quality grinding machines a better
surface finish can be achieved in the loose-piece pattern process.
Small scale industries have less demand and the demand is variable in design. Thus,
loose-piece pattern is the most suitable process for the small scale industries due to
following reasons:
i) Lack of high investment required for the investment casting due to its high initial
setup cost.
ii) No requirement of high production rate due to lesser demands of small scale
industries.
iii) No requirement of highly skilled labour due to use of very basic equipments for
the pattern casting.
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REFERENCES

1. P N Rao, Manufacturing Technology Volume 1, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private

Limited, 2009.

2. Amitabha Ghosh, Asok Kumar Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Affiliated East-West

Press Private Limited, 2010.

3. Hindustan Machine Tools Limited, Production Technology, Tata McGraw Hill

Education Private Limited, 2001.

4. Subrat Mishra, Combined loose-piece pattern for a complex job, NIT, Rourkela,
2011.

5. http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-casting

6. http://www.mechanicalinventions.blogspot.in/2012/12/types-of-patterns.html

7. H S Bawa, Manufacturing Process II, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited,
2009.

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/aluminium

9. http://info.cpm-iondustries.com/blog/ bid/178170/Sand-Casting-vs-Investment-
Casting