CEMENT and CONCRETERESEARCH. Vol. 7, pp. 719-730, 1977.

Pergamon Press, Inc

Printed in the United States.

ALKALIES IN CEMENT: A REVI~V

I. Forms of Alkalies and Their Effect on Clinker Formation

Inam Jawed and Jan Skalny

N~rtin ~rietta Laboratories
Baltimore, Maryland

(Communicated by S. Diamond)
(Received September 15, 1977)

ABSTRACT
Alkalies in portland cement clinker occur as sulfates and,
depending on the amount of SO3 available, may also be present in
calcitun silicate and aluminate phases. Introduction of alkalies
into clinker minerals modifies their crystal structure which, in
turn, can change their hydraulic reactivity. Alkalies affect the
clinkering process by modifying the physicochemical properties
of the melt formed in the kiln, and may have an adverse effect on
the phase composition of clinker.

In Portlandzementklinkern vorkommende Alkalien k~nnen Sulfate

sein oder auch in den Silikat-oder Aluminatanteilen vorkommen, je
nach der vorhandenen Menge yon SO 3. Alkalien in Klinkermineralien
modifizieren deren Struktur und kBnnen dadurch deren hydraulische
Reaktionen ver~ndern. Alkalien beeinflussen den klinkerformenden
Prozess dadurch, (lass sie die physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften
der in der Kiln geformten Sc~melze beeinflussen. Die Anwesenheit
yon Alkalien kann unerw~nschte Folgen for die Phasenkomposition yon
Klinkern haben.

719
720 Vol. 7, No. 6
I. Jawed, J. Skalny

I. Introduction

Alkalies are unavoidably introduced in minor quantities into portland

cement clinker. They aroused particular interest when Stanton (I) reported
that alkaline solutions produced in the hardened concrete subsequently
reacted with some aggregate ingredients causing disruptive expansion and
deterioration of concrete structures. Since then alkalies have come to be
regarded as potentially deleterious but unavoidable species in clinker.
In fact, the alkali-aggregate reaction has been termed the "cancer of
concrete", and the alkalies from the cement compared to viruses (2). Since
Stanton's report, a vast literature has accumulated on the alkali-aggregate
reactions. An annotated bibliography of alkali-aggregate reactions,covering
literature up to 1974, was compiled by Figg (3). A recent review by Diamond
(4,5) stmmarizes the knowledge of the mechanism of alkali-silica reactions.

There has now been a renewed interest in alkalies in clinker because

of changes in pyroprocessing technology, call for energy conservation, the
limited availability of low-alkali raw materials, and tightened environ-
mental restrictions. Increase in fuel prices has accentuated the trend
from wet to dry processes and to the use of coal as the primary fuel source.
All the above factors lead to increases in alkali and sulfate concentrations
in the clinker. Any means to remove alkalies is a technically difficult and
an expensive proposition. The worldwide trend, therefore, now seems to be
towards higher alkali contents in cement.

The maximum limit of alkalies expressed as Na20 equivalent

(Na20 + 0.658 K20), specifiedwhen the cement is to be used in concrete with
reactive aggregates, is 0.6% (ASTM C 150-74). The usual alkali content
(Na20 + K$O) of portland cements, however, ranges from 0.3 to 1.3%, and in
high alumzna cements from 0.I to 0.6%.

II. Origin of Alkalies in Clinker

Alkalies in clinker originate from the raw materials used for the
manufacture of portland cement -- i.e. clay, limestone, chalk, and shale --
all of which contain alkalies. Typical analyses are as follows (6):

Clay Limestone Shale Chalk Typical Raw Mix

K20 (%) 2.61 0.26 4.56 0.04 0.52

Na)O (%) 0.74 0.ii 0.82 0.09 0.13
$2: (%) -- 0.03 0.30 0.01 --
SO 3 (%) 0.21 0.02 -- 0.07 0.07

Alkalies can also come from coal ash if coal is used as the primary fuel.
As will be described later, most of alkalies in clinker exist in some
combination with sulfur. Sulfur in clinker may come from oil or coal used
as fuel. Additionally, it may originate from raw materials such as clay or
shale where it occurs as pyrites, sulfates, or organic compounds.

About 50% of alkalies present in the raw feed are volatilized in the kiln
between 800°C to 1000°C. These alkalies are later partly condensed in
cooler parts of the kiln. Formation of rings and coatings on the kiln
lining has been attributed to the condensation of alkalies and their reaction
with the refractory material (7-10). The extent of volatilization varies with
raw materials, and is higher for clays than for feldspars. Usually
Vol. 7, No. 6 721
ALKALIES, CEMENTCLINKER, HYDRAULICITY

potassium compounds are more volatile than those of sodium but this is not
universally the case (ii). A direct linear relationship between the
density of the alkali-containing raw materials and the extent of volatilization
has been reported (12). The extent of volatilization is also affected by the
type of kiln. There is a general tendency for the retention of alkalies to
be higher as the energy efficiency of the kiln system increases (6). A
larger amount of alkalies is volatilized when gas or oil is used as fuel as
compared to coal (13).

Sulfur containing compounds from the raw materials and fuel are
oxidized in the kiln to SO 3 and a sulfur cycle forms. The first reaction
of SO5 is to form alkali sulfates, preferentially with potassium, and
later calcium sulfates. At higher temperatures, alkali sulfates are vapor-
ized and calcium sulfate is partly decomposed. More than half of the sulfur
originating from raw materials and fuel appears in the clinker; the rest is
lost in the flue gases and in the kiln dust. Besides reacting with alkalies,
SO3 can also combine with silicates and aluminates to form compounds such
as (2 CaO.SiO2)2.Caso4 or 4 CaO.3 Al203-SO3. These may build up in kiln
rings but decompose again at clinkering temperature.

III. Alkali Compounds in Clinker

Compounds containing alkalies and sulfur may be found in almost all parts
of the cement plant. These compounds occur in the clinker, on the kiln
linings and preheaters, in the kiln dust, in the flue gases, and in the
storage silos. Whereas the presence of fluorides and chlorides in the raw
feed enhances the volatility of alkalies (14-19), the presence of sulfur
leads to reduction of alkali volatility during clinker formation (20-22).
Alkali compounds in clinker can be divided into three main groups (25-26):
(a) Alkali sulfates; (b) Alkali aluminates and aluminoferrites; (c) Alkali
silicates. In some cases, alkali may also occur in the form of carbonates
(2S).
Alkalies as Sulfates

Based on available evidence, it appears that the clinker SO5 makes

prior demand on the alkalies. The resulting quantity of alkali sulfate is
determined by the ratio of total clinker sulfate to total alkali. The
remaining sulfate forms calcium sulfates, either as the soluble double
sulfate or as anhydrite. The alkali sulfates most commonly formed are:

Potassium sulfate (arcanite, K2SO4)

Sodium potassium sulfate (aphthitalite, Na2SO4.3~SO4, or a similar
solid solution)

Calcium potassium sulfate (calcium langbeinite, 2Caso4-K2SO4, or

a similar solid solution)

According to Pollitt and Brown (25),potassium sulfate is likely to occur

either alone or in one of the two double sulfate forms depending upon the
available quantities of sodium sulfate and calcium sulfate, the preference
probably being for the double alkali sulfate. Sodium sulfate may occur
alone but, more probably, as the double alkali sulfate. It does not form
a double salt with calcium sulfate. Calcium sulfate occurs either alone or
as 2 CaSO4-K2SO4 subject to the prior formation of double alkali sulfates.
 722 Vol. 7, No. 6
I. Jawed, J. Skalny

Overall, potassium is twice as likely to produce soluble sulfate as sodium.

The burning zone atmosphere has been reported to influence alkali compound
formation (27,28). Calcit~npotassium sulfate, 2 CaSO4.K2SO4, tends to be
produced in an oxidizing flame while sodium potassium sulfate, 3 K2SO 4-
Na2S04 , is produced under reducing burning conditions.

Alkalies in Aluminates and Silicates

After allocating alkalies to sulfate, the remainder appears to be

distributed between the silicates, aluminates and aluminoferrites. The
rules governing the quantitative division of alkalies between silicates,
aluminates and ferrites are not yet clear but, it is known, that aluminates
and ferrites accomodate about half or more of the available alkalies. The
quantity of alkalies in the aluminate and ferrite phases, respectively, is
found to be related to the alumina contents of these phases (25). Lea (6)
has given the following typical ranges of solid solutions in the four main
clinker components:
Na20 (%) K20 (%)
C3S 0.I - 0.3 0.i - 0.3
C2S 0.2 ~ 1.0 0.3 - 1.0
C3A 0.3 ~ 1.7 0.4 - I.I
C4AF 0.0 - 0,5 0.0 - 0 . I

The characteristic sodi~n containing compound is NC8A3 and has been the
subject of extensive investigations (24,25,29-41). The exact stoichiometry
of NCsA 3 and its potassium containing analog is, however, very difficult to
confirm. Free alkali reacts with C3A to form NCsA 3 and free lime; this CaO
could theoretically react with C2S to form C3S but the reaction is sluggish
and often incomplete. Alkali contents may, therefore, influence the degree
of lime saturation and cause latent unsoundness.

According to Suzukawa (33), NC8A 3 is a dark prismatic interstitial

phase with slight silica content, having refractive indices of 1.702 and
1.711, birefringence of 0.010, and negative elongation. The x-ray pattern
is similar to that of C3A but with the following difference: the strong
C3A lines are split - the 23045 ' 28 lSne with d = 1.91 N i~to 1.89 and 1.92 ~i
and the 29°36 ' 2@-line with d = 1.56 ~ into 1.55 and 1.56 ~ C39].

If clinker contains anhydrite (CaS04), it can react with NC8A 3 to give

thenardite (Na2SO 4) and C3A. A value of 2576 kcal/mole for the heat of
formation of NC8A 3 and 4850 kcal/mole for its heat of reaction with CaSO 4 to
form Na2S04 and C3Ahas been reported (42).

The existence of compound KC23S12, as discussed by Taylor (43-4~), is

difficult to identify by optical microscopy. Nurse (46,47) and Suzukawa
(48,49) have concluded that this product is not a distinct compound but a
potassium stabilized form of e'-C2S. Petrographic examination shows that
KC23S12 consists mainly of irregular or rounded particles with relatively
low blrefringence (59). Its refractive indices are 1.702 and 1.695, and
the x-ray pattern differs from the 8-C2S pattern only in the intensity of
some lines (46). It reacts easily wit~ anhydrite (CaSO4) to give arcanite
(K2SO4) and C2S. If NC8A 3 is present simultaneously, formation of solid
solutions of the type (Na,K)zSO 4 is observed. The composition of these mixed
sulfates as a function of clLnker composition has been discussed by Newkirk
(23,24), who also developed equations to indicate the effect of alkalies on
Vol. 7, No. 6 723
ALKALIES, CEMENTCLINKER, HYDRAULICITY

the potential phase composition of clinkers. Very small changes in sodi~n,

potassium, and SO 3 contents may cause relatively large changes in the amount
of C3S and C3A. The heat of formation of KC23S12 from elements has been
calculated as 6420 kcal/mole (50), this; however, cannot be used to decide
whether a real compound or a crystalline solution exists. The heat of
reaction of KC23S]2 with anhydrite to form 8-C2S and orthorhombic K2SO 4 has
been given as 36.3 kcal/mole. Heats of solution of 8-C2S preparations con-
taining increasing amounts of K20 show a maximum near the composition of
KC23S12.
Besides NC8A3 and KC $IS 2, the existence, of sodium, substituted, belite,
NC23S12, and an orthorhom~Ic phase of potasslum substituted alumznate,
KCsA3, has been suggested [26,49). Suzukawa (49) noted that KC8A3 formed
only in the presence of SiO 2 which indicated that Si ions replaced A1 ions
in this product. The formation of K20-4SiO 2 and Na20.2SiO 2 at 600°C, and
Na2Ca(C03) 2 and K3Na(SO4) 2 at 700°C, is also reported (51,52).

Other Alkali Compounds in Cement ~nufacturing

The kiln dust contains alkali halides in addition to sulfates, the most
common being sylvite (KCl) (26,53). The most common sulfates in kiln dust
are arcanite [K2SO4) , aphthitalite [Na2SO4-3K2SO4) , and calcium langbeinite
(2CaSO4.K2SO4). Formation of lumps in cement during storage has been
attributed to another alkali calcium sulfate, syngenite (K2SO4.CaSO4.H2 O)
[54-56). Increased syngenite formation was noticed when cement contained
more than 12% by weight of C3A and had a total potassium content of about 1%
(57-59). Syngenite is also formed during grinding of clinker in the mill if
the temperature is lowered by water (60). Compounds of alkali and sulfur with
or without silicates are major contributors to the formation of rings and
coatings in the inner wall of kiln, suspension preheater, Lepol grate
chambers, etc. These coatings result from the molten matter and contain
alkali sulfates and chlorides,often together with spurrite (2C2S.CAC03) ,
sulfo-spurrite (2C2S.CASO4) , calcium sulfoaluminate (C3A.CaSO4) and calcium
langbeinite [2CaSO~.K2SO4) (61-67). The formation of spurrite is known to be
promoted by such fluxes as CaF 2 . Gutt and Smith (68) found that Na2SO 4 and
K2SO 4 acted similarly to CaF 2. Simultaneous presence of alumina and K2SO4,
however, discouraged spurrite formation.

IV. Effect of Alkalies on Clinker

The formation of clinker grains and their macro-and microstructure

depend on the amount and the physico-chemical properties of the melt formed
in the clinkering process. These properties of the melt are, in turn,
dependent on the variation in the chemical composition of the raw mix, on
introduction of ki.lndust and various additives into the raw mix, and on
other factors influencing the composition of the liquid phase of the clinker.
Changes in the melt composition affect the surface tension and viscosity of
the melt (69). The surface tension leads to aggregation while the forces of
gravity and viscosity offer resistance. Timashev et al. (70) noted that the
size of the clinker grains increased with increasing surface tension of the
melt. Single oxides or oxide mixtures ~ O , Na$O, MgO + Na20 , MgO + K20),
which have little influence on the surface tenszon but do lower the viscosity
of the melts, favored aggregation~dth formation of uniform grain size clinkers
Introduction of SO jointly with K~O or Na20 into the melt modified the
surface tension and led to phase separation. The less dense melt with lower
surface tension is displaced onto particle surfaces. This slows down the
aggregation and dust-like clinker grains are formed. The density of
724 Vol. 7, No. 6
I. Jawed, J. Skalny

Na2SO 4 melt (3.0 g/co) is very close to that of clinker liquid phase
(3702 g/cc) whereas that of K2SO 4 is lower (2.8 g/cc). Hence, Na2SO 4
droplets are dispersed into the parent melt whereas K2SO 4 droplets rise to
the surface and phase separation occurs. The high surface activity of K20
in comparison with Na20 is also important; it facilitates separation of
K2SO 4 as an independent liquid phase.

The rate of formation of C3S has been found to be proportional to the

amount of liquid phase in the kiln at a given temperature (71). Because
alkalies decrease the temperature of melt formation, an effect on C35
formation is expected. However, the results of Johansen (72) showed that
clinkers with or without alkalies had the same amount of free CaO after
burning at 1400-1500°C. Vulkov et al. (73) showed that optim~n raw feed
grain size led to an increase of liquid phase resulting in dissolution of
greater amount of alkali oxides. This had an adverse effect on the
crystallization conditions of C3S and decreased its content. Luginina et al.
(74) also noted formation of highly fluid liquid phase at about 800°C due to
presence of alkalies which affected the clinker formation. Results of
Azelitskaya et al. (75) showed that a significant amount of free CaO
appeared sooner than normal in alkali containing raw mixes. Increased
amount of liquid phase formed but its alkali content prevented CaO from
dissolving. The amount of C3 S decreased and formation of NC8A 3 type solid
solution was observed.
Kr~mer and zur Strassen (76) have shown that, whereas K2SO 4 does not
influence the formation of clinker minerals, Na2SO 4 has a significant effect.
In the presence of Na2SO 4, the XRD intensities of alite peaks decreased
whereas peaks of CaO appeared. This is the same effect as shown by K20.
They conclude that Na.2S04 is taken up by C2S in solid solution, which
prevents the formatzon of alite in the same way as KC23S12 does. Woermann
(77) observed the decomposition of alite by high concentrations of K20.
He concluded that K+ may be contained in alite crystals at high temperatures
but, at lower temperatures, the equilibrium alite ~ belite + CaO is shifted
to the right causing decomposition of alite. Hive~ (78) also noted that K20
promoted decomposition of C3S to C2S plus CaO, and that it resulted in the
formation of solid solution KC23S12. Yamaguchi and Uchikawa (79) showed the
influence of Na~O on the formation of alite. Their high temperature .XPd9
studies revealed a strong tendency towards disintegration of alite and
appearance of free CaO. C3S changes from triclinic to monoclinic symmetry as
soon as 0.33% Na20 is taken up. The structure of this monoclinic phase is
identical with that reported by Yamaguchi and Miyabe (80) with two Na + ions
replacing one Ca 2+. Volatilization of Na20 brings about a retrograde
conversion of the monoclinic symmetry of the crystals to triclinic.

Ono et al. (81,82) found that with increasing alkali and decreasing
MgO contents the free CaO first increased and then decreased considerably
with increase in K20. ~-C2S increased with increasing Na20 + K20. The
decrease of specific gravity of clinkers is attributed to the occurrence of
~-C2S , which has low specific gravity. ~-C2S is stabilized by Na20 or K20
whereas ~'-C2S is stabilized by K20 or K20 + MgO. However, on increasing
K20 content, ~'-phase transforms into s-phase. Luginina et al. (83) have
discussed the microstructure of clinkers containing alkalies and MgO.
Presence of K2SO 4 imparted an equigranular texture to clinker with high
porosity and contributed to development of coarse crystals of belite.
Presence of MgO prevented the low temperature interaction of alkali with
CaCO 3 (i.e., spurrite etc., are not formed). Clinkers containing alkalies
Vo]. 7, No. 6 725
ALKALIES, CEMENTCLINKER, HYDRAULICITY

in the presence of MgO form CaO.ZAI2Os.FeO 5 as a stable compound. In high

alkali raw mixes, addition of MgCO 5 impeded the formation of spurrite.
Suzukawa and Sasaki (84,85) noted that increase in Na20 content decreased
the amount of FeO required to cause dusting of clinkers; they attributed
this to the lowering of 8-~y inversion temperature of C2S (86) and to the
change in the chemical composition of clinkers (45). Chin et al. (87) have
found that a decreasing FeO/CaO ratio in the raw mix significantly decreases
the alkali content in the clinker.

Pollitt and Brown (25) have shown that introduction of alkalies into
C3Amodifies its normal cubic fol~n to orthorhombic. This orthorhombic form
of CSA is formed with a minimum alkali content of 2.8% equivalent Na20 or
1.8% equivalent K20. Works of Moore (88,89), Day (90), and Fletcher et al.
(34) have also shown that small amounts of Na20 or K20 could replace CaO
in the cubic C3A and that greater replacement of CaO gave rise to orthorhombic
structures of NCsA 5. Boikova et al. (91) have also sho~n that presence of
Na20 results in four polymorphic modifications of C~. The hydraulic activity
of these modifications is a function of their Na20 content and is lower than
that of pure C3A. Maki (37,92), on the other hand, claims that orthorhombic
CsA exists in two forms, the low form containing 3.7% and the high form 5.9%
Na20. These forms also take small amounts of SiO 2 into solid solution. From
microscopic study of synthetic clinkers with varied contents of Na20 ,
Suzukawa (49) noted that NCsA 3 causes shirtings in the aluminoferr[te phase
composition towards the higher ferrite contents, i.e., from C4AF to C6AF 2.

Data of Butt et al. (95) show that the presence of alkalies in the raw
material decreases the rate of the clinkering reactions. Similar effects
of alkalies on clinker formation have also been reported by Benyei (94),
Volkonskii and Shteiert [95), and Lokot et al. (96).

V. Effect of SO 5 on Clinker in Presence of Alkalies

At this point, a brief discussion of the effect of SO 3 on clinkers seems

very relevant. Gutt and Smith (97) studied the role of SO 3 on clinker
minerals and showed tha~, in the absence of alkalies and ~ O , the combined
presence of A15+ and SO~-ions prevents the formation of C3S and favors solid
solution of C2S with these ions. The presence of MgO counteracts this effect.
In a later study, they noted a very complex effect of combined presence of
alkalies and CaSO 4 (68). Whe D CaSO 4 w~s present in excess, neither Na20 nor
K20 modified the effect of A1 ~+ and SO~-ions on C3S formation noted previously.
Whereas in the absence of alumina both-sodium and potassium have mineralizing
effects, in the presence of alumina their effects differ. At low concentra-
tions of K2SO4, CxS is formed rather easily but, at higher concentrations of
K2SO4, substantial liquid formation occurs at 1400°C and quenching results in
pr.oduct containing only glass and 8-C2S with traces of K2SO 4. In contrast,
in mLxes containing Na2SO 4 and alumina, the liquid formation Is not so great
and C3S is formed easily. Examination of portland cement clinkers showed
that K2SO 4 in no way modified the effect of A13+ and SO~-ions in forming
C3S. However, Na2SO 4 proved to be deleterious and prevented the formation
of C5S. This contrasted with the behavior of Na2SO 4 in C3S mixes where no
adverse effects were found.

Tsuboi et al. (98-100) found that the addition of SO X made burning and
sintering very difficult as a result of increased viscosity of the melt.
The alite crystals became larger and assumed "amoeba-like" shapes, whereas
belite crystals did not have lamellae. The C3A content of clinkers decreased
 726 Vol. 7, No. 6
I. Jawed, J. Skalny

and the clinker pores became larger. Fukuda (i01) noted that an addition of
3.5% CaSO 4 to raw materials decreased sharply the C3A formation; at the
same time formation of C3A.C~was observed. Above a certain CaSO 4 level
(5.3%), the C3S formation decreased and a significant increase in free CaO
was noticed. Formation of C3A.Cg , when gTpsum is present in the raw meal,
has also been reported by Li (102).

~rtynstev et al. (103) found that the addition of 0.5% SO 3 imparted

a coarse cD'stalline structure to clinkers with well defined alzte c©~stals.
An increase to 1% SO 3 resulted in fine grained structure. SO~ also
decreased the clinkering temperature by about 200°C. A decrease of clinkering
temperature with increase in SO~. (added as gypsum to raw meal) has also been
reported by ~hrakami et al. (I0~). Overburned clinkers with high sulfur
showed large alite crystals. Clinkers burned at 1300°C, however, had badly
formed alite crystals. Butt et al. (105) have found that increase of SO 3
(1.2 to 4.7%) in the raw feed decreased the K20 content in the clinker from
2.4 to 2.03%. Clinkers containing 2.1% SO 3 't~,rere characten_ed
" 7 by
heterogeneous structures and indistinct crystallization of minerals. :in
increase in SO 3 from 1.55 to 7.7% significantly changed the specific surface.
Increase in SO 3 from 3.97 to 4.24% increased the amount of belite and
decreased that of alite.

A positive effect of g~/psum addition to alkali containing raw materials

on the formation of clinker minerals has been reported by Azelitskaya et al.
(106,107). The clinkering temperature decreased. The amount of C-S
increased and a positive effect on the binding of CaO was noted. Presence
of alkali sulfates resulted in well developed alite and belite crystals.
Different alkali containing rm¢ materials required different amounts of
gypsum. It is claimed that use of proper amolmt of gypsum resulted in
higher kiln output and reduction of fuel consumption.

VI. References

(i) T.E. Stanton, Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Engr., 66, 1781 (1940).
(2) G.M. Idorn, Proc. Symp. Effect of Alkalies on the Properties of Concrete,
Sept. 1976 C & CA. London, p. 3 (1977).
(3) J.W. Figg, Alkali-Aggregate (Alkali-Silica and Alkali Silicate% Reactivity,
C ~ U R E A U , Paris (19/7).
(4) S. Diamond, Cem. Concr. Res., 5, 329 (1975).
(5) S. Diamond, ibid., 6, 549 (1976).
(6) F.M. Lea, The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Chem. Publ. Co.,
2nd Ed. N.Y. (1971).
(7) E. Vogel, Silikattech., 9, 361, 449, 502 (1958).
(8) H.E. Schwiete, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 9, 351 (1956).
(9) R. Al~gre and P. Terrier, Rev. N~teriaux Constr. et. tray. publ.
523, 89 (1959).
(I0) H.M. Garrett, Pit & Quarry, (3), 84 (1976).
(ii) M. Rustom, Schweizer. Arch. Angew. Wiss. Tech., 22, 197 (1956).
(12) I.P. Yanev et al., Trans. Mosk. Khim, Technol. Inst., 76, 125 (1973)
C. A. no. 82:14424IV.
Vol. 7, No. 6 727
ALKALIES, CEMENTCLINKER, HYDRAULICITY

(13) R.A. Loveland, quoted by W.J. ~ C o y and O.L. Eshenour, Proc. 5th
Intl. Syrup. Chemistry of Cement, Tokyo, I/ol. II, p. 437 C1968).
(14) H. Wood, Rock Prod., 45, 66 (1942).
(15) E.R. Holden, Ind. Engg. Chem., 42, 337 (1950).
(16) A.D. Azelitskaya, Silikattech) 5, 120 (1954).
(17) A.D. Azelitskaya, Tsement (3), 13 (1954).
(18) V.L. Pankratov and L.Y. Lopotnikova, Tsement, (S), 19 (1970).
(19) V.M. Blonakaya and V.M. Stepanov, Tsement, (4), 12 (1969).
(20) W.C. Taylor, J. Res. NBS, 29, 142 (1942).
(21) T.F. Newkirk, ibid, 46, (1950).
(22) J.P. Draper, quoted in The Chemistry of Portland Cement by R.H. Bogue,
p. 129, Reinhold Publ. Corp. N.Y. (1955).
(23) T.F. Newkirk, J. Res. NBS, 47, 349 (1951).
{24) T.F. Newkirk, Proc. 4th Int'l Symp. Chemistry of Cement, London,
p. 151 (1952).
(25) H.W. Pollitt and A. Brown, Proc. 5th Int'l. Symp. Chemistry of Cement
Tokyo, Vol. I, p. 322 (1968).
(26) L.D. Adams, Paper presented at 75th Annual Ceramic Society Meeting
at Cincinnati, April 1975.
(27) J.E. Mander, Proc. Symp. Effect of Alkalies on Properties of Concrete
Sept. 1976 C & CA. London, p. 27 (1977).
(28) J.E. Mander and J. Skalny, Ceram. Bull., 56, (1977) (to be published).
(29) L.T. Brownmiller and R.H. Bogue, Am, J. Sci., 23, 501 C1932).
(30) K.T. Greene and R.H. Bogue, J. Res. NBS, 36, 187 (1946).
(31) D.L. Heath, J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 40, 50 (1957).
(32) J.A. Conwick and D.E. Day, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 47, 654 (1964).
(33) Y. Suzukawa, Zement-Kalk-Gips, 9, 345 (1956).
(34) K.F. Fletcher et al., Mag. Concr. Res., 17, 171 (1965).
(35) A. Guinier and M. Regourd, Proc. 5th Int'l. Symp. Chemistry of Cement,
Tokyo, Vol. I, p. 1 C1968).
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728 Vol. 7, No. 6
I. Jawed, J. Skalny

(45) W.C. Taylor, ibid, 29, 437 (1942).

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Vol. 7, No. 6 729
ALKALIES, CEMENTCLINKER, HYDRAULICITY

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•

(78) L. Hives, Silikaty, I, 42 (1971).

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