FUNCTIONS

1. ORDERED PAIR
An ordered pair can be defined as (a, b) = {{a},{a,b}}.

2. CARTESIAN PRODUCT

For sets A and B, it is the set containing all ordered pairs.

A  B = {(a, b) : a A and b B}

Results: 1) Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c and b = d
2) A  B = C  D iff A = C and B = D.

3. RELATION
Definition : A relation from A to B is a non-empty subset of A  B.
i.e. A relation is a set of ordered pairs. Any set of ordered pairs is, therefore, a relation. Since a relation
is a set, therefore any statement about the sets is appropriately applied to the relations. One can thus speak
of the intersection or union of two relations, or speak of one relation being a subset of another. A relation,
which is a subset of A  B, may be obtained by just choosing the ordered pairs randomly, without any
specific conditions in two variables a & b of an ordered pair (a, b).

There are various ways in which a relation can be expressed.

i) Roster form : By exhibiting a set of pairs e.g.

{(4, 2), (9, 3), (16,4), (25,5)}

ii) Set builder form : By standard description, using a rule or a formula

{(x, y) : }, the blank to be replaced by a rule or
a condition.
e.g. {(x, y): y = x } , {(a, b) : 3a – b > 4}

iii) By arrow diagrams : In constructing the arrow diagrams the arrow head should
indicate the direction from A to B. e.g.

Set A is the Set B

currency of

Scotland

Dollar Canada
Pound England
Mark U.S.A.
Rupee Germany
India

iv) As a Venn diagram :

Sometimes the relations are not between two different sets but between the members of the same
set. For example, let us consider the relation “ is a factor of ” on the set A, A ={2, 3, 6, 8}.
 As a Venn diagram the relation looks like the following

2 4

A lot more can be studied about Relations but our main focus is towards learning the
functions. So let us move towards functions.

4. F UN CTIO N S
The word ‘function’ is used in casual conversation like the word ‘relation’ is used. The
mathematical concept of a relation is fairly close to the idea of a relation as used outside math-
ematics. But the mathematical concept of a function is entirely different from its meaning in ordi-
nary usage. The mathematical concept of a function is an outgrowth of scientific study of interre-
lated phenomena. For example, the atmospheric pressure depends upon the altitude. This ex-
ample suggests a certain kind of association between two measurable quantities, one of which is
regarded as dependent on the other. We then say that the first is a function of the second. A
function can be defined in several ways.

4.1 First definition of a function (Function as an association)

If with each element of a set A, exactly one element of a set B is associated, then this association
is called a function from A to B. The set A is called the domain of the function
and the set C of all those elements of B, which are assigned to the elements to A by the function, is called the
range of the function. The set B is called the co-domain.

4.2 Second definition of a function (function as a rule)

Let A & B be two given sets. A function from A to B is a rule which assigns to each x in A, a unique y in B.
It is customary to use letters to denote the functions.
f
The letter f is mostly used. Other popular
notation are g, h, , u, v etc. f(x)
x
If f is a function and x is any element of the domain
of f, we use the symbol f (x) to denote the
object which f associates with x.
f (x) is the functional value at x. The symbol f(x) is read as “ the value of f at x or “ f at x. f(x) is also called
the image of x. e.g.
A B

1 a
2 b
3
c
4
5

Some important facts regarding a function f : A  B are

i) Every x A is assigned some y  B. i.e. a function is defined only when the domain is entirely used up.
ii) The set B, co-domain may or may not be entirely used up by the function.
iii) The function may assign the same y  B to more than one x  A.
iv) For no x in A, do there exist two choices for f(x). i.e. to every x  A, f should assign one and only one y 
B.
 Note that (i) & (iv) are essential requirements of the definition of a function.
The word ‘rule’ covers different kinds of schemes for making assignments and consequently wehave dif-
ferent methods of describing a function. A function is expressed by means of
i) an arrow diagram (as shown in relation)

ii) a table : x 3 4 5 6
e.g. y 4 5 6 7 represents a function.
y

iii) a graph :
e.g. represents a function.
x
O
iv) a formula (as an algebraic expression or an equation)
e.g. the equation y = 2x – 3 represents a function.
4.3 Fourth definition (as a special class of relations)
We have described the concept of function in terms of words such as relate, assign, associate etc.
We would now give a more abstract definition of this concept.
Consider a function f:A B
A B
1 a
1 a
2 b
2 b 3 b
3 c d 4 c
4 d

(i) (ii)

1 a = f (1) 1, a = f (1)
2 b = f (2) 2, b = f (2)
3 b = f (3) 3, b = f (3)
4 c = f (4) 4, c = f (4)
(iii) (iv)
(1, a) = (1, f (1))
(2, b) = (2, f (2))
(3, b) = (3, f (3))
(4, c) = (4, f (4)) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, b), (4, c)}
(v) (vi)
(i) to (iv) are several ways of showing a function. The final diagram shows the function as a set of ordered
pairs (x, f(x)). The first element of each pair is the element of the domain and the second element
is its image under the correspondance. Since every set of ordered pairs is a relation, therefore
every function is a relation. Clearly all relations are not functions so a function is also defined as

A function f : A  B is a subset of A  B such that

i) for every a  A there is b  B such that (a, b)  f
ii) (a, b)  f and (a, b) f  b = b
We can test a graph of a relation for it to be function. A vertical line can be found that would
cut the graph of a relation that is not a function, at atleast two points. On the other hand, any
vertical line would cut the graph of a relation that is a function, at atmost one point.
 y y y

x
O x O

x
O

(Graphs of non-function relation)

y y y

O
x x
x O O

(Graphs of function relations)

5. DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION

Let f: A  B, then the set A is known as the domain of f & the set B is known as co-domain of f.
If a member 'a' of A is associated to the member 'b' of B, then 'b' is called the f-image of 'a' and
we write b = f (a). Further 'a' is called a pre-image of 'b'. The set {f(a): a  A} is called the
range of f and is denoted by f(A). Clearly f(A)  B.
Sometimes if only definition of f (x) is given (domain and codomain are not mentioned), then domain
is set of those values of ' x' for which f (x) is defined, while codomain is considered to be (–  ,
 ). A function whose domain and range both are sets of real numbers is called a real function.
Conventionally the word "FUNCTION” is used only as the meaning of real function.

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. A = {a, b, c} , B = {x, y , z}
Consider f 1 = {(a, x), (b, y), (c, z)}
f 2 = {(a, x), (a, y), (b, z), (c, z)}
f 3 = {(a, y), (b, y),(c, y)}
f 4 = {(a, z), (b, x)}
Which of f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f4 is (are) function(s)?
S o l . f 1 , f 3 are functions as for every element of A, there is unique image f 2 is not a function as
element a of set A does not have a unique image. f 4 is not a function as every element of set A
does not have image.

2. Let f : R  R be defined by
f (x) = 2x + 3 x<–2
= x2 – 2 –2 x<3
= 3x – 1 x3
Find f (2) , f (4) , f (–1) , f (– 3).

Sol.  2  [– 2, 3) ,  f (2) = 2 2 – 2
=2
 4  [3, ) ,  f (3) = 3 (3) – 1
=8
 – 1 [– 2, 3) ,  f (–1)=(–1)2 – 2
=–1
 – 3  (– , – 2) ,  f (– 3) = 2 (– 3) + 3 = – 3
3. Find the domain and range of the function f given by f(x) = x2 .
Sol. f(x) = x2
Here x can take all real values, therefore the domain of f is R. As x varies, f(x) can take all
non-negative real values. Therefore the range is R+  {0}

4. Find the domain and range of the function f given by f(x) = x .

Sol. f(x)= x
Here x can take all non-negative real values, therefore the domain of f is R+  {0}.
As x varies, f(x) can take all non-negative real values. Therefore the range of f is also
R+ {0}

6. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

6.1 One-One Function (Injective mapping):

A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different
elements of A have different f images in B. Thus for x 1, x 2  A & f(x 1), f(x 2)  B,
f(x 1) = f(x 2)  x 1 = x 2 or x 1  x 2  f(x 1)  f(x 2).

Examples: R  R f (x) = x 3 + 1 ; f (x) = e – x ; f (x) = ln x

Diagramatically an injective mapping can be shown as

OR

Note:
(i) A continuous function which is always increasing or decreasing in whole domain
is one-one.
(ii) A function is one to one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than
once.
6.2 Many-one function: (not injective)
A function f : A  B is said to be a many one function if two or more elements of
A have the same f image in B. Thus f : A  B is many one if for at least one
x 1, x 2  A , f(x 1) = f(x 2) but x 1  x 2.
Examples : f : R  R , f (x) = | x | ; f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c ; f (x) = sin x
Diagramatically a many one mapping can be shown as

OR

Note:
(i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local maximum or local minimum is many one.
In other words, if any line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function atleast at two
points, then f is many-one.
(ii) If a function is one-one, it cannot be many-one and vice versa.
Number of One One + Number of Many One mappings = Total number of mappings.
6.3 Onto function (Surjective mapping) :
If the function f : A  B is such that each element in B (co-domain) is the f image of atleast one element
in A, then we say that f is a function of A 'onto' B. Thus f : A  B is surjective iff  b  B,  some
a  A such that f (a) = b.
f : R  R f (x) = 2x +1; f : R  R+ f (x) = ex; f : R+  R f (x) = ln x
Diagramatically surjective mapping can be shown as

OR

Note that :
if range = co-domain, then f(x) is onto .

6.4 Into function:

If f : A  B is such that there exists atleast one element in co-domain which is not the image of any
element in domain, then f(x) is into.
e.g. f : R  R f (x) =| x |, sgn x, f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c

Diagramatically into function can be shown as

OR

Note that :
If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa . A polynomial of degree even define from R  R
will always be into & a polynomial of degree odd defined from R  R will always be onto.
Thus a function can be one of these four types :

(a) one-one onto (injective & surjective) (I  S)

(b) one-one into (injective but not surjective) (I  S )

(c) many-one onto (surjective but not injective) (S  I )

(d) many-one into (neither surjective nor injective) ( I  S )

Note :
(i) If f is both injective & surjective, then it is called a Bijective mapping. The bijective functions are also
named as invertible, non singular or biuniform functions.
7. IDENTITY / CONSTANT FUNCTION
7.1 Identity function :
The function f : A  A defined by f(x) = x  x  A is called the identity of A and is denoted by IA.
It is easy to observe that identity function defined on R is a bijection.
7.2 Constant function :
A function f : A  B is said to be a constant function if every element of A has the same f image in B.
Thus f : A  B ; f(x) = c ,  x  A , c  B is a constant function. Note that the range of a constant
function is singleton.
8. BASIC ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
The basic elementary funciton are the following functions with analytic representtion.
8.1 Power function
y  x n , n is Rational (Note)
Y
y  x4 y  x2
Domain : R
1,1 Range : R   0
 1,1
1 1
1 o 1
X Nature : Many one into

Y
y  x5 y  x3

1
1,1 Domain : R
1
o X Range : R
1
 1, 1 Nature : one one onto
1

Y
y  1/ x 4 y  1/ x 4
y  1/ x 2 y  1/ x 2 Domain : R  0
Range : R 
y  1/ x 2  1,1 1,1
y  1/ x 2 Nature : Many one into
y  1/ x 4
O X
y  1/ x 4

Y
y  1/ x
y  1/ x 3

y  1/ x 3

O
X Domain : R  0
Range : R  0
y  1/ x 3 Nature : one one into

8.2 Exponential Function

y  ax , a  0, a 1
 Y
–x
y = 4 y = 10–x
x
y = 10x y = 4 y = 2 x
–x
y=2
Domain : R

a>1 Range : R+

Nature : one-one into

0<a<1

X
O

8.3 Logarithmic Function

y  log a x, a  0, a  1

y  log 2 x
y  log 4 x
y  log10 x
Domain : R +
X Range : R
O
Nature : one  one onto
y  log1/10 x
y  log1/ 4 x
y  log1/ 2 x

8.4 Trigonometric function or circular function

y  sin x, y  cos x, y  tan x
y  sec x, y  cot x, y  cos ecx

Note :
The graph of y  sin x is symmetric about origin
i.e. symmetric in opposite quadrants.

y  cos x
Clearly cos x is an even function therefore it is symmetrical about axis of y.

y  tan x
Y

 2n  1 
Domain : R   
 2 
3 / 2  / 2 / 2 3 / 2
 o  2
x
2
Range :  , 
Nature : Many one onto
Principal value :   / 2,  / 2 

y  cot x

Domain : R  n
 2
3 / 2

 / 2
o
/2

3 / 2
2
x Range :  , 
Nature : Many one onto
Principal value :  0,  

y  sec x

y 1
 2π,1  0,1  2π,1
 π/2, 0 
O X
 π, 1  
3π/2, 0 
 π/2, 0    π, 1 
y  1

Domain : R   2n  1  / 2
Range : R   1,1 or ( ,1]  [1,  )
Nature : Many one into
Principal value :  0,    / 2
y  cos ec x
 Domain : R  n 
Range : R   1,1 or ( ,1]  [1,  )
Nature : Many one into
Principal value :   / 2,  / 2   0

8.5 Inver se circular func tion or I nverse Trigonome tric Function

y  sin 1 x, y  cos 1 x, y  tan 1 x
y  cot 1 x, y  sec1 x, y  cos ec 1x

y  sin 1 x
y  cos1 x
y y
/2


x  1
O
x
x 1 /2

 / 2
O x 1
x
x  1

1
y  tan 1 x and cot x

Y

1
y  cot x
/2

0 1 X
2 3 4 5 6

 / 2

y  tan 1 x

y  sec1 x
y

y  cos 1 x
/2

x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

 / 2
 y  cos ec 1x
y
/2

0 x
1 1
y  sin 1 x
 / 2

Function Domain Range

  
sin –1x [ –1, 1]  2 , 2 
 
cos –1 x [–1, 1] [0,  ]
  
tan–1x R  , 
 2 2
cot –1 x R (0,  )
sec–1 x R – (–1, 1). [0,  ] – {  /2}

  
cosec–1 x R – (–1, 1)   2 , 2  – {0}

9. SOME SPECIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

9.1 Linear function Y

f  x   ax  b, a  0 and x  R  o, b 
Where a and b are constant
Domain : R, Range : R   b / a, 0 
X
O
9.2 Modulus function
y
 x , x  0 y  x 
f(x) = |x| =  x , x  0

Domain : R, Range : [0,  )
It is many one function
Graph is symmetrical with respect to y-axis. x
O

9.3 S ignum Func tio n Y

| x |  1, x  0
 , x0   0,1 
f (x) =  x , or f(x) =  1, x  0  1,1
 0, x  0  0, x  0 X
 O

Domain ; R, Range; {–1, 0, 1}   0, 1

It is a many one and discontinuous function
9.4 Greatest Integer Function
A function is said to be greatest
integer function if it is defined as
f(x) = [x] where [x] = greatest integer less than or equal to x.

lllustration
Y
 4.2  4, 3.6  3,  4.4  5,  5.8  6 4
The graph of this function is as follows 
3
f  x   y  x 2 
0  x 1  y0 1 
1 x  2  y 1 0  X
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
2x 3  y2  1
   2
and so on  3
 4
Note : Important Identities
(i) x – 1 < [x]  x
(ii) [x] + 1 > x
(iii) If f(x) = [x + n], where n  I and [.] denotes the greatest integer function then
f (x) = n + [x]
(iv) x = [x] + {x} where [.] and {.} denotes the integral and fractional part of x
respectively
(v) x 1  x  x
[– x] = – [x], if x  I
[– x] = –[x] – 1, if x  I
[x] – [– x] = 2n, if x = n, n  I ; [x] – [–x] = 2n + 1,if x = n+{x}, n  I , x  0
[x]  n  x  n, n  I ; [x]  n  x < n + 1, n  I
[x] > n  x  n + 1, n  I ; [x] < n  x < n, n  I

9.5 Fractional Part of X Y

f(x) = x – [x], x  R 1
i.e., f(x) = {x}

x  1, x  [ 1, 0)         X
 2 1 O 1 2 3 4
 x, x  [0,1)

 x  1, x  [1, 2)
 0, x W
Domain : R, Range : [0, 1), Nature : Many one into
This is a many one function with period 1. It is discontinuous at every integer
9.6 Rectangular Hyperbola
Y
1
f x 
x
Domain : R  0
X
O
Range : R  0
It is a discontinuous and one one into function.
10. TRANSFORMATION
If Graph of y  f  x  be known then to find graph of

10.1 y = f  x  a  or y = f  x + a 
To find y  f  x  a  (Let a  2 )

Y
y  f  x  2 y  f  x  y  f  x  2

O 2 2 X
S h ifte d
y  f x  Shifted y  f  x 
2 u n its horizontally 2 unit
t o w a r d s le f t distance rightwise

10.2 y = f  x  + a or y = f  x   a
(Let a  2 )
Y
5
4 2
3 Shifted vertically up
2 2 y  f x  2 the previous graph
1 2 y  f (x ) by 2 units

2 X
1 2 y  f x
2 2 Shifted vertically down
3 y  f x  2 the previous graph
y  f (x ) by 2 units

x
10.3 y = f   or y = f  ax 
a 
1
(Let a  2, )
2
 Y y  f  2x  y  f  x / 2
y  f x

O
X

stretched the graph 2 times horizontally

compressed the graph 2 times horizontally

See more examples about the same :

x1 x1 2x1 4x1
y  f 2 x 
com pressed y  f  x / 2  stretched double 
 m ade half 

y  f x
10.4 y = f  x 

y  f x 
y  f x

O X

Reflection of y  f  x  w.r.t. axis of y is y  f   x 

10.5 y = k f x 
Rule - Strech previous graph k times vertically
e.g. see below y  2 sin x , y  3 sin x
 Y
1 y  3sin x
1 y  2 sin x

1 y  sin x
O X
/2

y  f  x  :
Y

y  f x

y  f  x 

Reflection of y  f  x  w.r.t axis of x is y  f  x 

10.6 y= f x
Y

y  f x
X
Remove the graph lying in II and III quadrant and take the image of graph lying in I & IV quadrant
w.r.t. axis of y.
The new graph including its image is called y  f x .
Here we took the image of the portion of the lying in first quadrant about axis of y and left the
portion which was lying in second quadrant.

10.7 y = f x 

Y Y

y  f x y  f x

X
O X
O
 Rule : Take the image of the portion lying below axis of x about axis of x and keep the remaining
portion as it is above the axis of x.

ILLUSTRATIONS ON TRANSFORMATION

1. Draw the graph of y  sin x

Y

Sol. O X
 2

Note : You can draw y  sin x just by taking mirror image of portion line in I and IV quadrant
w.r.t. axis of y.
2. Draw the graph of y  cos x

Sol. 3 / 2 3 / 2
O /2 X
5 / 2  / 2 5 / 2

x  x
3. Draw y  e ,y  e .

Sol.

1 y  e x

O X

4. Draw y   log e x, y  log e x , y  loge x

Sol. Y Y
y   log e x
y  log e x
y  log e x

O X
1 1
O X
 Y

y  log e x

1 O 1 X

11. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS

If f & g are real valued functions of x with domain set A and B respectively, then both f & g are
defined in A  B. Now we define f + g, f - g, (f . g) & (f /g) as follows:
(i) (f ± g) (x) = f(x) ± g(x)
domain in each case is A B
(ii) (f.g) (x) = f(x). g(x)

f f(x)
(iii)   (x) = g (x) domain is {x, x  A  B such that g(x)  0}.
g
Note : For domain of  (x) = {f(x)} g(x) , conventionally, the conditions are f(x) > 0 and g(x) must
be defined.
For domain of  (x) = f(x) C g(x) or  (x) = f(x) P g(x) conditions of domain are
f(x)  g(x) and f(x)  N and g(x)  W

ILLUSTRATIONS ON DOMAIN

1. Find the domain of following functions :

(i) f(x) = x 2  5 (ii) sin–1 (2x – 1)
Sol.
(i) f(x) = x2  5 is real iff x 2 – 5  0  |x|  5  x  – 5 or x  5

 the domain of f is (–  , – 5 ]  [ 5 ,  )
(ii) –1  2x – 1  + 1  domain is x  [0, 1]

2. Find the domain of f  x   log10 sin x

Sol. For existence of f  x  ,sin x  0 and from the graph of y  sin x it is clear that sin x is

positive when 2n  x   2n  1  . Hence Dom f  x    2n,  2n  1   , where n  I .

1
3. Find the domain of definition of f  x  
x x

Sol. x x 0  x x

and already we know x  x.

this contradiction  Dom f  x   

4. Find the domain of f  x   sin x  cos x  e x tan x
Sol. Dom sin x  R ; Dom cos x  R

 2n  1 
Dom tan x  R   
 2 
Dom e x  R
 Dom f  Dom sin x  Dom cos x  Dom e x tan x

 2n  1   2n  1 
 RR R    R   
 2   2 
5. Find the domain of following functions :
(i) f(x) = sin x  16  x 2
3
(ii) f (x) = log(x 3  x)
4  x2
Sol.
(i) sin x is real iff sin x  0  x  [2n  , 2n  +  ], n  I.

is real iff 16  x 2  0
16  x 2
  4  x  4.

Thus the domain of the given function is

{x : x  [2n  , 2n  +  ], n  I }  [  4, 4] = [  4,   ]  [0,  ].

(ii) Domain of 4  x 2 is [  2, 2] but 4  x 2 = 0 for x = ± 2

 x  (  2, 2)

log(x 3  x) is defined for x 3 – x > 0 i.e. x(x  1)(x + 1) > 0.

 domain of log(x 3 - x) is (  1, 0 )  (1,  ).

Hence the domain of the given function is

{(  1, 0 )  (1,  )}  (  2, 2) = (–1, 0 )  (1, 2).

IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 1

1 Which of the following relation is a function?

(A) {(1, 4), (2, 6), (1, 5), (3, 9)} (B) {(3, 3), (2, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}
(C) {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2)} (D) {(3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}

2 If y  f  x  , f : R  R then which of the following rules is not a function

(A) y = 9 – x2 (B) y = 2x2 (C) y  x  | x | (D) y = x2 + 1
 1
3 Domain of the function f(x) = is
x2
(A) R (B) (2, ) (C) [2, ] (D) [0, ]

3 x
4 The domain of the function log is
2
(A) (3, ) (B) (, 3) (C) (0, 3) (D) (3, 3)

5 Domain of the function cos–1 (4x – 1) is

(A) (0, 1/2) (B) [0, 1/2] (C) [1/2, 2] (D) None of these

6 Domain of the function log |x2 – 9| is

(A) R (B) R – [–3, 3] (C) R – {–3, 3} (D) None of these

7 The domain of the function f ( x)  x  1  6  x

(A) (1, 6) (B) [1, 6] (C) [1, ) (D) (, 6)

8 The domain of the function f ( x)  (2  2 x  x 2 ) is

(A)  3  x  3 (B)  1  3  x  1  3
(C)  2  x  2 (C)  2  3  x  2  3

9 Domain of a function f(x) = sin–1 5 x is

 1 1  1 1  1
(A)   ,  (B)  ,  (C) R (D)  0, 
 5 5  5 5  5

1
10 If f(x) = + x  1 , find its domain
log(2  x)
ANSWER KEY

1 C 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 B

6 C 7 B 8 B 9 B 10 [  1, 1)  (1, 2)

12. METHODS OF DETERMINING RANGE

12.1 Representing x in terms of y

Definition of the function is usually represented as y (i.e. f(x) which is dependent variable) in terms of an
expression of x (which is independent variable). To find range rewrite given definition so as to represent
x in terms of an expression of y and thus obtain range (possible values of y). If y = f(x)  x = g(y), then
domain of g(y) represents possible values of y, i.e. range of f(x).
x2  x 1
1. Find the range of f(x) =
x2  x 1
 x2  x 1
Sol. f(x) = 2 {x 2 + x + 1 and x 2 + x – 1 have no common factor}
x  x 1
x2  x 1
y=  yx 2 + yx – y = x 2 + x + 1  (y – 1) x 2 + (y – 1) x – y – 1 = 0
x2  x 1
If y = 1, then the above equation reduces to –2 = 0. Which is not true.
Further if y  1, then (y – 1) x 2 + (y – 1) x – y – 1 = 0 is a quadratic and has real roots if
(y – 1)2 – 4 (y – 1) (–y – 1)  0 i.e. if y  –3/5 or y  1 but y  1
Thus the range is (–  , –3/5]  (1,  )

12.2 Graphical Method

Values covered on y-axis by the graph of function is range
x2  4
2. Find the range of f(x) =
x2
x2  4
Sol. f(x) = = x + 2; x  2
x2
 graph of f(x) would be
Thus the range of f(x) is R – {4}

12.3 Using Monotonocity/Maxima-Minima

(a) Continuous function

If y = f(x) is continuous in its domain then range of f(x) is y  [min f(x), max. f(x)]
(b) Sectionally continuous function
In case of sectionally continuous functions,
range will be union of [min f(x), max. f(x)]
over all those intervals where f(x) is continuous,
as shown by following example.
Let graph of function y = f(x) be

Then range of above sectionally continuous

function is [y2, y3]  (y4, y5]  (y6, y7]

Note : In case of monotonic functions minimum and maximum values lie at end points of interval.
3. Find the range of following functions :
(i) y = ln (2x – x 2) (ii) y = sec–1 (x 2 + 3x + 1)
Sol.
(i) Step – 1 : Using maxima-minima, we have 2x – x 2  (–  , 1]
Step – 2 : For log to be defined accepted values are 2x – x 2  (0, 1]
{i.e. domain (0, 1]}
Now, using monotonocity
ln (2x – x 2)  (–  , 0]
 range is (–  , 0] Ans.
(ii) y = sec–1 (x 2 + 3x + 1)
Let t = x 2 + 3x + 1 for x  R
  5 
then t   ,  
 4 

 5 
but y = sec–1 (t)  t    ,  1  [1,  )
 4 

   1  5  
from graph range is y  0,   sec   4  ,  
 2    

IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 2
Find the domain of functions (1 to 6)

–1 2x  1  5x  x 2 
1 f(x) = 1  x – sin 2 y  log10  
3  4 

1 x2 1 x
3 y  cos ec x   sin x  3 4 y 
x2 1 x

1
2 x  1 cos x 
   n  3  x  2
1
5 y  cos  6 f(x) =
 4  6  35x  6x 2
Find the range of the following function ( 7 to 16)

7 f(x) = cos–1[x] , where [.] is G.I.F. 8 f(x) = 4 tan x cos x

x x
9 f(x) = cos 4 – sin4 10 f(x) = sin x
5 5
11 f(x) = cos(2sin x) 12 f(x) = sin(log2x)
3x  | x |
13 f (x) = 3 – 2 x 14 f (x) =
x
 
15 f(x) = cot 2  x  
 4

16 f(x) = sin–1x 2 + on x  [ x] t  cot FGH 1 12x IJK

1
2

ANSWER KEY

1 [  1, 1] 2 [1,4] 3 2nπ < x <  2n + 1 π,n  I

 1 π   5π 
4  5  6, 2   2, 3 6   ,    , 6
 6 3  3 
7 {  ,  /2, 0} 8 (–4, 4)
9 [–1, 1] 10 [–1, 1] 11 [cos 2, 1] 12 [–1, 1]
FG  , 7 IJ
13 (–  , 3) 14 {2, 4} 15 [0,  ) 16
H4 8 K
13. EQUAL OR IDENTICAL FUNCTION

Two functions f & g are said to be equal if

(i) The domain of f = the domain of g.
(ii) The range of f = the range of g and
(iii) f(x) = g(x) , for every x belonging to their common domain.
1 x
e.g. f (x) = & g(x) = 2 are identical functions.
x x

IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 3

Which of the following pair of functions are indentical

1
1 (a) f(x) = ln x 2 ; g(x) = 2ln x (b) f (x) = cosecx ; g (x) =
sin x
1
2 (a) f(x) = cot(cot –1 x) ; g(x) = x (b) f (x) = tan x; g (x) =
cot x
1
(c) f(x) = ln ex ; g(x) = eln x (d) f (x) = sec x; g (x) =
cos x
3
(a) f(x) = cot 2x.cos 2x ; g(x) = cot 2x – cos 2x

x
ln e
(b) f(x) = tanx · cotx ; g(x) = sinx · cosecx (c) f(x) = e ; g(x) = ex

1  cos 2x 2
(d) f(x) = ; g(x) = sin x (e) f(x) = x 2 ; g(x) = ( x )
2

(f) f(x) = log(x + 2) + log(x – 3) ; g(x) = log(x 2 – x – 6)

1
(g) f(x) = ; g(x) = x 2 (h) f(x) = x|x| ; g(x) = x 2sgn x
| x|
1 x
(i) f(x) = sin(sin –1 x) ; g(x) = cos(cos –1x) (j) f(x) = ; g(x) =
1 1 x
1
x
1
(k) f(x) = [{x}] ; g(x) = {[x]} (l) f(x) = e ln cot x
; g(x) = cot –1 x

ANSWER KEY

1 (a)-(N.I.) ; (b)-(I) 2 (a)-(I) ; (b)-(NI) ; (c)-(N.I.) ; (d)-(I)

3 (a)-(I) ; (b)-(N.I.) ; (c)-(I) ; (d)-(N.I.) ; (e)-(N.I.) ; (f)-(N.I.) ; (g)-(I) ;

(h)-(I) ; (i)-(I) ; (j)-(N.I.) ; (k)-(I) ; (l)-(I)
ILLUSTRATIONS ONE-ONE-MANY-ONE FUNCTION

1. Find whether f(x) = x + cos x; R  R is one-one.

Sol. The domain of f(x) is R. f' (x) = 1  sin x.
 f' (x)  0  x  complete domain and equality holds at discrete points only
 f(x) is strictly increasing on R. Hence f(x) is one-one.
3 2
2. Identify whether the function f(x) =  x + 3x  2x + 4 ; R  R is ONTO or INTO
Sol. As codomain  range, therefore given function is ONTO

3. f : R  R f(x) = 2x +|sin x|, find whether f(x) is bijective.

Sol. f is continuous
note that f' (x) > 0  x  R
x   ; y   and x  –  ; y  – 
& f(0) = 0
 one–one onto  bijective

x 2  4x  30
4. f:R  R f(x) = is many one
x 2  8x  18
Sol. Assume f (x) = 5/3
 x = 0 or 26
 f(x) is many one
Note that the technique is True if f (x) is defined for x = 0 and x = 26

14. PERMUTATION BASED PROBLEMS

f :A  B

Case-I: When both the sets A and B contain an equal number of elements

(i) Total number of functions = 44 = 256

(ii) Number of functions one-one = 4!

(iii) Number of functions many-one = 44 – 4!

(iv) Number of onto functions 4!   number of bijective mapping = 4!

(v) Number of into functions = 44 – 4!

Alternate : 4C1 [34 – {3C2 + 3C1(24 – 2)}] + 4C2(24 – 2) + 4C3 · 1 = 44 – 4!

Case-II: When number of elements in A(domain) is more than B

(i) Total number of functions = 45 = 1024

(ii) One-one (injective) = Nil
(iii) Many-one = 1024
  5! 
(iv) Number of onto functions =   4! = 240 (5 books in 4 groups 1, 1, 1, 2)
 1!·1!·2!·3! 
(v) Number of into functions = 1024 – 240 = 784

Case-III: Number of elements in codomain (B) is more than A

(i) Total functions = 54 = 625
(ii) Number of injective mapping = 5C4 · 4! = 120
(iii) Number of many-one = 625 – 120 = 505
(iv) Number of onto functions = 0
(v) Number of into functions = 625

15. COMPOSITE FUNCTION

Let f: X  Y1 and g: Y 2  Z be two functions and the set D = {x  X: f(x)  Y 2}. If D   , then
the function h defined on D by h(x) = g{f(x)} is called composite function of g and f and is denoted
by gof. It is also called function of a function.

Note : Domain of gof is D which is a subset of X (the domain of f ). Range of gof is a subset of the
range of g. If D = X, then f(x)  Y 2.
Properties of Composite Functions :

(a) In general gof  fog (i.e. not commutative)

(b) The composite of functions are associative i.e. if three functions f, g, h are such that fo (goh)
& (fog) oh are defined, then fo (goh) = (fog) oh.

(c) If f and g both are one-one, then gof and fog would also be one-one.

(d) If f and g both are onto, then gof or fog may or may not be onto.

(e) The composite of two bijections is a bijection iff f & g are two bijections such that gof is
defined, then gof is also a bijection only when co-domain of f is equal to the
do ma in o f g .

(f) If g is a function such that gof is defined on the domain of f and f is periodic with T, then gof
is also periodic with T as one of its periods. Further if
# g is one-one, then T is the period of gof
g is also periodic with T ' as the period and the range of f is a sub-set of [0, T ' ],
#
then T is the period of gof
ILLUSTRATIONS ON COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

1. Describe fog and gof wherever is possible for the following functions
(i) f(x) = x3 , g(x) = 1 + x 2
(ii) f(x) = x , g(x) = x 2 - 1.
Sol.
(i) Domain of f is [-3,  ), range of f is [0,  ).
 Domain of g is R, range of g is [1,  ).
Since range of f is a subset of domain of g,
 domain of gof is [-3,  ) {equal to the domain of f }
gof (x) = g{f(x)} = g ( x  3 ) = 1 + (x+3) = x + 4. Range of gof is [1,  ).
Further since range of g is a subset of domain of f,
 domain of fog is R {equal to the domain of g}
fog (x) = f{g(x)}= f(1+ x 2 ) = x 2  4 Range of fog is [2,  ).
(ii) f(x) = x , g(x) = x 2  1.
Domain of f is [0,  ), range of f is [0,  ).
Domain of g is R, range of g is [  1,  ).
Since range of f is a subset of the domain of g,
 domain of gof is [0,  ) and g{f(x)}= g( x ) = x  1. Range of gof is [-1,  )
Further since range of g is not a subset of the domain of f
i.e. [  1,  )  [0,  )
 fog is not defined on whole of the domain of g.
Domain of fog is {x  R, the domain of g : g(x)  [0,  ), the domain of f}.
Thus the domain of fog is D = {x  R: 0  g(x)   }
i.e. D = { x  R: 0  x 2  1}= { x  R: x   1 or x  1 } = (   ,  1]  [1,  )
fog (x) = f{g(x)} = f(x 2  1) = x 2  1 Its range is [0,  ).

  
2. Let f(x) = ex ; R +  R and g(x) = sin –1 x; [  1, 1]    ,  .
 2 2
Find domain and range of fog (x)
  
Sol. Domain of f(x) : (0,  ) Range of g(x) :   , 
 2 2

 
values in range of g(x) which are accepted by f(x) are  0, 
 2
 
 0 < g(x)  0 < sin–1x  0<x  1
2 2
Hence domain of fog(x) is x  (0, 1]

Therefore Domain : (0, 1]

Range : (1, ep/2]
Example of composite function of non-uniformly defined functions :

3. If f(x) = | |x – 3| – 2 | 0  x  4
g(x) = 4 – |2 – x| –1  x  3
then find fog(x) and draw rough sketch of fog(x).
Sol f(x) = | | x  3|  2| 0  x  4
 | x  1| 0x3
= 
| x  5 | 3x4

1  x 0  x  1

x 1 1  x  3
= 
5  x 3  x  4

g(x) = 4  |2  x| 1  x  3
4  (2  x) 1  x  2  2  x 1  x  2
=  = 
4  (x  2) 2  x  3 6  x 2  x  3

1  g(x) 0  g(x)  1

 fog (x) =  g(x)  1 1  g(x)  3
5  g(x) 3  g(x)  4


1  (2  x) 0  2x 1 and 1  x  2
 2  x 1 12x 3 and 1  x  2

5  (2  x) 3  2x 4 and 1  x  2

 16x 0 6 x 1 and 2x3
 6  x 1 1 6 x  3 and 2x3

 56 x 3 6x 4 and 2x3

 1  x 2  x  1 and 1  x  2
 1x 1  x  1 and 1  x  x

 3x 1x2 and 1  x  2

 x  5 6  x  5 and 2x3
 5  x 5   x  3 and 2x3

 x  1 3   x  2 and 2x3

 1  x 2  x  1 and 1  x  2
 1x 1  x  1 and 1  x  2

 3x 1x2 and 1  x  2 1  x 1  x  1
 
 x5 5x6 and 2x3 = 3  x 1  x  2
 5x x  1 2  x  3
3x5 and 2x3 

 x 1 2x3 and 2x3

Alternate method for finding fog

 2  x 1  x  2
g(x) = 
6  x 2  x  3
 graph of g(x) is

1  g(x) 0  g(x)  1

 fog(x) =  g(x)  1 1  g(x)  3
5  g(x) 3  g(x)  4


 1  g(x) fo r no va lue  2  x  1 1  x  1 x  1 1  x  1
  
=  g(x)  1 1  x  1
=  5  (2  x) 1  x  2 = 3  x 1x2
 5  g(x) 1x3  5  (6  x) 2  x  3 x  1 2x3
  

4. f : R  R be the function defined by f (x) = ax 2  2 for some positive a.

If (fof) ( 2 ) =  2 then the value of 'a' is
1 1
(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) (D)
2 2
Sol. f ( 2 ) = 2a – 2

 f f   2   = f  2a  2  = – 2
2

= a 2a  2  – 2 =– 2

= a  4a –  
2 2
 2  4a 2 2 =– 2 = a 4a  4 2 a  2 = 0
a = 0 (rejected)
2 1
or 4a 2 – 4 2 a + 2 = 0   2a  2  =0  a=
2
Ans.

 2 log 10 x  2 
5. If f (x) = log 100 x   and g(x) = {x}. If the function (fog)(x) exists then find the range of
 x 
 1   1 1
g(x). [Ans.  0,  , ]
 100   100 10 
1
Sol. (i) 100 x > 0 & 100 x  1  x 
100
1 1
(ii) x > 0 and log10x + 1 < 0  0 < x < & x
10 100
(fog)(x) exists  range of g(x)  domain of f (x)

1 1 x x 1
6. Let f 1(x) = x, f 2(x) = 1 – x; f 3(x) = , f 4(x) = ; f 5(x) = ; f 6(x) =
x 1 x x 1 x
Suppose that f 6  f m ( x)  = f 4(x) and f n  f 4 ( x )  = f 3(x) then find the value of m & n.

x 1 fm (x)  1
Sol. Given f6(x) = ....(1)  f6  fm (x) = ....(2)
x fm (x)

1
but f6  fm (x) = f 4(x) = (given)
1x
 fm (x)  1 1
f6  fm (x) =
 fm (x) = 1  x

k 1 1
put f m(x) = k, =
k 1x
x 1
k – kx – 1 + x = k  k=
x
x 1
 f m(x) = = f 6(x)  m=6
x
1
again fn  f4 (x) = f 3(x) =
x
 1  1 1
fn   = ; let =t
1x  x 1x
t 1
 t – tx = 1  x=
t
t x
 f n(t) =  f n(x) = = f 5(x)
t 1 x 1
hence n = 5

2x  7
7. If f (x) = find a function g such that g [f (x)] = x for all x in the domain of f and find its
x3
domain and range.

Sol. f : R – {– 3}  R – {+2}
2x  7 3t  7
let =t  x= ;
x3 2t
3t  7 3x  7
Hence g (t) = ;  g (x) = 2  x
2t
8. Let P and Q be polynomials such that P(x) and QPQ( x ) have the same number of roots. If the
degree of P is 7, then the degree of Q, is
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 7
Sol. Let the degree of Q(x) be n then P(Q(x)) has degree 7n
Q  P  Q(x)  has degree n  7n = 7n 2
 7n 2 = 7
 n = 1
9. Let f : R  R and g : R  R be two functions given by
f(x) = x3 and g(x)= 3x + 2. Find gof and fog.
Sol. (gof) (x) = g(f(x))
= g(x3) = 3x3 + 2
(fog) x = f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = (3x + 2)3
gof and fog are both defined but are different from each other.
x x
10. Let f(x) = , x  R, g(x)= 1 | x | for –1 < x < 1, Find gof and fog.
1 | x |
Sol. (gof) x = g (f (x))
 x
 x  1 | x |
= g   =
 1  | x |  x
1
1 | x |

x
= 1 | x |  | x |
(Observe that 1+|x| > 0 |1+ |x|| = 1+|x|)
=x
(fog) x = f(g(x)) , – 1 < x < 1
x
 x  1 | x | x
= f   = =
 1 | x |  x 1 | x |  | x |
1
1 | x |

(Observe that for – 1< x < 1, |x|<1  1 – |x| > 0

 |1–|x|| = 1–|x|) (fog)x = x

IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 4
1 Prove that f : R  R f(x) = 2 |x| – 2 –x a many one into
2 Prove that f: [–1, 1]  [–1, 1] f(x) = sin2x is many one onto
3 Prove that f (x) = x 3 – 2x 2 + 5x + 3 is one-one-onto
4 Let f: {x, y, z}  {a, b, c} be a one–one function. It is known that only one of these
statements is true and the remaining two are false.
(i) f(x)  b (ii) f(y)=b (iii) f(z)  a
find f (x):
5 Define fog(x) and gof(x). Also their Domain & Range.
(i) f(x) = [x], g(x) = sin x
(ii) f(x) = tan x, x  (–  /2,  /2); g(x) = 1  x2
6 Let f(x) = ex : R +  R and g(x) = x 2  x : R  R. Find domain and range of fog (x)
& gof (x)
7 If g (x) = 2x + 1 and h (x) = 4x 2 + 4x + 7, find a function f such that fog = h.

 1x if 0  x  1

8 f(x) =  x  2 if 1  x  2 find (fof) (x)
 4  x if 2  x  4

 1  x if x  0 x if x  1

9 f (x) =  2 and g (x) =  ,
 x if x  0  1  x if x  1
find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x)

f(x)   1  x  2 , 0  x  4 
10  find gof and fog
g(x)  2  x ,  1  x  3 
 ANSWER KEY
4 f  z  c, f  y   a, f  x   b
5 (i) gof = sin [x]
domain : R range { sin a : a  I}
fog = [ sin x]
domain : R range : {–1, 0, 1}
(ii) gof = 1  tan 2 x

  
domain :   , range : [0, 1]
 4 4 
fog = tan 1 x 2 domain : [–1, 1] range [0, tan 1]

6 fog (x) gof (x)

Domain : (–  , 0)  (1,  ) Domain : (0,  )
Range : (1,  ) Range :  0,  

x if 0  x  1
 2  x if 1  x  2

7 f (x) = x 2 + 6 8 (fof) (x) =  6  x if 2  x  3

 x 3 if 3  x  4
 2 if x  2

x if x  0 x 2 if x  0
 2 
9 (gof)(x) =   x if 0  x  1 ; (fog)(x) = 1  x if 0  x  1
1  x 2 if x  1 x if x  1
 

1  x 0  x 1
3  x 1 x  2  1 x0
10 gof(x) =  ; 
(fog)(x)  (1  x) 1  x  0
x 1 2 x 3 
  x  1 0x2
5  x 3 x  4

16. PERIODIC FUNCTION

A function f(x) is called periodic with a period T if there exists a real number T > 0 such that for
each x in the domain of f the numbers x – T and x + T are also in the domain of f and f(x) = f(x + T)
for all x in the domain of 'f'. Domain of a periodic function is always unbounded. Graph
of a periodic function with period T is repeated after every interval of 'T'.
e.g. The function sin x & cos x both are periodic over 2  & tan x is periodic over  .
The least positive period is called the principal or fundamental period of f or simply the
period of f.

Note : f (T) = f (0) = f (  T), where ‘ T ’ is the period.

Inverse of a periodic function does not exist.
Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.
Properties of Periodic Function
1
(a) If f(x) has a period T, then f(x) and f(x) also have a period T.

T
(b) If f(x) has a period T then f (ax + b) has a period | a | .

(c) If f (x) has a period T 1 & g (x) also has a period T 2 then period of f(x) ± g(x) or f(x) . g(x)
f(x)
or is L.C.M. of T 1 & T 2 provided their L.C.M. exists. However that L.C.M.
g(x)
(if exists) need not to be fundamental period. If L.C.M. does not exists f(x) ± g(x) or f(x) . g(x) or
f(x)
is aperiodic. (not periodic)
g(x)
e.g. |sinx| has the period  , | cosx | also has the period 
 |sinx| + |cosx| also has a period  . But the fundamental period of

|sinx| + |cosx| is .
2

Note : Is cos  x 2  is periodic function ? (check your self)

ILLUSTRATIONS ON PERIODIC FUNCTION

x x
1. f(x) = sin + cos
2 3
x x x x
Sol. Period of sin is 4  while period of cos is 6  . Hence period of sin + cos is
2 3 2 3
12  {L.C.M. of 4 & 6 is 12}
2. f(x) = {x} + sin x
Sol. Period of sin x = 2 
Period of {x} = 1
but L.C.M. of 2  & 1 is not possible
 it is aperiodic
3. f(x) = cos x . cos 3x
Sol. f(x) = cos x . cos 3x
 2 
period of f(x) is L.C.M. of  2 ,  = 2 , but 2  may or may not be the fundamental
 3 

2
period but fundamental period = , where n  N. Hence cross-checking for
n
n = 1, 2, 3,...we find  to be fundamental period f(  + x)=(– cos x) (– cos 3x) = f(x)

3x x 2x
4. f(x) = sin – cos – tan
2 3 3
 2 2 
Sol. Period of f(x) is L.C.M. of , ,
3 / 2 1/ 3 2 / 3

4 3
= L.C.M. of , 6 ,
3 2
= 12 

 a p   L.C.M.(a, p, )
NOTE : L.C.M. of  , ,  =
 b q m  H.C.F. (b, q, m)
n(n  1)
5. Period of the function, f (x) = [x] + [2x] + [3x] + ....... + [nx] – x
2
where n Î N and [ ] denotes the greatest integer function, is
1
(A) 1 (B) n (C) (D) non periodic
n

Sol. ( [x] – x ) + ( [2x] – 2x ) + ...... + ( [nx] – nx ) = ({x} + {2x} + ..... {nx} )

  
LCM of 1 1/2 1/n  1
6. If f (x) = (a + 3)x + 5a, x  R is periodic. [Ans. a = – 3]
Sol. f (x) = mx + c is periodic only if m = 0]

7. Consider those functions f that satisfy f (x + 4) + f (x – 4) = f (x) for all real x. Any such function
is periodic, and there is a least common positive period p for all of them. The value of p, is
(A) 8 (B) 12 (C) 16 (D) 24
Sol. x  x+4
f (x + 8) + f (x) = f (x + 4) ....(1)
substitute the value of f (x + 4) in (1) from the given relation
f (x + 8) + f (x) = f (x) – f (x – 4)
 f (x + 8) = – f (x – 4)
x  x+4
f (x + 12) = – f (x) ....(2)
x  x + 12
f (x + 24) = – f (x + 12) ....(3)
f (x + 24) = f (x)
 f (x) is periodic with period 24

8. Find the period of f  x   x   x  m  , m  I , where [] denotes the greatest integer function.

S o l . Given f  x   x   x  m    x  m    x  m   m  x  m  m

 x  m is periodic

 m  x  m will also be periodic and period will be 1.

 Period of x  Period of x  a   1

9. Draw the graph of y   sin x  and also find the period if possible.
 
Sol.  sin x   0, 0x
2

 1, x Y
2

 0, x
2
1 2
3 O 
  X
 1, x , ............... 1 π/2
5π/2
2

Clearly f(x) is periodic and its period is 2.

x
10. f  x   sin   is it periodic? If periodic find its period.

x x
Sol. 0       0


x 
  x  2      1

x
2  x  3      2

x
3  x  4      3 , Clearly f(x) is not periodic.

17. ODD & EVEN FUNCTIONS

(i) If f (–x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘f’ then f is said to be an even function.
If f (x) – f (–x) = 0  f (x) is even.
e.g. f (x) = cos x; g (x) = x² + 3.

(ii) If f (–x) = –f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘ f ’ then f is said to be an odd function.

If f (x) + f (–x) = 0  f (x) is odd.

e.g. f (x) = sin x; g (x) = x 3 + x.

Note : A function may neither be odd nor even. (e.g. f(x) = ex , cos –1x)
If an odd function is defined at x = 0, then f(0) = 0

Properties of Even/Odd Function

(a) Every even function is symmetric about the y-axis & every odd function is symmetric about
the origin.
For example graph of y = x 2 is symmetric about y-axis, while graph of y = x 3 is symmetric
about origin
 (b) All functions (whose domain is symmetrical about origin) can be expressed as the sum of an
even & an odd function, as follows

f(x) =

(c) The only function which is defined on the entire number line and is even & odd at the same
time is f(x) = 0.

(d) If f and g both are even or both are odd then the function f.g will be even but if any one of
them is odd then f.g will be odd.

f (x) g (x) f (x) + g (x) f (x) - g (x) f (x) . g (x) f(x) / g(x) ( gof ) (x) (f o g) (x)
odd odd odd odd even even odd odd
even even even even even even even even
odd even neither odd nor even neither odd nor even odd odd even even
even odd neither odd nor even neither odd nor even odd odd even even

(e) If f(x) is even then f' (x) is odd.

Even extension / Odd extension

Let the definition of the function f(x) is given only for x  0. Even extension of this function implies
to define the function for x < 0 assuming it to be even. In order to get even extension replace x by
–x in the given definition Similarly, odd extension implies to define the function for x < 0 assuming
it to be odd. In order to get odd extension, multiply the definition of even extension by –1

ILLUSTRATIONS ON EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

1.  
Show that log x  x 2  1 is an odd function.

Sol. Let f(x) = log  x  x2 1.

Then f(–x) = log  x  ( x) 2  1 

= log
 x2  1  x  x2  1  x  = log 1
 2

– log x  x  1 = –f(x)
2 2
x 1  x x 1 x
Hence f(x) is an odd function.

2. Show that ax +a–x is an even function.

Sol. Let f(x) = ax + a–x
Then f(–x) = a–x + a–(–x) = a–x +ax = f(x). Hence f(x) is an even function
3. Show that cos –1 x is neither odd nor even.
Sol. Let f(x) = cos –1x. Then f(–x) = cos –1 (–x) =  – cos –1 x which is neither equal to f(x) nor
equal to f(–x). Hence cos –1 x is neither odd nor even
4. What is even and odd extension of f(x) = x 3 – 6x 2 + 5x – 11 ; x > 0
Sol. Even extension f(x) = –x 3 – 6x 2 – 5x – 11 ;x<0
Odd extension f(x) = x 3 + 6x 2 + 5x + 11 ;x<0

IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 5
Find the period of the functions (1 to 6)
x
1 f(x) = sin x + | sin x | 2 f(x) = 3 cos x – sin
3

2x 3x
3 sin – cos 4 f(x) = sin 2x + cos 4x
5 7
2x 4x
5 f(x) = cos – sin 6 f(x) = cos(sin x)
3 5

State whether the function is odd or even

e x  e x
7
e x  e x
8 log  x2  1  x 
9 
x log x  x 2  1  10 sin –1 2x 1  x2
ANSWER KEY

1 2 2 6 3 70  4 
5 15  6  7 Odd 8 Odd
9 Even 10 Odd
18. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

Let f : A  B be a one-one & onto function, then their exists a unique function
g : B  A such that f(x) = y  g(y) = x,  x  A & y  B. Then g is said to be inverse of f. Thus
g = f-1 : B  A = {(f(x), x) ½ (x, f(x))  f}.
Note: To find the inverse
Step-1:write y = f (x)
Step-2:solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)
Step-3:To express f –1 as a function of x, interchange x and y.

Properties Of Inverse Function

(i) The inverse of a bijection is unique.
Proof :
Let f : A  B be a bijection. If possible let g : B  A and h : B  A be two inverse function of
f. Also let a 1, a 2  A and b  B such that g (b) = a 1 and h (b) = a 2 then
g(b) = a 1  f (a 1) = b
h(b) = a 2  f (a 2) = b.
 But since f is one-one, so f (a 1) = f (a 2)
 a 1 = a 2  g(b) = h(b),  b  B
(ii) If f : A  B is a bijection & g : B  A is the inverse of f, then fog = IB and gof = IA, where IA
& IB are identity functions on the sets A & B respectively.
Note that the graphs of f & g are the mirror images of each other in the line y = x.
As shown in the figure given below a point (x ', y' ) corresponding to y = x 2(x > 0) changes to (y',
x') corresponding to y   x , the changed form of x = y .

(iii) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.

Proof :
Let f : A  B be a bijection and g : B  A be its inverse.
We have to show that g is one-one and onto.
One-one : Let g(b 1) = a 1 and g(b 2) = a 2 : a 1, a 2  A , b 1, b 2  B
Then g(b 1) = g(b 2)  a1 = a2
 f(a 1) = f(a2) [ f is a bijection]
 b1 = b2 [ g(b 1) = a 1  b 1 = f(a 1)
g(b 2) = a 2  b 2 = f(a 2)]
which proves that g is one-one
Onto : Again, if a  A, then
aA   b  B s.t. f (a) = b (by defintion of f)
  b  B s.t. g(b) = a[  f(a) = b  a = g(b)]
which proves that g is onto.
Hence g is also a bijection.

(iv) If f & g are two bijections f : A  B, g : B  C then the inverse of gof exists and
(gof) –1 = f –1 og –1.

Proof :
Since f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections,
 gof : A  C is also a bijection.
[by theorem the composite of two bijection is a bijection]
As such gof has an inverse function (gof) –1 : C  A. We have to show that
(gof) –1 = f –1 og –1.
Now let a  A, b  B, c  C such that
f (a) = b and g(b) = c
so (gof) (a) = g[f(a)] = g(b) = c,
now f(a) = b  a = f –1 (b) ....(i)
g(b) = c –1
b = g (c) ....(ii)

(gof)(a) = c  a = (gof) –1(c) ....(iii)
Also (f –1og–1)(c) = f –1 [g –1 (c)] [by defintion]
–1
= f (b) [by (ii)]
=a [by (i)]
= (gof) –1(c) [by (iii)]
(gof) –1 = f –1 og –1 , which proves the theorem.

ILLUSTRATIONS ON INVERSE FUNCTION

2x  3
1. Determine whether f(x) = ; R  R, is invertible or not? If so find it.
4
Sol. As given function is one-one and onto, therefore it is invertible.
2x  3 4y  3 –1 4x  3
y=  x=  f (x) =
4 2 2
2. Let f(x) = x 2 + 2x; x  –1. Draw graph of f –1(x) also find the number of solutions of the
equation, f(x) = f–1(x)

Sol. f(x) = f–1(x) is equilavent to solving

y = f(x) and y = x
 x 2 + 2x = x
 x(x + 1) = 0
 x = 0, –1
Hence two solution for f(x) = f–1(x)

3. If y = f(x) = x 2 – 3x + 1, x  2. Find the value of g(1) where g is inverse of f

Sol. y=1  x 2 – 3x + 1 = 1  x (x – 3) = 0  x = 0, 3
But x  2  x=3
Now g(f(x)) = x
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x
1
 g ' (f(x)). f' (x) = 1  g ' (f(x)) =
f (x)

1 1 1
 g ' (f(3)) =  g ' (1)= (As f' (x) = 2x – 3) =
f (3) 63 3
Alternate Method
y = x 2 – 3x + 1
x 2 – 3x +1 – y = 0

3  9  4(1  y) 3  5  4y
x= =
2 2
x 2

3  5  4y
x =
2

3  5  4y
g(x) =
2
1
g ' (x) = 0 + x
x 5  4x

1 1 1
g ' (1) = = =
5 4 9 3
19. IMPORTANT TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

19.1 Polynomial Function

If a function f is defined by f (x) = a 0 x n + a 1 x n-1 + a 2 x n-2 + ... + a n-1 x + a n where n is a non

negative integer and a 0, a 1, a 2, ..., a n are real numbers and a 0  0, then f is called a polynomial
function of degree n .
NOTE: (a) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an odd linear
function . i.e. f(x) = ax , a  0

(b) There are two polynomial functions , satisfying the relation ;

f(x).f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x) . They are :
(i) f(x) = x n + 1 & (ii) f(x) = 1 - x n , where n is a positive integer.
Proof : Consider f (x) = a 0 + a 1x + a 2x 2 + ..... + a nx n.
Equate f (x). f(1/x) = f (x) + f (1/x) & equate coefficients.

19.2 Algebraic Function

A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic operations such
as addition, substraction, multiplication, division and taking roots, started with polynomials.
x 4  16x 2
e.g. f (x) = 2 3
x 1 ; g (x) =
x x
+ (x – 2) × x 1

19.3 Fractional Rational Function

g(x)
A rational function is a function of the form. y = f (x) = h(x) , where g (x) & h (x) are polynomials
& h (x)  0. The domain of f (x) is set of real x such that h (x)  0.
2x 4  x 2  1
e.g. f (x) = ; D = {x | x  ± 2}
x2  4

19.4 Homogeneous Fun ctions

A function is said to be homogeneous with respect to any set of variables when each of its terms
is of the same degree with respect to those variables.
For example 5x 2 + 3y2 – xy is homogeneous in x & y. Symbolically if,
f (tx, ty) = t n . f (x , y) then f (x , y) is homogeneous function of degree n.
lllustration
x  y cos x x y y x
f (x, y) = is not a homogeneous function and f(x, y) = ln  ln ;
y sin x  x y x x y
y
x 2  y 2 + x; x + y cos are homogeneous functions of degree one.
x
19.5 Bounded Function
A function is said to be bounded if |f(x)|  M , where M is a finite quantity..
lllustration

Which of the following function(s) is(are) bounded on the intervals as indicated

1
1
(A) f(x) = 2  1 on (0, 1)
x (B) g(x) = x cos on (–  ,  )
x
(C) h(x) = xe –x on (0,  ) (D) l (x) = arc tan2 x on (–  ,  )
 1 1
Limit 1 Limit
Sol. (A) f (x) = Limit 2 h 1  ; f (x) = Limit 2  h  0
x 0  h 0 2 x 1  h 0

 1
 f(x) 0,   bounded
 2
x
(C) Limit x e–x = Limit h e –h = 0 ; Limit x e–x = Limit 0
h 0 h 0 x  x  ex
x e x  xe x  1
 Also y   y'  e x (1 – x)
 h(x)   0 , 
ex e 2x  e

19.6 Implicit & Explicit Function

A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable is called an I MPLICIT
F UNCTION . For eg. the equation x 3 + y3 = 1 defines y as an implicit function. If y has been
expressed in terms of x alone then it is called an E XPLICIT F UNCTION .

lllustration
x
(1) Implicit x 1  y + y 1  x = 0; explicit y =  or y = x (rejected)
1x

y x

(2) y2 = x represents two separate branches. Implicit form

y x

(3) x3 y3
+ – 3xy = 0
folium of descartes , Implicit

(4) x = 2y – y2 , Implicit

19.7 SOME GENERAL FUNCTIONS

If x, y are independent variables, then:
(i) f (xy) = f (x) + f (y)  f (x) = k ln x or f (x) = 0.
(ii) f (xy) = f (x). f (y)  f (x) = x n, n  R
(iii) f (x + y) = f (x). f (y)  f (x) = a kx.
(iv) f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)  f(x) = kx, where k is a constant.
1 1
(v) f(x) . f   = f(x) + f    f(x) = 1 ± x n where n  N
x x
ILLUSTRATIONS ON GENERAL
1 1
1. If f(x) is a polynomial function satisfying f(x) . f   = f(x) + f    x  R – {0} and f(2) = 9,
x x
then find f (3)
Sol. f(x) = 1 ± x n
As f(2) = 9  f(x) = 1 + x 3
Hence f(3) = 1 + 3 3 = 28
2. Let f be a real valued function of real and positive argument such that
1
f (x) + 3x f   = 2(x + 1) for all real x > 0. The value of f (10099) is
x
(A) 550 (B) 505 (C) 5050 (D) 10010
Sol replace x  1/x and solve to get
x 1
f (x) =
2
10099  1 10100
f (10099) = = = 5050
2 2
1 9 1
3. Let f be periodic with period . If f (2) = 5 and f   = 2. Find f (–3) and f   .
2 4
  4
9  1 1
Sol. f   =2  f 2  = 2  f   =2
4  4 4
again f (–3) = f (4 – 3) = f (1) = f (2) = 5

x
4. Let f : R  R be a function such that f(x 3  1)    5 ,  x  (0,  ) then the value of

27
  27  y 3   y
 f 3   for y  (0,  ) is equal to
  y 
(A) 5 (B) 5 2 (C) 5 3 (D) 5 6
3
27
3 3  3
3 
   3 3  y   3   y

  27  y
 f   1  ;
So l.  f 3  1 =  f     1   =  
 y  y    y   
      
3
3  x 
let
y
3
= x, then  f x  1

   = 53


IN CHAPTER EXERCISE - 6

Find the inverse of the following functions (1 to 6)

2
1 f : (–  , –1)  (–  , –2) defined f(x) = –(x + 1) – 2

  7   
2 f :  6 , 6   [–1, 1] defined by f(x) = sin  x  3 
   

3 f : R  R+, f(x) = 10 x + 1

4 f : (– 2,  )  R, f(x) = 1 + ln (x + 2)

2x
5 f : R  (0, 1), f(x) =
1  2x
6 f : R  R f(x) = ex and g : R  R g(x) = 3x – 2 find fog and gof. Also find domains of
(fog)–1 and (gof)–1

7 If f : R  R f (x) = x 3 + (a + 2)x 2 + 3ax + 5 is an invertible mapping find‘a’.

8 A function
3  7 
f :  ,    ,  defined as
2  4 
2
f(x) = x – 3x + 4. Solve the equation f(x) = f–1(x)

1 1
9 If f(x) is a polynomial function satisfying f(x) . f   = f(x) + f    x  R – {0}
x x
and f(3) = –8, then find f(4)

1
10 If 2 f (x) – 3 f   = x 2 (x  0) find f (2).
x
ANSWER KEY

2π –1
1 –1 – x  2 2 – sin x 3 y = log10 x - 1
3

 x 
4 y = –2 + ex –1 5 y = log 2  
 1 x 

6 (fog) (x) = e3x – 2; domain of (fog) –1 = R + ;

(gof)(x) = 3ex – 2 ,domain of (gof) –1 = (–2,  )

7 a  [1, 4] 8 x = 2 9 – 15
7
10 –
4