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Computer Applications

CHAPTER-I

About Computer and Types of Computers

I, Computer: Definition

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are:

 It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.

 It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
 It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern
computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called hardware; the
instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following hardware
components:

 Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions
organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer what to do.
 Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data, programs,
and intermediate results.
 Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to permanently retain large
amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
 Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions
enter a computer.
 Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently.
For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

II, Computer sizes and power

Personal Computers Workstations Minicomputer Mainframes Supercomputers

s
Least powerful Most powerful
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CHAPTER-II

Classification of Computers & Memory Types

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:
 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more
powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations
(number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers
scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer
is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a
room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the
traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays
a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all
its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many
programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support
more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The
distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants
to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has
blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and
other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-
in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common
operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-
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user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can
also be used as stand-alone systems.

N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a workstation
or a personal computer.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal
computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database
management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently
for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the
Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing
operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known
as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer
manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive
IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other
companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as
the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of
running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs.
Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible
personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the
term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer
based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component,
including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The principal
characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors.
However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to
form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal computers
and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

III, Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The chassis or case is the metal frame
that serves as the structural support for electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis
to house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to insert more
boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic
flavors of chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types.
Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook
and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage devices are stacked on top
of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more
compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation
of additional storage devices easier.
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Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer.
Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their
shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models
designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small
enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a
personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel
technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies
considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers.
They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive.
Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come
with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged
every few hours.

Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently
called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook
computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld
computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular
hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager)
functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem
by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition
technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket
computers.

Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but
they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a
keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop
computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives,
modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking
features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers,
most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate
handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies.
The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly
thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the
marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will
eventually become common gadgets.
PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
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Computer Memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space
in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between
the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by
the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system,
from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Primary Memory

Characteristics of Main Memory. These are semiconductor memories. It is known as the main memory.
Usually volatile memory. Data is lost in case power is switched off. It is the working memory of the computer.
Faster than secondary memories. A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
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Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are
used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory,
and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Secondar Memory
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are magnetic and optical memories.
It is known as the backup memory.
It is a non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without the secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.

Types of Software

Software - Software is a set of instructions or programs written by programmers/developers on various languages

for computer to perform some specific task

Software is often divided into two categories.

1) System Software - It is a base for application software which responsible for managing hardware.

In other words we can say that system software is a intermediator between user and hardware. System software is
also known as Operating System

Example - MS-Windows, UNIX, Linux, Sun Solaris

2) Application Software - or simply applications, are often called productivity programs or end-user programs
because they enable the user to complete tasks, such as creating documents, spreadsheets, databases and
publications, doing online research, sending email, designing graphics, running businesses, and even playing games!
Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as simple as a calculator application or as
complex as a word processing application.

Operating System and Its Types

An operating system or OS is a software on the hard drive that enables the computer hardware to communicate and
operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating system, a computer and software programs
would be useless. The picture to the right is an example of Microsoft Windows XP, a popular operating system and
what the box may look like if you were to purchase it from a local retail store.

As computers have progressed and developed, so have the operating systems. Below is a basic list of the types of
operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that fall into each of the types. Many computer
operating systems will fall into more than one of the below types.
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GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI operating system contains graphics and icons and is commonly
navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI definition for a complete definition. Examples of GUI operating
systems are:

System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE

Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the same time and
different times. See the multi-user definition for a complete definition. Examples of operating systems that would fall
into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor.
Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows XP

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the same time.
Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows 8

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently. Examples
of operating systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows XP

Application of Computers for Business and Research

Almost every business uses computers to complete daily tasks. From making contact with clients to inputting data for
reports, computers allow businesses a more efficient way to manage affairs when compared to traditional paper and
manila folders. Businesses use a variety of different types of computers such as desktops, laptops, servers, smart
phones and tablets, depending on their needs. With computers, employees are able to work anytime, anywhere.

Communication
Communication is key when gaining and maintaining clients and other important contacts. Computers give
businesses access to email, instant messaging and custom customer contact systems. Computerized phone systems
allow for automated support during off hours and a virtual operator can quickly direct callers to the correct
department for faster support.
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Marketing
Computers allow businesses to create websites, stunning ads and complete marketing campaigns. Marketing videos
can be edited and custom ads created in-house with the use of specialized software. Businesses can completely
develop and manage websites with their own servers or connect remotely to a third-party business to upload their
latest content such as articles, product images and blog posts.

Accounting
Accounting without computers presents a high risk for human error. Accounting software allows businesses to simply
input their financial data and instantly see gains and losses. All necessary tax reports are available the moment the
data is entered. Using computers for invoicing, managing expenses and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring
financial data is as accurate as possible.

Storage
Instead of filing cabinets, businesses are able to store millions of files using computers and servers. Data can be
stored centrally for easy access from multiple computers or stored locally for individual use. Computerized storage
saves space and provides a far more efficient organization strategy. With encryption, passwords and replace keys,
data remains secure.

Documents and Reports

Most businesses have some sort of productivity software which typically includes a word processor and spreadsheet
application. These two programs allow businesses to create reports, memos, tutorials and even colorful ads for
company events. Spreadsheet applications give businesses the chance to organize, manage and calculate both
numeric and alphabetic data. With charts and graphs, reporting becomes visual instead of text-based.

Education
Businesses use computers to help educate employees on software, company policy, standard procedures and safety.
Instead of hiring teachers, computers can be used to educate employees at their own pace or through an online
webinar with live questions and answers. This form of education fits the busy schedules of businesses without
sacrificing the quality of the education.

Research
From learning more about the competition to discovering what customers really want, research isn't as difficult as it
once was, thanks to computers. Search engines, forums, social networks and industry specific websites provide
businesses with a wealth of information and research data.

Different Uses of Computers in Business

In today's business climate, competitors may be as close as the next website or email message. One way to gain a
competitive advantage is to learn how computers can help your business. You may know about email, accounting
and word processing programs, but other software exists that can increase productivity, attract new customers,
reduce costs and save you time.

Business team of three in office and planning work

Computers have fundamentally changed the way the world operates and conducts business.
Computers Facilitate Communication
Email services, such as Yahoo and specialized services, like HushMail help businesses send and receive electronic
correspondence. Many online email services also enable you to voice chat with others over the Internet. Companies
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can also use applications such as Outlook to manage business mail, track events and help employees schedule
meetings. Skype, Google Hangouts and similar programs give you the ability to hold remote video meetings with
people from around the world. Many of these communications platforms also work on smartphones and tablets.

Data Mining Benefits

Businesses often acquire and store massive amounts of information in relational databases, spreadsheets, XML files
and other repositories. Learn to use data mining techniques and you can tap into a valuable undiscovered source of
business intelligence. Data mining software can help businesses identify patterns and discover new relationships in
historical data. Although data mining can help small companies, it's particularly useful for businesses with large
amounts of complex data. Businesses that use data mining can boost sales, acquire new customers, improve
productions, increase customer satisfaction and predict future business trends.

VIDEO OF THE DAY

Customer Relationship Management

Stand-alone software exists that can help business owners find, service and retain customers. Modern CRM
applications integrate many of these functions into a single, unified system. Typical tasks that full-featured CRM apps
perform include contact management, customer service and sales force automation.

Order Fulfillment

Fulfilling orders can be a time-consuming task, because it may require the assistance of people in accounting, the
warehouse, inventory control and shipping departments. Computers make it easier for businesses to automate and
speed up time-consuming order fulfillment processes. For example, an order fulfillment application may use barcode
scanners to record product information as a product moves from the warehouse to the shipping trucks. Order
fulfillment software can also tell you when to replenish your inventory.

Design and Graphics

You don't need to hire a professional graphic artist to create professional looking graphics for your business. Tools,
such as image editors and desktop publishing applications, can help novices create Web buttons and banners, draw
logos, create marketing materials, enhance photos and produce newsletters. Programs, such as PowerPoint and
Open Office Impress, can help you create powerful business presentations by clicking buttons and dragging your
mouse. Video editing programs also give you the power to produce your own company videos that you can use for
advertising and marketing. Computers can also connect you to the Internet where you can download free graphics
that you can customize.

Marketing and Advertising

There are several ways for businesses to advertise and market their services. Many business owners use computers
to tap into the power of social media sites, such as Facebook and Twitter. In addition to advertising products and
services on these sites, businesses can use software to design and manage email marketing campaigns that target
potential customers.

Using Computers to Manage People

Human Resources software can help businesses do everything from find potential employees to discipline them
when problems occur. By storing employee information in a central repository, HR applications also make it easier
for HR personal to track employee performance, maintain information about benefits and communicate with
employees efficiently. Many HR apps also give HR managers the to generate reports that profile specific employees.
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Computer Administration

Regardless of the size of your business, it's important to keep your computers secure. If you have a large company,
ensure that your IT department has the skills necessary to set up users, install software and keep your network safe.
If you have a small office, assign an administrator to manage your computers.
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CHAPTER-III

Data Communications and Networks

Data Communication

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between individuals, local
communication usually occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance. The term
Telecommunication, which includes Telephony, Telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance.
The data refers to facts, concepts and instruction presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. In the context of computer information system, data represented by binary information units
produced and consumed in the form of 0s and 1s.

Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver. The source transmits
the data and the receiver receives it. The actual generation of the information is not part of Data Communications
nor is the resulting action of the information at the receiver. Data Communication is interested in the transfer of
data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer process.

The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers with different
disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share resources. The rules and regulations are called
protocols and standards in Data Communications.

For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware and software.

The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on the three fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device
or user and only by that device or user

2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are rustles

3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video,
audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery id called real-time transmission.

Components

Basic Components of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system.
1. The sender (source) who creates the message to be transmitted
2. A medium that carries the message
3. The receiver (sink) who receives the message
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Data Communication system components

1. Message: A message in its most general meaning is an object of communication. It is a vessel which provides
information. Yet, it can also be this information. Therefore, its meaning is dependent upon the context in which it is
used; the term may apply to both the information and its form.
2. Sender: The sender will have some kind of meaning she wishes to convey to the receiver. It might not be conscious
knowledge, it might be a sub-conscious wish for communication. What is desired to be communicated would be
some kind of idea, perception, feeling, or datum. It will be a part of her reality that she wishes to send to somebody
else.
3. Receiver: These messages are delivered to another party. No doubt, you have in mind a desired action or reaction
you hope your message prompts from the opposite party. Keep in mind, the other party also enters into the
communication process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtedly influence their understanding of your message
and their response. To be a successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering your message,
then acting appropriately.
4. Medium: Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate
medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice
of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by
the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For
instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral
medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then
and there.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a formal description of digital message formats and the rules for exchanging those messages
in or between computing systems and in telecommunications. Protocols may include signaling, authentication and
error detection and correction syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and may be implemented
in hardware or software, or both.
6. Feedback: Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the
efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder.
Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also
in form of memos, reports, etc.

Networks

Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data.
Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Distributed Processing

Distributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system consists
of multiple autonomous computers that communicate through a computer network. The computers interact with
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each other in order to achieve a common goal. A computer program that runs in a distributed system is called
a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs.

Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed
computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers.

Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures or categories: client–server, 3-tier
architecture, n-tier architecture, distributed objects, loose coupling, or tight coupling.

Client–server: Smart client code contacts the server for data then formats and displays it to the user. Input at the
client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
3-tier architecture: Three tier systems move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be
used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are 3-Tier.
N-tier architecture: n-tier refers typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other
enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.
Tightly coupled (clustered): refers typically to a cluster of machines that closely work together, running a shared
process in parallel. The task is subdivided in parts that are made individually by each one and then put back together
to make the final result.
Peer-to-peer: an architecture where there is no special machine or machines that provide a service or manage the
network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can
serve both as clients and servers.
Space based: refers to an infrastructure that creates the illusion (virtualization) of one single address-space. Data are
transparently replicated according to application needs. Decoupling in time, space and reference is achieved.
Categories of Network
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical
reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common
Examples of area network types are:
LAN - Local Area Network
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
WAN - Wide Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office building, school, or home
usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room),
and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always
implemented as a single IP subnet. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned,
controlled, and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies,
primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

Website
A website is a set of data and information about a particular subject which is available on the internet.

EMAIL
Email is an information and communications technology. It uses technology to communicate a digital message over
the Internet. Users use email differently, based on how they think about it. There are many software platforms
available to send and receive. Popular email platforms include Gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, Outlook, and many
others.
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Search Engine

Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web (WWW). There are
a number of specialist search engines that allow users to search for specific things like videos, used cars, recipes, flights
and hotels. The three main search engines are GOOGLE, YAHOO, and BING.

E- Communication

An electronic communication is defined as “any transfer of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data, or intelligence
of any nature transmitted in whole or in part by a wire, radio, electromagnetic.

Collaboration in the workplace is when two or more people (often groups) work together through idea sharing and
thinking to accomplish a common goal. It is simply teamwork taken to a higher level

WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK

As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A
WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In
IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN address.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one
organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use
technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.
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WIDE AREA NETWORK

A WAN is a network that spans more than one geographical location often connecting separated LANs. WANs are
slower than LANs and often require additional and costly hardware such as routers, dedicated leased lines, and
complicated implementation procedures.

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically
owned an operated by a single entity such as a government body or large corporation.
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WEBSITE

A website is a collection of publicly accessible, interlinked Web pages that share a single domain name. Websites can
be created and maintained by an individual, group, business or organization to serve a variety of purposes. Together,
all publicly accessible websites constitute the World Wide Web.

EMAIL

Messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more recipients via a network.

E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution list can be managed by
using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to subscribe by sending a request to the mailing list
administrator. A mailing list that is administered automatically is called a list server.

E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of
protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving
it is POP3. Both Netscape and Microsoft include an e-mail utility with their Web browsers.

SEARCH ENGINE

Search engine is a service that allows Internet users to search for content via the World Wide Web (WWW). A user
enters keywords or key phrases into a search.

Examples of Search Engines: Google, Bing, Yahoo etc.

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E-COMMUNICATION

Is a solutions enable live broadcasts to large groups in geographically dispersed locations, as well as two-way
interactive communications. By using IP multicasting to deliver live broadcasts, organizations can take advantage of
high-quality training and communications on the network, while reducing costs. For learning or communications
events that acquire extensive interaction, IP videoconferencing provides a powerful solution for real-time feedback
and collaboration.

E-COLLABORATION

Effectively eliminates the barriers of time, distance, and resources, permitting people in different locations to behave
as if they were in the same room. Companies that adopt e-collaboration technology can integrate telecommuters,
arrive at decisions faster, and train and educate employees effectively. Educational institutions can interactively
disseminate knowledge anywhere, creating a “campus without walls.” Just as online collaboration enables doctors to
consult specialists all over the world to provide the best care for their patients, it also gives employees in worldwide
organizations instant access to “subject matter experts” no matter where they are located. Organizations that
“humanize” their communications in this way can reduce administrative costs and increase productivity, profitability,
and competitiveness like never before.

Microsoft Office is a suite of desktop productivity applications that is designed specifically to be used for office or
business use. It is a proprietary product of Microsoft Corporation and was first released in 1990. Microsoft Office is
available in 35 different languages and is supported by Windows, Mac and most Linux variants. It mainly consists of
Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, OneNote, Outlook and Publisher applications.
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CHAPTER-IV
MICROSOFT OFFICE

Was primarily created to automate the manual office work with a collection of purpose-built applications. Each of
the applications in Microsoft Office serves as specific knowledge or office domain such as:

Microsoft Word: Helps users in creating text documents.

Microsoft Excel: Creates simple to complex data/numerical spreadsheets.
Microsoft PowerPoint: Stand-alone application for creating professional multimedia presentations.
Microsoft Access: Database management application.
Microsoft Publisher: Introductory application for creating and publishing marketing materials.
Microsoft OneNote: Alternate to a paper notebook, it enables an user to neatly organize their notes.

Besides desktop applications, Microsoft Office is available to use online or from cloud under a lighter (Office Web
Apps) and full (Office 365) version. As of 2013, Microsoft Office 2013 is the latest version, available in 4 different
variants including Office Home Student 2013, Office Home Business 2013 and Office Professional 2 and the
online/cloud Office 365 Home Premium.

MICROSOFT WORD offers several features to ease document creation and editing, including:

WYSIWYG (what-you-see-is-what-you-get) display: It ensures that everything displayed on screen appears the same
way when printed or moved to another format or program.

Spell check: Word features a built-in dictionary for spell checking; misspelled words are marked with a red squiggly
underline. Sometimes, Word auto-corrects an obviously misspelled word or phrase.
Text-level features such as bold, underline, italic and strike-through

Page-level features such as indentation, paragraphing and justification

External support: Word is compatible with many other programs, the most common being the other members of
the Office suite.

The default file format was .doc prior to the Microsoft Word 2007 version; in 2007, .docx became the default file
format.

MICROSOFT EXCEL

Is a software program produced by Microsoft that allows users to organize, format and calculate data with formulas
using a spreadsheet system. This software is part of the Microsoft Office suite and is compatible with other
applications in the Office suite.

Excel is a commercial spreadsheet application produced and distributed by Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and
Mac OS. It features the ability to perform basic calculations, use graphing tools, create pivot tables and create
macros.

Excel has the same basic features as all spreadsheet applications, which use a collection of cells arranged into rows
and columns to organize and manipulate data. They can also display data as charts, histograms and line graphs.
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Excel permits users to arrange data so as to view various factors from different perspectives. Visual Basic is used for
applications in Excel, allowing users to create a variety of complex numerical methods. Programmers are given an
option to code directly using the Visual Basic Editor, including Windows for writing code, debugging and code
module organization.

Mastering the basic Excel formulas is critical for beginners to become highly proficient in financial analysis. Microsoft
Excel is considered the industry standard piece of software in data analysis. Microsoft’s spreadsheet program also
happens to be one of the most preferred software by investment bankers and financial analyst in data processing,
financial modeling, and presentation. This guide will provide an overview and list of basic Excel functions.

Basic Terms in Excel

1. Formulas

In Excel, a formula is an expression that operates on values in a range of cells or a cell. For example, =A1+A2+A3,
which finds the sum of the range of values from cell A1 to Cell A3.

2. Functions

Functions are predefined formulas in Excel. They eliminate laborious manual entry of formulas while giving them
human-friendly names. For example: =SUM(A1:A3). The function sums all the values from A1 to A3.

Five Time-saving Ways to Insert Data into Excel

When analyzing data, there are five common ways of inserting basic Excel formulas. Each strategy, however, comes
with an advantage over the other. Therefore, before diving further into the main formulas, we’ll clarify those
methods, so you can create your preferred workflow earlier on.

1. Simple insertion: Typing a formula inside the cell

Typing a formula in a cell or the formula bar is the most straightforward method of inserting basic Excel formulas.
The process usually starts by typing an equal sign, followed by the name of the function.

Excel is quite intelligent in that when you start typing the name of the function, a pop-up function hint will show. It’s
from this list you’ll select your preference. However, don’t press the Enter key. Instead, press the Tab key so that you
can continue to insert other options. Otherwise, you may find yourself with an invalid name error, often as
‘#NAME?’. To fix it, just re-select the cell, and go to the formula bar to complete your function.
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2. Using Insert Function Option from Formulas Tab

If you want full control of your functions insertion, using the Excel Insert Function dialogue box is all you ever need.
To achieve this, go to the Formulas tab and select the first menu labeled Insert Function. The dialogue box will
contain all functions you need to complete your analysis.
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3. Selecting a Formula from One of the Groups in Formula Tab

The option is for those who want to delve into their favorite functions quickly. To find this menu, navigate to the
Formulas tab and select your preferred group. Click to show sub-menu filled with a list of functions. From there, you
can select your preference. However, if you find your preferred group is not on the tab, click on the More Functions
option – probably it’s just hidden there.
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4. Using AutoSum Option

For quick and everyday tasks, AutoSum is your go-to option. So, navigate to the Home tab, in the far-right corner,
click the AutoSum option. Then click the caret to show other hidden formulas. This option is also available in the
Formulas tab first option after the Insert Function option.
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5. Quick Insert: Use Recently Used Tabs

If you find re-typing your most recent formula a monotonous task, then use the Recently Used menu. It’s on the
Formulas tab, a third menu option just next to AutoSum.
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Seven Basic Excel Formulas For Your Workflow

Since you’re now able to insert your preferred formulas and function correctly, let’s check some fundamental Excel
functions to get you started.

1. SUM

The SUM function is the first must-know formula in Excel. It usually aggregates values from a selection of columns or
rows from your selected range.

=SUM(number1, [number2], …)

Example:

=SUM(B2:G2) – A simple selection that sums the values of a row.

=SUM(A2:A8) – A simple selection that sums the values of a column.

=SUM(A2:A7, A9, A12:A15) – A sophisticated collection that sums values from range A2 to A7, skips A8, adds A9,
jumps A10 and A11, then finally adds from A12 to A15.

=SUM(A2:A8)/20 – Shows you can also turn your function into a formula.
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2. AVERAGE

The AVERAGE function should remind you of simple averages of data such as the average number of shareholders in
a given shareholding pool.

=AVERAGE(number1, [number2], …)

Example:

=AVERAGE(A1:A10) – Shows a simple average, also similar to (SUM(A1: A10)/9)

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3. COUNT

The COUNT function counts all cells in a given range that contains only numeric values.

=COUNT(value1, [value2], …)

Example:

COUNT(A:A) – Counts all values that are numerical in A column. However, it doesn’t use the same formula to count
rows.

COUNT(A1:C1) – Now it can count rows.

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4. COUNTA

Like the COUNT function, COUNTA counts all cells in a given rage. However, it counts all cells regardless of type. That
is, unlike COUNT that relies on only numerics, it also counts dates, times, strings, logical values, errors, empty string,
or text.

=COUNTA(value1, [value2], …)

Example:

COUNTA(A:A) – Counts all cells in column A regardless of type. However, like COUNT, you can’t use the same
formula to count rows.
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5. IF

The IF function is often used when you want to sort your data according to a given logic. The best part of the IF
formula is that you can embed formulas and function in it.

=IF(logical_test, [value_if_true], [value_if_false])

Example:

=IF(C2<D3, ‘TRUE,’ ‘FALSE’) – Checks if the value at C3 is less than the value at D3. If the logic is true, let the cell
value be TRUE, else, FALSE

=IF(SUM(C1:C10) > SUM(D1:D10), SUM(C1:C10, SUM(D1:D10)) – An example of a complex IF logic. First, it sums C1
to C10 and D1 to D10, then it compares the sum. If the sum of C1 to C10 is greater than SUM of D1 to D10, then it
makes the value of a cell equal to the sum of C1 to C10. Otherwise, it makes it the SUM of C1 to C10.
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6. TRIM

The TRIM function makes sure your functions do not return errors due to unruly spaces. It ensures that all empty
spaces are eliminated. Unlike other functions that can operate on a range of cells, TRIM only operates on a single
cell. Therefore, it comes with the downside of adding duplicated data in your spreadsheet.

=TRIM(text)

Example:

TRIM(A4) – Removes empty spaces in the value in cell A4.

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7. MAX & MIN

The MAX and MIN functions help in finding the maximum number and the minimum number in a pull of values.

=MIN(number1, [number2], …)

Example:

=MIN(B2:C11) – Finds the minimum number between column B from B2 and column C from C2 to row 11 in both
column B and C.

=MAX(number1, [number2], …)

Example:

=MAX(B2:C11) – Similarly, it finds the maximum number between column B from B2 and column C from C2 to row
11 in both column B and C.
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MICROSOFT POWERPOINT

Is a powerful presentation software developed by Microsoft. It is a standard component of the company's Microsoft
Office suite software, and is bundled together with Word, Excel and other Office productivity tools. The program
uses slides to convey information rich in multimedia. The term "slide" refers to the slide projector, which this
software effectively replaces.

PowerPoint was developed by Dennis Austin and Thomas Rudkin at Forethought Inc. It was supposed to be named
Presenter, but the name was not adapted due to trademark issues. It was renamed PowerPoint in 1987 as suggested
by Robert Gaskins. In August of 1987, Microsoft bought Forethought for $14 million and turned it into its graphics
business unit, where the company continued to develop the software. The first iteration was launched together with
Windows 3.0 in 1990. It only allowed slide progression in one direction – forward – and the amount of customization
was fairly limited.

PowerPoint experienced a very significant change in PowerPoint 97, which added predefined transition effects and
allowed the user to time them appropriately so that slides would transition automatically. This allowed a presenter
to follow a predefined progression and go on with the presentation without pausing to change or read the slides.
PowerPoint 2007 introduced the "ribbon" interface, marking a drastic change from the previous interface style.
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CHAPTER-V

SPSS

SPSS is a comprehensive system for analyzing data. SPSS can take data from almost any type of file and use them to
generate tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics, and complex
statistical analysis.

SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package for the Social Science. SPSS is one of the most popular statistical packages
which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis with simple instructions. It is designed for both
interactive and non-interactive (batch) uses.

SPSS Program Functionality:

SPSS has scores of statistical and mathematical functions, scores statistical procedures, and a very flexible data
handling capability. It can read data in almost any format (e.g., numeric, alphanumeric, binary, dollar, date, time
formats), and version 6 onwards can read files created using spread sheet/data base software. It also has excellent
data manipulation utilities.

The following is a brief overview of some of the functionalities of SPSS:

 Data transformations
 Data Examination
 Descriptive Statistics
 Contingency tables
 Reliability tests
 Correlation
 T-tests
 ANOVA
 MANOVA
 General Linear Model (Release 7.0 and higher)
 Regression
 Nonlinear Regression
 Logistic Regression
 Loglinear Regression
 Discriminant Analysis
 Factor Analysis
 Cluster anlaysis
 Multidimensional scaling
 Probit analysis
 Forecasting/Time Series
 Survival analysis
 Nonparametric analysis
 Graphics and graphical interface.
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CHAPTER-VI

A survey method
A predefined questionnaire
The questionnaire having questions like personal information, computer education, computer use, Internet and
World Wide Web aware and use, search engines, browser, skills search techniques, awareness of the e-journals, level
of use, purpose of use, problems of using e-journals, etc.

250 Sample population

Questionnaires have been distributed with equal proportion based on the number of departments available in that
campus
Data collected through questionnaire have been analysed using statistical tool.

Computer Education: Two third of the respondents are having formal computer education.
Computer Use: Almost all the researchers are using computer one or other purposes.
Purpose of using Computer: The research scholars are using computer for preparing assignment, project, research
and some extend to entertainment rather business purpose.

Internet and World Wide Web: Almost all the respondents are aware of Internet and World Wide Web and one third
of them having good experiences in using Internet and World Wide Web.
The research scholars are not only depending upon the University’s Internet Centre’s but also Cyber cafes. Only
minimum number are using in their home.
Internet use Learning: The researchers are learnt Internet browsing by themselves and through friends. This
indicates that the syllabus does not have any course on Internet study area.

Internet Access Difficulties:

Language Barriers: Language is not at all considered as barriers in Internet access
Broken Links: Broken / dead link problem affect the researchers in the moderate level.
Instability of Network: The instability of network also not affects the use of Internet.
Slow Expansion of site: Researchers opined that it is in moderate level.
Relevant Information: The research scholars are found relevant information while searching the Internet.
Information overload: The same opinions of the above could find this case also.

Search Skills: Keyword search is preferred search methods adopted by the majority of the researchers rather
content/ topical search. The moderate level of satisfaction they acquired through keyword search.
Search techniques: Boolean operators, phrase searching are some of search techniques rarely being used by the
researchers. The other techniques such as nesting, truncation, controls, wildcard, etc never being used by the almost
all the research scholars.

Type of Resources browsing:

Bibliographic databases: It is not a preferred resource for browsing by the research scholars.
E-books: Almost all the researchers are not having the habit of using E-books.
Audio-Video: Rarely it being used by the researchers.
Full-text databases: Full-texts databases are preferred areas of interest of most of the scholars.
E-journals: The majority of the research scholars often use E-journals.
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E-journals:
E-journals are using by the research scholars of the Uni9versity. Among the researchers, Science discipline
researchers are using open sources as well as consortia.
Generally the E-journals are useful sources of scholarly communication
Both the opinions are found that E-journals are considered as substitution to the print journals and not.

E-journals characteristics:
Accessibility of the E-journals is easy than printed journals.
Though authenticity is one of the criticisms when the ‘open sources’, E-journals are considered as one of the
authentic sources of information.
Lot of E-journals is available in an electronic form, which made available through open sources and consortium.
Digital information has an attribute of manifestation. E-journals are considered as useful resources.

Though two third of the researchers are having formal computer education, one third of respondents are not having
formal education. A course work on basics of computer and information resources may be introduced as part of in
the Ph.D. programme.
The major source for Internet access is not only the University’s Internet Centres but also Cyber/ Internet cafes. The
University networking and Internet service to be strengthen by improving the bandwidth, increasing the server
capacity.