Book Review

Principle of Electronics Communications Systems by Louis Frenzel BOOK REVIEW
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC
CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATION
Definition Terms
Invented the telegraph (patented in 1844) Samuel Morse
Invented the facsimile Alexander Bain
Invented the telephone Alexander Bell
Invented phonograph Thomas Edison
Invented photography George Eastman
Discovered radio waves Heinrich Hertz
Demonstrated “wireless” communications by radio waves Guglielmo Marconi
Invented the two-electrode vacuum tube rectifier John Fleming
Invented amplitude modulation Reginald Fessenden
Invented of the triode vacuum tube Lee de Forest
Invented and demonstrated the television Vladimir Zworykin
Invented the superheterodyne receiver and frequency modulation Edwin Armstrong
Created of the first stored program electronic digital computer John von Neumann
and others
Invented transistor Bell Laboratories
Invented integrated circuits Jack Kilby and Robert

Noyce
It is the process of exchanging information. Communication
It has a transmitter, a communication channel and a receiver that when a human Electronic
being generates some kind of message, data or other intelligence that must be Communication System
received by others, communication begins.
It is the “message” or an intelligence signal in Electronics Communication Systems. Information
A general term applied to any phenomenon that degrades or interferes with the Noise
transmitted information.
It is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the Transmitter

electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication
medium.
It is the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Communication
Channel
1
It is the broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication from one Wireless Radio
point to another.
Employs the signals that are simply superimposed on or added to the power line Carrier Current
voltage to be transmitted to the electrical conductors that carry the power to operate Transmission
virtually all our electrical and electronic devices.
It is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted Receiver
message from the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by humans.
A two-way electronic communication equipment that incorporates circuits that both Transceiver
send and receive so both parties must have both transmitter and receiver.
Signal degradation that is inevitable no matter what the medium of transmission. It is Attenuation
proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Measurement of noise where the signal power divided by the noise power and can be Signal-to-Noise Ratio
stated numerically or in terms of decibels (dB). (SNR)
A simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted in one-way Simplex

communications. Communication
The bulk of electronic communication in two-way. Duplex Communication
Communicating with one another over an electronic device where you can talk and Full Duplex
listen simultaneously. Communication
The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time. Half Duplex
Communication
It is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current. Analog Signal
In contrast to analog signals it does not vary continuously, but change in steps or in Digital Signal
discrete increments.
It is the most commonly used digital code in communications that shows a serial American Standard
binary code. Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
It is an electronic technique for transmitting information efficiently from one place to Modulation
another that makes the information signal more compatible with the medium.
It is an electronic technique for transmitting information efficiently from one place to Multiplexing
another that allows more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over a single
medium.
Baseband information signals can be sent directly and unmodified, putting the original Baseband
voice, video, or digital signals directly into the medium. Transmission
It is a modulated high- frequency signal that is used to the baseband information Carrier
signal due to its incompatibility with the medium.
It is an electromagnetic signals or wireless signals consist of both electric and Radio-Frequency (RF)
magnetic field, which are able to travel through space for long distances. Wave
A process in which the information to be sent is impressed upon the carrier where the Broadband
carrier is usually a sine wave that is fed to a modulator along the baseband Transmission
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intelligence signal. This signal changes the carrier in a unique way and the modulated
carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna for transmission.
It is a method where the baseband information signal called the modulating signal Amplitude Modulation
varies the amplitude of the higher-frequency carrier signal. (AM)
It is a method where the information signal varies the frequency of the carrier, and the Frequency Modulation
carrier amplitude remains constant. (FM)
It is a method varying the phase angle and produces frequency modulation (FM). Phase Modulation (PM)
It transmit digital data by modulation where the data is converted to frequency-varying Frequency-Shift Keying
tones. (FSK)
It transmit digital data by modulation where the data introduces 180°-phase shift. Phase-Shift Keying
(PSK)
It is a device that translate the data from digital to analog and back again. Modems
It converts the individual baseband signals to a composite signal that is used to Multiplexer
modulate a carrier in the transmitter.
It is where the composite signal is recovered. Demodulator
It is where the individual baseband signals are regenerated. Demultiplexer
It is where the intelligence signals modulate subcarriers on different frequencies that Frequency-Division
are then added together, and the composite signal is used to modulate the carrier. Multiplexing
It is where the multiple intelligence signals are sequentially sampled, and a small Time-Division
piece of each is used to modulate the carrier. Multiplexing
It is where the signals to be transmitted are converted to digital data that is then Code-Division
uniquely coded with a faster binary code. Multiplexing
These are signals that oscillate and vary sinusoidally. Electromagnetic Waves
It is the range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies. Electromagnetic

Spectrum
It is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occurs in a given time period. Frequency
It is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave, and it is usually expressed in Wavelength
meters.
3
Frequencies in the low end of the human audio range which also includes ac power Extremely Low
line frequencies. Frequencies
The normal range of human speech. Voice Frequencies
This range is used in some government and military communication. Very Low Frequencies
The primary communication services using this range are in aeronautical and marine Low Frequencies
navigation.
The major application of frequencies in this range is AM radio broadcasting (535 to Medium Frequencies
1605 kHz).
These are known as short waves. All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex High Frequencies
two-way radio communication take place in this range.
This popular frequency range is used by many services, including mobile radio, Very High Frequencies
marine and aeronautical communication, FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz), and
television channels 2 through 13.
It includes the UHF TV channels 14 through 51, and it is used for land mobile Ultrahigh Frequencies
communication and services such as cellular telephones as well as for military
communication.
These microwave frequencies are widely used for satellite communication and radar. Microwaves and SHFs
Electromagnetic signals with frequencies higher than 30 GHz Millimeter waves
The region occupied by light waves with three different types of light waves: infrared, Optical Spectrum
visible, and ultraviolet
It is sandwiched between the highest radio frequencies and the visible portion of the Infrared Region
electromagnetic spectrum.
It is ordinarily referring to as light. Light is a special type of electromagnetic radiation Visible Spectrum
that has a wavelength in the 0.4- to 0.8-µm range (400 to 800 nm). (Light)
It is generated by the sun is what causes sunburn and its primary use is medical. Ultraviolet
A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also the Bandwidth

frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates.
𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝟏 − 𝒇𝟐
The resulting signals after the modulation process that is to be generated at Sideband
frequencies above and below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the
modulating frequency.
The range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information. Channel Bandwidth
A regulatory body whose function is to allocate spectrum space, issue licenses, set Federal
standards, and police the airwaves. Communications
Commission (FCC)
An agency of the United Nations that brings together the various countries to discuss International
how the frequency spectrum is to be divided up and shared. Telecommunications
Union (ITU)
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Specifications and guidelines that companies and individuals follow to ensure Standards
compatibility between transmitting and receiving equipment in communication
systems.
The ability of equipment from one manufacturer to work compatibly with that of Interoperability
another
Organizations that maintain standards for communication system:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE
International Telecommunications Union (ITU
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF
Optical Internetworking Forum (IF)
Telecommunications Institute of America (TIA)
Electronic Fundamentals for Communications

CHAPTER 2
Definition Terms
It means amplification. Gain

𝑨𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ⁄𝑽𝒊𝒏
It refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Attenuation
A unit of measurement that was originally created as a way of expressing the hearing Decibel (dB)
response of the human ear to various sound levels.
Decibel Calculations
is used for expressing the voltage gain or attenuation of a
circuit
is used for current gain or attenuation
is used to compute power gain or attenuation.
𝑨𝑻 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 … . +𝑨𝒏 Overall Gain
It is the number obtained when the base is raised to the logarithm. The antilog is Antilog
simply the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power
A decibel value that is computed by comparing a power value to 1mW dBm
This is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the carrier. dBc
5
Circuits made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at specific frequencies. Tuned circuit
It is an opposition that directly affects the amount of current in a circuit. Reactance
It is used in an ac circuit continually charges and discharges. It also tends to oppose Capacitor
voltage changes across it.
𝑿𝒄 = 𝟏⁄𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 Capacitive Reactance

(𝑿𝒄 )
The wire leads of a capacitor have resistance and inductance, and the dielectric has Residual
leakage that appears as a resistance value in parallel with the capacitor.
These are typically small, but they cannot be ignored, especially at the high Stray (or distributed)
frequencies used in communication. capacitance
It is simply a winding of multiple turns of wire. Inductor (coil or choke)
An effect that causes a voltage to be self-induced into the coil winding, which has the Inductance
effect of opposing current changes in the coil
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 Inductive Reactance

(𝑿𝑳 )
Quality factor (Q)
and for parallel circuit:
The tendency of electrons flowing in a conductor to flow near and on the outer surface Skin effect
of the conductor frequencies in the VHF, UHF, and microwave regions,
It is made up of inductance, capacitance, and resistance that are often referred to as Series Resonant
LCR circuits or RLC circuits. Circuits
Current levels at which the response is down 70.7 % Half-power points
It is define by the bandwidth of resonant circuit. Selectivity
When the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor are significantly higher than Resonant step-up
the applied voltage. voltage
It is formed when the inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel with the applied Parallel Resonant
voltage. Circuit
A circuit acts as a kind of storage vessel for electric energy. Tank circuit
The circulating current in the tank circuit. Tank current
It is a frequency-selective circuit that are designed to pass some frequencies and Filter
reject others.
Simple filters created by using resistors and capacitors or inductors and capacitors. Passive filter
And sometimes referred to as high cut filters.
Passes frequencies below a critical frequency called the cutoff frequency and greatly Low-pass filter
attenuates those above the cutoff frequency.
6
Passes frequencies above the cutoff but rejects with little or no attenuation but greatly High-pass filter
attenuates those signals below the cutoff
Passes frequencies over a narrow range between lower and upper cutoff frequencies Bandpass filter
Rejects or stops frequencies over a narrow range but allows frequencies above and Band-reject filter
below to pass and they are used to greatly attenuate a narrow range of frequencies
around a center point.
Passes all frequencies equally well over its design range but has a fixed or predictable All-pass filter
phase shift characteristic
It uses combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve the desired response. RC Filters
They are mostly of the low-pass or high-pass type.
It is defined as a doubling or halving of frequency Octave
It represents a one-tenth or times-10 relationship of frequency Decade
It is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the passband. Insertion loss
They are also referred to as bandstop or band-reject filters Notch Filter
A simple notch filter that is implemented with resistors and capacitors and it is a Parallel-T (twin-T) notch
variation of a bridge circuit. filter
It is made with inductors and capacitors LC Filters
This is the frequency range over which the filter passes signals. It is the frequency Passband
range between the cutoff frequencies or between the cutoff frequency and zero (for
low-pass) or between the cutoff frequency and infinity (for high-pass)
This is the range of frequencies outside the passband and frequencies in this range Stop band
are rejected.
This is the amount by which undesired frequencies in the stop band are reduced. Attenuation
The resistive value of the load and source terminations of the filter. Impedance
Amplitude variation with frequency in the passband, or the repetitive rise and fall of Ripple
the signal level in the passband of some types of filters
It is also known as bandwidth ratio, is the ratio of the stop bandwidth to the pass Shape factor
bandwidth of a bandpass filter.
It is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the circuit Pole
It refers to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the circuit Zero
Also known as time delay, envelope delay is the time it takes for a specific point on an Envelope delay
input waveform to pass through the filter.
Also called the attenuation rate, it is the rate of change of amplitude with frequency in Roll-off
a filter. The faster the roll-off, or the higher the attenuation rate, the more selective the
filter.
7
Types of Filters
It has maximum flatness in response in the passband and a uniform attenuation with Butterworth filter
frequency.
It have an extremely good selectivity Chebyshev filter
It produce an even greater attenuation or roll-off rate than do Chebyshev filters and Cauer (elliptical) filter
greater attenuation out of the passband
It provide the desired frequency response but have a constant time delay in the Bessel (Thomson) filter
passband
An old but still useful filter that uses resonant vibrations of mechanical disks to Mechanical Filter
provide the selectivity.
It improved selectivity on the curve can be obtained by cascading several bandpass Steeper “Skirts”
sections.
It is where the parallel resonant circuit is connected in series with a resistor from Trap
which the output is taken
It is widely used in RF circuits, uses inductors and capacitors and thus has a steeper Bridge-T filter
response curve than the RC Twin-T notch filter. Since L is variable, the notch is
tunable.
These are frequency-selective circuits that incorporate RC networks and amplifiers Active Filters
with feedback to produce low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, and bandstop performance.
They provide the same filtering action as a two-pole LC filter. Second-order response
Filters that are made of thin slivers of quartz crystal or certain types of ceramic Piezoelectricity
materials.
They are made from the same type of quartz crystals normally used in crystal Crystal Filters
oscillators. When a voltage is applied across a crystal, it vibrates at a specific
resonant frequency, which is a function of the size, thickness, and direction of cut of
the crystal.
They are very small and inexpensive and are, therefore, widely used in transmitters Ceramic Filters
and receivers.
It is a fixed tuned bandpass filter is designed to provide the exact selectivity required Surface Acoustic Wave
by a given application Filters
They are active IC filters made of op amps, capacitors, and transistor switches. Also Switched capacitor
known as analog sampled data filters or commutating filters, these devices are usually filter (SCF)
implemented with MOS or CMOS circuits.
8
It is made of discrete resistors and capacitors with MOSFET switches driven by a Commutating Filters
counter and decoder
If such performance is undesirable, the higher frequencies can be eliminated with a Comb response
conventional RC or LC low-pass filter connected to the output.
It provides a means of accurately analyzing the content of most complex Fourier analysis
nonsinusoidal signals.
It is a sine wave whose frequency is some integer multiple of a fundamental sine Harmonic
wave.
Which is a rectangular signal with equal duration positive and negative alternations. Square wave
It exhibits the fundamental and odd harmonics, but it is made up of cosine waves Triangular Wave
rather than sine waves.
It contains the fundamental plus all odd and even harmonics. Sawtooth Wave
The ratio of the duration of the positive alteration t1 to the period T Duty cycle (D)
They are variations of voltage, current, or power with respect to time. Time domain
The test instrument for producing a frequency-domain display Spectrum analyzer
They useful in communication, for it gives a way to analyze the bandwidth needed to Pulse spectrum
transmit such pulses.
The outline of the peaks of the individual components of the frequency spectrum. Envelope
It is used in predicting the harmonic content of a pulse train and thus the bandwidth Sinc function
necessary to pass the wave.
Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals

CHAPTER 3
Definition Terms
The information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine wave. Amplitude Modulation
An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks and negative peaks of the carrier Envelope
waveform gives the exact shape of the modulating information signal.
Sine Wave Carrier
Sine Wave Modulating

Signal
It is the circuit used for producing AM that changes a lower-frequency baseband or Modulator
intelligence signal to a higher-frequency signal.
It should be a number between 0 and 1 Modulation index (m)
9
𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑚= =
𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
The amount or depth of AM Percentage of

𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 modulation (m%)
𝑚= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
It is caused by overmodulation where the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier Distortion
voltage.
The modulating index is greater than 1 Overmodulation
An automatic circuits that prevents overmodulation and distortion by amplifying the Compression circuit
lower-level signals and suppressing or compressing the higher-level signals.
Peak value of the

Modulating Signal (𝑽𝒎 )
Peak value of Carrier

Signal (𝑽𝒄 )
New signals at different frequencies that are generated whenever a carrier is Sideband
modulated by an information signal and occurs in the frequency spectrum directly
above and directly below the carrier frequency.
Upper Sideband
Lower Sideband
Equation for an AM
signal
It is the algebraic sum of the carrier and upper and lower sideband sine waves. AM Wave
A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency Frequency-domain

display
It is when complex signals such as pulses or rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a Pulse modulation
broad spectrum of sidebands are produced.
An amplitude modulation by square waves or rectangular binary pulses Amplitude-shift keying

(ASK)
It represents dots and dashes where a dot is a short burst of carrier, and a dash is a Morse code
longer burst of carrier.
A code transmission such as Morse code Continuous-Wave

Transmission
Same as the CW transmission despite the fact that only the carrier is being ON/OFF keying (OOK)
transmitted, sidebands are generated by such ON/OFF signals.
An harmonic sideband interference that can overlap into adjacent channels, where Splatter
other signals may be present and interfere with them
10
Total Transmitted
or Power
Total Transmitted
Current
Power in each sideband
It is a form of AM that offers unique benefits in some types of electronic Single-sideband

communication to improve the efficiency of amplitude modulation by suppressing the modulation
carrier and eliminate one sideband
It is simply a special case of AM with no carrier that generates an SSB signal to Double-sideband
suppress the carrier, leaving the upper and lower sidebands. suppressed carrier
(DSSC or DSB)
It is a circuit that generates Double-sideband suppressed carrier signals to produce Balanced Modulator
the sum and difference frequencies but to cancel or balance out the carrier
A remaining sideband that greatly conserves spectrum space and allows more signals Single-sideband
to be transmitted in the same frequency range and occupies a narrower bandwidth. suppressed carrier
(SSSC or SSB)
A cancellation due to the carrier and sidebands arriving at the receiver at slightly Selective fading
different times, causing a phase shift that can cause them cancelling one another
rather than adding up to original AM signal.
Its a low-level carrier signal that is sometimes transmitted along with the two Pilot carrier
sidebands in DSB or a single sideband in SSB to recover the original information.
It is the maximum power produced on voice amplitude peaks in the transmitter output Peak envelope power
in SSB. (PEP)
These are produced only when very loud sounds are generated during certain speech Voice Amplitude Peaks
patterns or when some word or sound is emphasized.
Amplitude Modulator and Demodulator

CHAPTER 4 Circuits
Definition Terms
One that varies in proportion to the square of the input signals Square-law function
It gives a near-perfect square-law response, whereas diodes and bipolar transistors, Bipolar and Field-effect
which contain higher-order components, only approximate the square-law function. transistors (FETs)
Diodes and transistors whose function is not a pure square-law function produce third- Intermodulation
, fourth-, and higher-order harmonics and which are also easy to filter out. product
It has two types: Amplitude Modulators

 Low-level modulators
11
 High-level modulators
It generate AM with small signals and thus must be amplified considerably if they are Low-level modulators
to be transmitted
It produce AM at high power levels, usually in the final amplifier stage of a transmitter. High-level modulators
The simplest amplitude modulators that uses one or more diodes. Diode Modulator
An improved version of the circuit that uses a transistor instead of the diode where the Transistor Modulator
circuit has gain
An excellent amplitude modulator where It has a high gain and good linearity, and it Differential Amplifier
can be modulated 100 percent. Modulator
A high-level modulator circuit where the output stage of the transmitter is a high-power Collector Modulator
class C amplifier.
A transistorized version of a collector modulator in which a transistor is used to Series Modulator

replace the transformer with an emitter follower.
These are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating Demodulator (detector)
information.
The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator. Diode Detector
The circuit that recovers the envelope of the AM signal, which is the original Envelope detector
modulating signal
If the time constant is too long, the capacitor discharge will be too slow to follow the Diagonal distortion
faster changes in the modulating signal.
Are can easily be built to receive standard AM broadcasts. Crystal Radio

Receivers
It uses an internal clock signal at the carrier frequency in the receiver to switch the AM Synchronous detector
signal off and on, producing rectification similar to that in a standard diode detector
It is used to generate a s witching signal that has the correct frequency and phase Carrier recovery circuit
relationship to the carrier.
A phenomenon in which distortion is caused by the weakening of a sideband on the Selective fading
carrier during transmission.
One of the most popular and widely used balanced modulators, they can be Lattice modulator
constructed of discrete component but they are usually available in a single module (diode ring)
containing the transformers and diodes in a sealed package.
This circuit can work at carrier frequencies up to approximately 100 MHz and can 1496/1596 IC Balanced
achieve a carrier suppression of 50 to 65 dB modulator
A type of IC that can be used as a balanced modulator that are often used to generate Analog Multiplier
DSB signals.
Generating SSB Signals: The Filter Method

The simplest and most widely used method that passes only the desired sideband.
Generating SSB Signals: Phasing
12
A method of SSB generation uses a phase-shift technique that causes one of the
sidebands to be canceled out.
A phase shifter is usually an RC network that causes the output to either lead or lag Carrier Phase Shift
the input by 90°.
It is used to recover the modulating signal rather than generate a carrier that will Product detector
transmit it.
Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation

CHAPTER 5
FM Circuits
CHAPTER 6
13
14
Definition Terms
Circuit that varies carrier frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. Frequency Modulator
It is created when P and N-type semiconductors are formed during the Junction Diode
manufacturing process.
Acts as a small capacitor where the depletion region is the dielectric. Reverse Biased Junction
Diode
One whose output frequency is some integer multiple of the input frequency. Frequency Multiplier Circuit
A frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency by 2. Doubler
a frequency multiplier circuit that multiplies an input frequency by 3. Tripler
The maximum deviation of frequency modulation of the crystal oscillator by the 200 Hz
varactor produced.
Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input voltage. Voltage Controlled Oscillators
(VCOs)
An amplifier that is made to appear inductive or capacitive by phase shift. It is Reactance Modulator
used to produce wide deviation direct FM
It is a level detector that controls the current source by switching between Schmitt Trigger Circuit
charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a
specific voltage level.
Used to set the carrier frequency accurately and maintain solid stability. Crystal Oscillators
The carrier is shifted in phase in accordance with the modulating signal. Phase Modulator
Phase Shift Formula
Phase Angle Formula
Frequency Deviation formula
Circuits used to recover the original modulating signal from an FM Demodulator

transmission.
The simplest frequency demodulator that makes use of a tuned circuit and a Slope Detector
diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.
Generates a binary voltage level change each time the FM signal varies from Zero-Crossing Detector /
minus to plus or from plus to minus. Clipper-Limiter
15
Generates a fixed-amplitude, fixed width dc pulse on the leading edge of each One-shot (monostable)
FM cycle. Multivibrator
Averages the dc pulses to recover the original modulating signal. RC Low-pass filter
Generate a pulse every half-cycle or at every zero crossing instead of every Pulse-averaging Discriminator
one cycle of the input.
Uses a phase-shift circuit to produce a phase shift of 90° at the unmodulated Quadrature Detector
carrier frequency
A frequency or phase-sensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
demodulation, frequency synthesizers, and various filtering and signal
detection applications.
Compare the two input signals and generate an output signal that, when Phase Detector
filtered, will control the VCO.
The DC controlled voltage, is also the feedback in this circuit. Error Signal
Normal operating frequency as determined by internal frequency-determining Free Running Frequency

component
The range of frequencies over which a PLL can track an input signal and Lock Range
remain locked.
The range of frequencies over which a PLL will capture an input signal. Capture Range
Designed in such a way that it is capable of passing the original modulating Low-pass Filter Cutoff
signal. frequency
Digital Communication Techniques

CHAPTER 7
16
Definition Terms
Refers to information to be communicated, it is in digital form if it comes from a Data

computer.
Originally limited to the transmission of data between computers. Data Communications
A voltage of randomly varying amplitude and frequency, easily corrupts analog Noise
signals.
Signals which are usually binary, are more immune to noise than analog Digital Signals
signals because the noise amplitude must be much higher than the signal
amplitude to make a binary 1 look like a binary 0 or vice versa.
At the receiver, circuits can be set up so that the noise is clipped off. A Signal Regeneration
threshold circuit made with a line receiver circuit, an op amp comparator, or a
Schmitt trigger will trigger above or below the thresholds to which it is set. If the
thresholds are set carefully, only the logic levels will trigger the circuit.
The process of transmitting two or more signals simultaneously on a single Multiplexing

communication channel or medium.
The processing of analog signals by digital methods. Digital Signal Processing

(DSP)
All the bits of a code word are transferred simultaneously Parallel Data Transfer
Multiple parallel lines that carry binary data. Data Bus
Each bit of a word is transmitted one after another. Transmission is 1 bit at a Serial Transmission
time
A sequential logic circuit made up of a number of flip-flops connected in Shift Register

cascade.
These are capable of storing a multibit binary word, which is usually loaded in Flip-flops
parallel into the transmitting register.
Translating an analog signal to a digital signal. Analog-to-Digital (A/D)

Conversion
The device used to perform analog to digital conversion. Analog-to-Digital (A/D)

Converter
Translating an digital signal to an analog signal. Digital-to-Analog (A/D)

Conversion
A process of sampling or measuring the analog signal at regular time intervals. A/D Conversion
This minimum sampling frequency. Nyquist Frequency
Vn is the rms noise voltage Noise Voltage

q is the weight of the LSB
17
The modulator is a gating circuit that momentarily allows a portion of the Pulse Amplitude Modulation
analog wave to pass through, producing a pulse for a fixed time duration and at (PAM)
an amplitude equal to the signal value at that time.
The rate at which an analog input signal is measured. Sampling
Desirable as it is the best way to capture, process, and retain the fi ne detail in Oversampling
a signal.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Formula
Total SNR Formula
Sampling a signal at a rate that is less than the desired Nyquist rate of two Undersampling
times the highest frequency in the signal to be digitized.
A zener diode, receives the dc supply voltage as an input and translates it to a Reference Voltage Regulator
highly precise reference voltage.
The output of the resistor network is a current that is directly proportional to the Resistor Network
binary input value and the full-scale reference current.
The proportional current is then converted by an op amp to a proportional Output Amplifiers

voltage.
The resistor network is modified by a set of electronic switches that can be Electronic Switches
either current or voltage switches and are usually implemented with diodes or
transistors.
It is made up of a series string of equal-value resistors forming a voltage String DAC

divider.
The current source supplies a fixed current that is determined by the external Weighted Current Source DAC
reference voltage. Each current source supplies a binary weighted value of I,
I/2, I/4, I/8, etc.
The fastest rate that the D/A converter can generate output steps. Speed
It is the smallest increment of voltage that the D/A converter produces over its Resolution
output voltage range.
It is expressed as a percentage of the maximum, or full-scale, output voltage, Error

which is the reference voltage value.
The amount of time it takes for the output voltage of a D/A converter to Settling Time
stabilize to within a specifi c voltage range after a change in binary input.
It isalso called a track/store circuit, accepts the analog input signal and passes Sample And Hold (S/H) Circuit
it through, unchanged, during its sampling mode.
Special logic in the register causes each bit to be turned on one at a time from Successive Approximations
MSB to LSB until the closest binary value is stored in the register. Converter
Takes an entirely different approach to the A/D conversion process. Flash Converters
18
One that uses two or more low resolution flash converters to achieve higher Pipelined Converters
speed and higher resolution than successive approximations converters but
less than a full flash converter.
Expressed as the ratio of the maximum input voltage to the minimum Dynamic Range
recognizable voltage and converted to decibels.
An actual voltage that manifests itself as noise added to the analog input signal Qantizing
as the result of the error produced in converting an analog signal to its closest
digital value.
Effective number of bits ENOB
The ratio of the signal amplitude to all the noise plus harmonic distortion in the SINAD
circuit.
This circuit provides extreme precision, wide dynamic range, and low noise Sigma Delta Converter
compared to other converters.
Uses clock or sampling frequency that is many times the minimum Nyquist rate Oversampling Converter
required for other types of converters.
Filter that uses digital signal processing (DSP) techniques that are beyond the Decimator
scope of this book.
The process of changing a binary pulse signal to represent the information to Pulse Modulation
be transmitted.
Pulses vary in amplitude, they are far more susceptible to noise, and clipping PAM
techniques to eliminate noise cannot be used because they would also remove
the modulation.
The most widely used technique for digitizing information signals for electronic Pulse Code modulation
data transmission.
Analog signal is sampled and converted to a sequence of parallel binary words Traditional PCM
by an A/D converter.
A process of signal compression and expansion that is used to overcome Companding

problems of distortion and noise in the transmission of audio signals.
It is used in telephone systems in the United States and Japan. μ-law Compander
Compander is used in European telephone networks. A-law Compander
All A/D and D/A conversion and related functions such as serial-to-parallel and Codec or Vocoder
parallel-to-serial conversion as well as companding are usually taken care of
by a single large-scale IC chip.
The use of a fast digital computer or digital circuitry to perform processing on DSP
digital signals.
It is the most common application. A DSP processor can be programmed to Filtering

perform bandpass, low-pass, high-pass, and band-reject filter operations.
A process that reduces the number of binary words needed to represent a Compression
given analog signal.
19
The process of examining a signal to determine its frequency content. Spectrum Analysis
One whose output is only a function of the sum of products of the current input Nonrecursive Filter
samples.
A circuit that delays a signal or sample by some constant time interval. Delay Line
Recursive filter that uses feedback: Each new output sample is calculated by Infinite Impulse Response
using both the current output and past samples (inputs). Filter
Radio Transmitters
CHAPTER 8
20
Definition Terms
Takes the information to be communicated and converts it to an electronic signal

compatible with the communication medium. Typically this process involves carrier RadioTransmitter
generation, modulation, and power amplification.
It can be greatly improved by simply adding a power amplifier to it. The oscillator Continuous-Wave
is still keyed off and on to produce dots and dashes, and the amplifier increases Transmitter
the power level of the signal.
An oscillator, in most applications a crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier High-Level AM Transmitter
frequency. The carrier signal is then fed to a buffer amplifier whose primary
purpose is to isolate the oscillator from the remaining power amplifier stages.
Modulation is performed on the carrier at low power levels, and the signal is then Low-Level FM Transmitter
amplified by power amplifiers. This arrangement works for both AM and FM.
An oscillator signal generates the carrier, which is then fed to the buffer amplifier.
The buffer amplifier supplies the carrier input signal to the balanced modulator. SSB Transmitters
The audio amplifier and speech-processing circuits described previously provide (single-sideband)
the other input to the balanced modulator.
It is used to provide continuous tuning over a desired range. In most modern Variable frequency
communication equipment, a frequency synthesizer is used to set the final output oscillator (VFO)
frequency.
The only oscillator capable of maintaining the frequency precision and stability Crystal Oscillators
demanded by the FCC is a crystal oscillator. A crystal is a piece of quartz that has
been cut and ground into a thin, flat wafer and mounted between two metal plates.
When the crystal is excited by an ac signal across its plates, it vibrates. This action
is referred to as the piezoelectric effect.
Variable-frequency generators that provide the frequency stability of crystal Frequency Synthesizers
oscillators but with the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad frequency
range. Frequency synthesizers usually provide an output signal that varies in fixed
frequency increments over a wide range.
A newer form of frequency synthesis is known as direct digital synthesis (DDS). A Direct Digital Synthesis
DDS synthesizer generates a sine wave output digitally. The output frequency can
be varied in increments depending upon a binary value supplied to the unit by a
counter, a register, or an embedded microcontroller.
Phase noise is the minor variation in the amplitude and phase of the signal Phase Noise
generator output. The noise comes from natural semiconductor sources, power
supply variations, or thermal agitation in the components. The phase variations
manifest themselves as frequency variations.
An output signal that is an identical, enlarged replica of the input. Their output is Linear amplifier
directly proportional to their input, and they therefore faithfully reproduce an input,
but at a higher power level.
Conduct for even less than one-half of the sine wave input cycle, making them
very efficient. The resulting highly distorted current pulse is used to ring a tuned Class C amplifier
circuit to create a continuous sine wave output.
21
Act like on/off or digital switches. They effectively generate a square wave output.
Such a distorted output is undesirable; however, by using high-Q tuned circuits in Switching amplifiers
the output, the harmonics generated as part of the switching process can be easily
filtered out.
This type of amplifier is used between the carrier oscillator and the final power
amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the power amplifier load, which can change Class A Buffers
the oscillator frequency.
The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the class C amplifier. These Class C Amplifiers
amplifiers are used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency
multipliers, and final amplifiers.
All class C amplifiers have some form of tuned circuit connected in the collector.
The primary purpose of this tuned circuit is to form the complete ac sine wave Tuned output circuit
output.
Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency multiplication if the tuned Frequency Multipliers
circuit in the collector resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency.
Another way to achieve high efficiencies in power amplifiers is to use a switching

amplifier. A switching amplifier is a transistor that is used as a switch and is either Switching Power
conducting or non-conducting. Both bipolar transistors and enhancement mode Amplifiers
MOSFETs are widely used in switching amplifier applications.
One of the best impedance-matching components is the transformer. Recall that Transformers and Baluns
iron-core transformers are widely used at lower frequencies to match one
impedance to another. Any load impedance can be made to look like a desired
load impedance by selecting the correct value of the transformer turns ratio. In
addition, transformers can be connected in unique combinations called baluns to
match impedances.
A class D amplifier uses a pair of transistors to produce a square wave current in a

tuned circuit. Two switches are used to apply both positive and negative dc Class D Amplifiers
voltages to a load through the tuned circuit
The concept behind a feedforward amplifier is that the distortion produced by the
power amplifier is isolated and then subtracted from the amplified signal, Feedforward Amplifier
producing a nearly distortion-free output signal.
This method of amplification, referred to as digital pre-distortion (DPD), uses a Digital Pre-distortion
digital signal processing (DSP) technique to pre-distort the signal in such a way Amplification
that when amplified the amplifier distortion will offset or cancel the pre-distortion
characteristics, leaving a distortion-free output signal.
Envelope tracking (ET) is a technique that allows class A, AB, and B amplifiers to Envelope Tracking
become more efficient. Linear amplifiers must be used to amplify the signals
deploying advanced modulation techniques used in 3G and 4G cellular radios,
such as CDMA spread spectrum, QAM, and OFDM.
The Doherty amplifier is a unique design using two amplifiers that work together to
maintain linearity while improving efficiency. Doherty Amplifier
Matching networks that connect one stage to another are very important parts of
any transmitter. In a typical transmitter, the oscillator generates the basic carrier Impedance-Matching
signal, which is then amplified, usually by multiple stages, before it reaches the Networks
antenna.
22
Consist of an inductor and a capacitor connected in various L-shaped L networks

configurations.
It is designed so that the load impedance is matched to the source impedance.

L-matching network
The π and T networks can be designed to either step up or step down the T and π Networks
impedance as required by the circuit. The capacitors are usually made variable so
that the circuit can be tuned to resonance and adjusted for maximum power
output.
Communication Receivers
CHAPTER 9
23
Definition Terms
A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired signal in the RF spectrum and Communication Receiver
eliminate or at least greatly attenuate all other signals. A receiver with good
sensitivity involves high circuit gain.
It is obtained by using tuned circuits and/or filters. The LC tuned circuits provide Selectivity
initial selectivity; filters, which are used later in the process, provide additional
selectivity
Initial selectivity in a receiver is normally obtained by using LC tuned circuits. By Q and Bandwidth.
carefully controlling the Q of the resonant circuit, you can set the desired selectivity.
The optimum bandwidth is wide enough to pass the signal and its sidebands but
also narrow enough to eliminate or greatly attenuate signals on adjacent
frequencies.
The sides of a tuned circuit response curve are known as skirts. The steepness of Shape Factor
the skirts, or the skirt selectivity, of a receiver is expressed as the shape factor, the
ratio of the 60-dB down bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth.
The number of errors made in the transmission of many serial data bits. For Bit error rate (BER)
example, one measure is that the sensitivity is such that the BER is 10210 or 1 bit
error in every 10 billion bits transmitted
Converts all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known as the intermediate Superheterodyne
frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers and filters is used to provide a Receiver
fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity. Most of the gain and selectivity in a
superheterodyne receiver are obtained in the IF amplifiers. The key circuit is the
mixer, which acts as a simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and difference
frequencies.
The local oscillator signal is relatively strong, and some of it can leak through and
appear at the input to the mixer. If the mixer input is connected directly to the RF Amplifiers
antenna, some of the local oscillator signal radiates, possibly causing interference to
other nearby receivers.
The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer. The mixer also Mixers and Local
receives an input from a local oscillator or frequency synthesizer. The mixer output Oscillators
is the input signal, the local oscillator signal, and the sum and difference frequencies
of these signals. Usually a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the
difference frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF).
It recovers the original modulating information. Iay be a diode detector (for AM), a Demodulators
quadrature detector (for FM), or a product detector (for SSB).
The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by Automatic Gain Control
a circuit.
The process of translating a modulated signal to a higher or lower frequency while Frequency Conversion
retaining all the originally transmitted information. In radio receivers, high-frequency
radio signals are regularly converted to a lower, intermediate frequency, where
improved gain and selectivity can be obtained
24
Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog multiplication Mixing Principles

carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer is
called heterodyning.
The input signal, which comes from an RF amplifier or, in some receivers, directly
from the antenna, is applied to the primary winding of transformer T1. The signal is Diode Mixers
coupled to the secondary winding and applied to the diode mixer, and the local
oscillator signal is coupled to the diode by way of capacitor C1
Balanced modulators are also widely used as mixers. These circuits eliminate the Doubly Balanced Mixer
carrier from the output, making the job of filtering much easier. Any of the balanced
modulators described previously can be used in mixing applications.
The local oscillator signal for the mixer comes from either a conventional LC tuned LC Oscillator
oscillator such as a Colpitts or Clapp circuit or a frequency synthesizer. The simpler
continuously tuned receivers use an LC oscillator. Channelized receivers use
frequency synthesizers.
Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency synthesizers for the local Frequency Synthesizers
oscillator, which provides some important benefits over the simple VFO designs
This design is used to mitigate or eliminate the LO leakage and dc output problems. Low IF Receiver
A receiver in which most of the functions are performed by a digital signal processor. Software-Defined Radio
An advanced form of SDR that is designed to help alleviate the frequency spectrum
shortage. While most of the usable frequency spectrum has already been assigned Cognitive Radio
by the various government regulating agencies, at any given time much of that
spectrum goes unused, at least for part of the time.
An electronic signal that is a mixture of many random frequencies at many Noise

amplitudes that gets added to a radio or information signal as it is transmitted from
one place to another or as it is processed. Noise is not the same as interference
from other information signals.
Indicates the relative strengths of the signal and the noise in a communication Signal-to-Noise Ratio
system. The stronger the signal and the weaker the noise, the higher the S/N ratio.
Noise comes from sources over which we have little or no control industrial, External Noise
atmospheric, or space. Regardless of its source, noise shows up as a random ac
voltage and can be seen on an oscilloscope.
Produced by manufactured equipment, such as automotive ignition systems, electric Industrial Noise
motors, and generators. Any electrical equipment that causes high voltages or
currents to be switched produces transients that create noise. Noise pulses of large
amplitude occur whenever a motor or other inductive device is turned on or off
The electrical disturbances that occur naturally in the earth’s atmosphere are Atmospheric Noise
another source of noise. Atmospheric noise is often referred to as static. Static
usually comes from lightning, the electric discharges that occur between clouds or
between the earth and clouds.
25
Noise comes from sources in space. One of the primary sources of extraterrestrial Extraterrestrial Noise
noise is the sun, which radiates a wide range of signals in a broad noise spectrum.
The noise intensity produced by the sun varies with time.
Electronic components in a receiver such as resistors, diodes, and transistors are Internal Noise
major sources of internal noise.
Most internal noise is caused by a phenomenon known as thermal agitation, the Thermal Noise
random motion of free electrons in a conductor caused by heat. Increasing the
temperature causes this atomic motion to increase.
Electronic components such as diodes and transistors are major contributors of Semiconductor Noise
noise. In addition to thermal noise, semiconductors produce shot noise, transit-time
noise, and flicker noise.
Results from the generation of new signals and harmonics caused by circuit Intermodulation
nonlinearities. As stated previously, circuits can never be perfectly linear, and if bias Distortion.
voltages are incorrect in an amplifier or it is driven into clipping, it is likely to be more
nonlinear than intended.
The ratio of the S/N power at the input to the S/N power at the output. The device Noise Factor and Noise
under consideration can be the entire receiver or a single amplifier stage. The noise Figure
factor or noise ratio (NR) is computed with the expression
Expressed in kelvins. Remember that the Kelvin temperature scale is related to the Noise Temperature
Celsius scale by the relationship TK 5 TC 1 273.
A noise term you will hear when discussing the performance of receivers or Additive White Gaussian
communications systems in general. Noise
IF amplifiers, like RF amplifiers, are tuned class A amplifiers capable of providing a IF Amplifiers
gain in the 10- to 30-dB range. Usually two or more IF amplifiers are used to provide
adequate overall receiver gain
Software-defined radio (SDR) receivers are becoming the most common form of SDR Communications
radio today, either in integrated circuit form or as a completed product. An example Receiver
of a commercial shortwave/amateur radio receiver using SDR concepts is the SDR-
IQ made by RFSPACE Inc.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

CHAPTER 10
Digital Data Transmission

CHAPTER 11
Definition Terms
Data processed and stored by computers can be numerical or text. Were used to
represent data.Even before the advent of computers. Digital Code
26
The inventor of the telegraph, The first digital code Samuel Morse
It consists of a series of “dots” and “dashes” that represent letters of the alphabet, Morse Code
numbers, and punctuation marks.
Were detected at the receiver and mentally converted by an operator back to the letters Continuous-Wave
and numbers making up the message (CW) Transmission.
Used in the early teletype machine, a device for sending and receiving coded signals Baudot (Pronounced
over a communication link. used 5 bits to represent letters, numbers, and symbols. Baw-Dough) Code
The 7-bit binary. Represent 128 numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and other symbols American Standard
Code For Information
Interchange (ASCII )
Developed by IBM, is an 8-bit code similar to ASCII allowing a maximum of 256 Extended Binary
characters to be represented. Coded Decimal
Interchange Code
(EBCDIC)
A data transmission that’s not practical for long-distance communication. Parallel Data
Transmission
Data transfers in long-distance communication systems are made serially. Serial Data
Transmission
Time take to transmit a 7-bit ASCII word. 70 µs
The speed in bits per second(bps). The reciprocal of the bit time t, Bps=1/ T
Another term used to express the data speed in digital communication systems. The Baud Rate
number of signaling elements or symbols that occur in a given unit of time.
Is simply some change in the binary signal transmitted. Signaling Element
A popular form of modulation, combines multiple amplitude levels with multiple phase Quadrature Amplitude
shifts to produce many bits per baud. Modulation (QAM)
In wireless applications, this signal wouldfi rst modulate a carrier before being PAM Signal
transmitted.
The system used in U.S. digital high-dei nition television (HDTV). Modern PAM
In serial data transfers the cable data rate is as high as 10 billion bits per second (10 Copper Wire Cable
Gbps) .
In serial data transfers the cable data rate is up to 100 billion bits per second (100 Fiber-Optic Cable
Gbps).
Transmission each data word is accompanied by start and stop bits that indicate the Asynchronous
beginning and ending of the word. Transmission
When no information is being transmitted, the communication line is usually high, or Mark
binary 1.
To signal the beginning of a word, a start bit, a binary 0. Space
27
Most low-speed digital transmission (the 1200- to 56,000-bps range). This technique is Asynchronous
extremely reliable, and the start and stop bits ensure that the sending and receiving
circuits remain in step with each other.
The primary disadvantage of asynchronous communication that effectively slow down Extra Start And Stop
data transmission. Bits
When huge volumes of information must be transmitted, the start and stop bits represent Overhead Of
a significant percentage of the bits transmitted. We call that percentage Transmission
A 7-bit ASCII character plus start and stop bits is 9 bits. Of the 9 bits, 2 bits are not data. Overhead Example
This represents 2/9=0.222, or 22.2 percent inefi ciency or overhead.
The technique of transmitting each data word one after another without start and stop Synchronous Data
bits, usually in multiword blocks. Transmission
Much faster than asynchronous transmission because of the lower overhead Synchronous Data
Transmission
Method of encoding, the signal remains at the binary level assigned to it for the entire bit Nonreturn To Zero. In
time. It usually converted to another format, such as RZ or Manchester, for synchronous The Nonreturn To
transmissions. Zero (NRZ)
The signal has only a positive polarity. Unipolar NRZ
signal has two polarities, positive and negative. Bipolar NRZ
Normally generated inside computers, at low speeds, when asynchronous transmission. NRZ Method
Encoding the voltage level assigned to a binary 1 level returns to zero during the bit Return To Zero
period. Pulses occur only when a binary 1 is transmitted; no pulse is transmitted for a Encoding
binary 0.
A 50 percent bit interval positive pulse is transmitted during a binary 1, and a negative Bipolar RZ
pulse is transmitted for a binary 0.
A popular variation of the bipolar RZ format. During the bit interval, binary 0s are Alternative Mark
transmitted as no pulse. Binary 1s, also called marks, are transmitted as alternating Inversion (AMI)
positive and negative pulses.
Referred to as biphase encoding, can be unipolar or bipolar. It is widely used in LANs. Manchester Encoding
The frequency of a signal is two times an NRZ signal, doubling the bandwidth Manchester-Encoded
requirement. Signal
Encoding method preferred on the application. For synchronous transmission, because RZ and Manchester
the clock is easier to recover.
The accuracy and speed with which information, whether it is voice or video, analog or Transmission
digital, is sent and received over communication media. Efficiency
A theorists seek to determine mathematically the likelihood that a given amount of data Information Theorists
being transmitted under a given set of will be transmitted accurately.
The amount of information that can be sent in a given transmission is dependent on the Hartley’s Law
bandwidth of the communication channel and the duration of transmission.
28
Stated mathematically, Hartley’s law. C= 2B
When noise becomes an issue, Hartley’s law. The shannon- Hartley Theorem is C = B log2 (1 + S/N ) or
expressed as C= 3.32Blog ( 1+ S/N)
. The two most common types of media used in data communication. Wire Cable And Radio
Two Types of wire cable used for digital data transmission. Coaxial Cable.And
Twisted-Pair Cable,
Unshielded (UTP)
Two insulated wires twisted together. Twisted-Pair Cable
Cables are usually preferred, as they provide some protection from noise and cross talk. Coaxial Cable And
Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cables
Is the undesired transfer of signals from one unshielded cable to another adjacent one Cross Talk
caused by inductive or capacitive coupling.
All wire cables act as filters because they are made up of the wire that has inductance, Low-Pass Filters
capacitance, and resistance
Have a wide usable bandwidth, ranging from 200 to 300 MHz for smaller cables to 500 Coaxial Cables
MHz to 50 GHz for larger cables.
Act as a low-pass filter with an upper cutoff frequency of about 3000 Hz. Voice-Grade
Telephone Lines
Higher in frequency than the cutoff are filtered out, resulting in signal distortion. Harmonics
Hartley Law formula,theoretically because not consider the noise C= 2B log2(M) or

Multiple Coding Levels,
Where: M = code level C= (3.32)2B log(M)
Shannon-Hartley theorem formula:(practical computation of channel capacity, because it C = B log2 (1 + S/N ) or

consider noise) .Another important aspect of information theory is the impact of noise on
a signal. C= 3.32Blog ( 1+ S/N)
Where: C= channel capacity,bps
B= bandwidth, Hz
S/N= signal-to -noise ratio,
Four main types of modulation are used in modern modems: FSK, PSK, QAM, and
OFDM
The oldest and simplest form of modulation used in modems two sine wave frequencies Frequency-Shift
are used to represent binary 0s and 1s. Keying (FSK).
The simultaneous transmit and receive operations that are carried out by a modem. Full Duplex Operation
Refers to how well a specific modulation technique produces a maximum data rate in a Spectral Efficiency
minimal bandwidth.
No phase discontinuities exist, so the resulting bandwidth is less. This type of Continuous-Phase
modulation is called Frequency-Shift
Keying (CPFSK)
29
With analog FM, With FSK the modulation index is mf = fd/ fm

where fd = the frequency deviation
fm = the modulating signal frequency
where ∆f = the deviation or frequency shift m = ∆f (T)

T = bit time
T is the bit time or the reciprocal of the data rate T= 1/bps
Where: ∆f = deviation or frequency shift ∆f = fs- fm

fm= mark frequency
fs= space frequency
The binary signal to be transmitted changes the phase shift of a sine wave character Phase-Shift Keying
depending upon whether a binary 0 or binary 1 is to be transmitted. (PSK),
A phase shift of 180°, the maximum phase difference that can occur Phase Reversal, Or
Phase Inversio
In QPSK, each pair of successive digital bits in the transmitted word is assigned a Quadrature,
particular phase. Quarternary, Or
Quadra Phase PSK
(QPSK Or 4-PSK).
Are widely used to show phase-amplitude modulation schem. Constellation

Diagrams
One of the most popular modulation techniques used in modems for increasing the Quadrature Amplitude
number of bits per baud is QAM. Modulation (QAM)
Uses both amplitude and phase modulation of a carrier; not only are different phase QAM
shifts produced, but also the amplitude of the carrier is varied.
Is a modulation and multiplexing technique that distributes a signal and its sidebands Spread Spectrum (SS)
over a very wide bandwidth.
The FCC authorized use of spread spectrum in civilian applications. Currently, Mid-1980s
unlicensed operation is permitted in the 902- to 928-MHz, 2.4- to 2.483-GHz, and 5.725-
to 5.85-GHz ranges, with 1 W of power.
Two basic types of spread spectrum. Frequency-Hopping

(FH) And
Directsequence (DS)
The rate of synthesizer frequency change is higher than the data rate. This means that Frequency-Hopping
although the data bit and the FSK tone it produces remain constant for one data interval,
the frequency synthesizer switches frequencies many times during this period.
Is also called code-division multiple access (CDMA), or SS multiple access. The term Direct-Sequence
multiple access applies to any technique that is used for multiplexing many signals on a
single communication channel.
Is used in satellite systems so that many signals can use the same transponder. It is CDMA
also widely used in cellular telephone systems, for it permits more users to occupy a
given band than other methods.
Is known as a modulation method as opposed to a multiplexing method, the term OFDM

frequency-division .
30
Is widely used in wireless local-area networks (LANs) and fourth generation (4G) Long OFDM
Term Evolution (LTE) cellular networks. also used in the high-speed version of wireless
LANs (802.11 or Wi-Fi) and in the broadband wireless system called WiMAX.
Describes a set of standards set by the International Telecommunications Union that Digital Subscriber
greatly extend the speed potential of the common twisted-pair telephone lines. Line (DSL)
The x designates one of several letters that define a specific DSL standard Xdsl,
This system permits downstream data rates up to 8 Mbps and upstream rates up to 640 Asymmetric Digital
kbps using the existing telephone lines. Subscriber Line
(ADSL)
Means unequal upstream and downstream rates. Asymmetric
Is available in most cities. ADSL is the most widely used form of high-speed Internet ADSL
access throughout the world.
Is similar to a probability in that it is the ratio of the number of bit errors to the total The Bit Error Rate
number of bits transmitted.
The main objective in error detection and correction is to maximize the probability of 100 Error Detection And
percent accuracy Correction
Just detect the errors but do not take any corrective action. They simply let the system Error Detection Codes
know that an error has occurred. Typically, these codes simply initiate retransmission
until the data is received correctly.
These coding schemes eliminate the time-wasting retransmission and actually initiate Error Correction Or
self-correcting action. Forward Error
Correction (FEC).
The simplest way to ensure error-free transmission is to send each character or each Redundancy.
message multiple times until it is properly received.
One of the most widely used systems of error detection is known as parity, in which each Parity.
character transmitted contains one additional bit, known as a parity bit.
Means that the total number of binary 1 bits in the character, including the parity bit, is Odd Parity
odd.
Ex. Odd parity: 10110011,
00101001
Means that the number of binary 1 bits in the character, including the parity bit, is even. Even Parity
Ex. Even parity: 10110010,
00101000
Is useful only for detecting single-bit errors. If two or more bit errors occur, the parity Parity Checking
circuit may not detect it. If an even number of bit changes occur, the parity circuit will not
give a correct indication.
Is a mathematical technique used in synchronous data transmission that effectively The Cyclical
catches 99.9 percent or more of transmission errors. The mathematical process Redundancy Check
implemented by CRC is essentially a division. (CRC)
Is probably the most widely used error detection scheme in synchronous systems. Both CRC
16- and 32-bit CRCs are used.
31
Used primarily in asynchronous systems. Parity Methods
Also known block-check character (BCC) is It is the process of logically adding, by Horizontal Or
exclusive-ORing, all the characters in a specii c block of transmitted data. Longitudinal
Redundancy Check
(LRC).
Identifies the character containing the bit error. The VRC
Identifies the bit that contains the error. LRC
If extra bits were added to a transmitted word, these extra bits could be processed in Hamming Code
such a way that bit errors could be identified and corrected.
Extra bits, like several types of parity bits Hamming bits
The minimum number of Hamming bits is computed with the expression 2^n ≥ m + n + 1
One of the most widely used forward error correction codes is the Reed Solomon (RS) Reed Solomon Code.
code. Like Hamming codes, it adds extra parity bits to the block of data being
transmitted
Is a method used in wireless systems to reduce the effects of burst errors. Interleaving
Are rules and procedures used to ensure compatibility between the sender and receiver Protocols
of serial digital data regardless of the hardware and software being used.
. For example, a transmitter may send a character indicating that it is ready to send data Handshaking Process
to a receiver. Once the receiver has identified that character, it responds by indicating its
status, e.g., by sending a character representing “busy’’ back to the transmitter. The
transmitter will continue to send its ready signal until the receiver signals back that it is
not busy, or is ready to receive.
The International Organization for Standardization. It has established a framework, or Open Systems
hierarchy, that defines how data can be communicated. Interconnection (OSI)
Mode
. The physical connections and electrical standards for the communication system are Layer 1: Physical
defined here Layer
This layer defines the framing information for the block of data. It identifies any error Layer 2: Data Link
detection and correction methods as well as any synchronizing and control codes
relevant to communication.
This layer determines network configuration and the route the transmission can take. Layer 3: Network
The network layer determines the specific data routing and switching methods that can
occur in the system,.
Included in this layer are multiplexing, if any; error recovery; partitioning of data into Layer 4: Transport
smaller units so that they can be handled more efficiently; and addressing and low
control operations.
This layer handles such things as management and synchronization of the data Layer 5: Session
transmission. Determines the availability of the network for processing and storing the
data to be transmitted.
This layer deals with the form and syntax of the message. It defines data formatting, Layer 6: Presentation
encoding and decoding, encryption and decryption, synchronization.
32
This layer is the overall general manager of the network or the communication process. Layer 7: Applications
Its primary function is to format and transfer files between the communication message
and the user’s applications software
Fundamentals of Networking, Local-Area

CHAPTER 12 Networks, and Ethernet
Definition Terms
Is a communication system with two or more stations that can communicate with one Network
another.
Are four basic types of electronic networks in common use: Wans, Mans, Lans,
Pans
A WAN covers a significant geographic area. Local telephone systems are WANs, as are Wide-Area Networks
the many long-distance telephone systems linked together across the country and to (Wans)
WANs in other countries.
Make it possible for any PC or other Internet-enabled device such as a cell phone to Wans
access the World Wide Web or any entity connected to the Internet
MANs are smaller networks that generally cover a city, town, or village. Cable TV systems Metropolitan-Area
are MANs Networks (Mans)
Businesses, governments, schools, hospitals, and others connect their internal LANs to Mans
them.
Also connect to local and long distance telephone companies. Mans
A LAN is the smallest type of network in general use. It consists primarily of personal Local-Area
computers interconnected within an office or building. LANs can have as few as 3 to 5 Networks (Lans)
user
A PAN is a short-range wireless network that is set up automatically between two or more Personal-Area
devices. The distance between the devices is very short, no more than about 10 m. Networks (Pans).
These networks usually attach to a LAN or Internet server and are designed to store and Storage-Area
protect huge data files. Networks (Sans)
Of a network describes the basic communication paths between, and methods used to Topology
connect, the nodes on a network. star, ring, and bus
33
The three most common topologies. These topologies apply to the LAN, MAN, and WAN. Star, Ring, And Bus
A basic star configuration consists of a central controller node and multiple individual Star Topology
stations connected to it. A star-type LAN is extremely simple and straightforward.
In a ring configuration, the server or main control computer and all the computers are Ring Topology
simply linked in a single closed loop.
A bus is simply a common cable to which all the nodes are attached. The bus is Bus Topology
bidirectional in that signals can be transmitted in either direction between any two of the
nodes
A mesh network is one in which each node is connected to all other nodes. Mesh Topology
The primary value of the mesh network is that there are multiple paths for data to take
from one node to another.
The three basic cable types used in LANs Coaxial Cable,

Twisted-Pair, And
Fiber-Optic Cable
Is a superior medium because its extremely wide bandwidth permits very high-speed bit Coaxial Cable
rates. The major benefit of coaxial cable is that it is completely shielded, so that external
noise has little or no effect on it.
Twisted-pair, as the name implies, is two insulated copper wires twisted together loosely Twisted-Pair Cable
to form a cable. Characteristic impedance can be anywhere from about 70 ohms to 150
ohms
There are two basic types of twisted-pair cables in use in LANs: Unshielded (UTP)
And Shielded(STP)
Are highly susceptible to noise, particularly over long cable runs UTP Cables
Have a metal foil or braid shield around them, forming a third conductor. The shield is STP Cables
usually connected to ground and, therefore, provides protection from external noise and
crosstalk.
It can carry baseband data at rates up to 100 Mbps at a range up to 100 m UTP , Category 5
(CAT5)
Is also available. It has improved performance and a data rate up to 155 Mbps Enhanced Version
(CAT5e)
Is a nonconducting cable consisting of a glass or plastic center cable surrounded by a Fiber-Optic Cable
plastic cladding encased in a plastic outer sheath
The two basic types of i ber cables. Multimode Fiber

And Single-Mode
Fiber
Is usually the plastic type and used in shorter cables because it has greater loss than Multimode Fiber
glass. (MMF)
Is glass, more fragile, and thinner, and offers less loss over longer distance Single-Mode Fiber
(SMF).
34
Is an electronic circuit that takes a partially degraded signal, boosts its level, shapes it up, Repeater
and sends it on its way. Over long transmission distances bidirectional circuits that can
both send and receive data
Is a LAN accessory that facilitates the interconnections of the cables to the nodes. Hub
The device that facilitates such wiring is the hub,
Is a network device that is connected as a node on the network and performs bidirectional Bridge
communication between two LANs. Generally designed to interconnect two LANs with the
same protocol,
LAN switches recognize individual node addresses. When transmitting data from one PC Switch
to another, the switch detects the address of the receiving PC and connects it to the
wiring.
Intelligent devices that have decision-making and switching capabilities. Routers are Routers
designed to recognize traffic buildup and provide automatic switching to reroute
transmissions in a different direction, if possible.
Is another internetwork device that acts as an interface between two LANs or between a Gateway
LAN and a larger computer system.
Are widely used in home networking to connect to an Internet service provider (ISP), Modems
which provides services such as Internet access and e-mail.
One of the oldest and by far the most widely used of all LANs Ethernet, which was Ethernet
developed by Xerox Corporation at Palo Alto Research Center in the 1970s
The standard transmission speed for original basic Ethernet LANs 10 Mbps
A more widely used version of Ethernet is called Fast Ethernet. It has a speed of 100 Mbps
Other versions of Ethernet run at speeds of 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps
Thick coaxial cable. Where 10 means a 10-Mbps speed, Base means baseband Thicknet. (10Base-
operation, and The 5 designates a 500-m maximum distance between nodes, 5)
transceivers, or repeaters.
Thinner coaxial cable Where 10 means a 10-Mbps speed, Base means baseband Thinnet (10Base-2,)
operation, and The 2 indicates the maximum 200-m (actually, 185-m) run between nodes
or repeaters.
Ethernet use twisted-pair cable. Where the T stands for twisted-pair 10Base-T network
Use twisted-pair cable. 100-Mbps Ethernet. also called Fast Ethernet, 100VG-AnyLAN, 100Base-T or
100Base-T4, 100Base-TX
Uses fiber-optic cable.100-Mbps Ethernet. also called Fast Ethernet 100Base-FX
1000Base-T.Is capable of achieving 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps over category 5 UTP or fiber- Gigabit Ethernet
optic cable Is defined by the IEEE standard 802.3ab
Permits data speeds up to 10 Gbps over fiber-optic cable as well as higher grades of 10-Gbit Ethernet
twisted-pair. The defining IEEE standard is 802.3ae
35
Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM) is the IEEE standard 802.3ah. Fiber-optic networks that Ethernet Passive
connect homes and businesses to high-speed Internet services via a fiber-optic link. Optical
Network(EPON),
Is an addition to Ethernet LANs that is used to deliver dc power to remote devices Power over Ethernet
connected to the network. PoE eliminates the need for some devices on the LAN to have (PoE)
their own power supply
Refers to the protocol used for transmitting and receiving information on a bus. Ethernet Access Method
uses an access method known as CSMA/CD
Determine whether a data is currently being transmitted, device will only tramsmit if the Carrier Sense
link has no other activity or free to transmit a data. Multiple Access
With Collision
Detection
(CSMA/CD),
if two devices transmit data at the same time the collision will occur . Collision
When collision occur. has CSMA/CD algorithm system any attempt of transmitting will be CSMA/CD algorithm
stop and back in the station. the devices will not transmit for a brief period of time.
Devices try to transmit again until the transmission is completed. Contention
Transmission Lines
CHAPTER 13
Definition Terms
Is made of two parallel conductors separated by a space of 1⁄2 in to several inches. Parallel-Wire Line
Parallel-wire lines are rarely used today.
Consists of a solid center conductor surrounded by a dielectric material, usually a Coaxial Cable.
plastic insulator such as Teflon.
As the name implies, uses two insulated solid copper wires covered with insulation Twisted-Pair Cable
and loosely twisted together. Used in telephone wiring
Is one in which neither wire is connected to ground. Instead, the signal on each wire A Balanced Line
is referenced to ground. Open-wire line has a balanced configuration
One conductor is connected to ground. Coaxial cables are unbalanced line Unbalanced Line,
A device convert from balanced to unbalanced operation or vice versa. from Balun
“balanced-unbalanced.
The primary feature of a transmission line is its characteristic or surge impedance Zo Characteristic
which is a function of the distributed inductance L and the capacitance C per unit Impedance
length (Zo =√ L /C).
Which is the ratio of the velocity in the transmission line Vp to the velocity in free Velocity Factor (VF)
space Vc, VF = Vp/c
36
In transmission lines vary from approximately 0.5 to 0.9. Calculating Velocity

Factors
The Velocity Factor With Dielectric Constant. In a line can be computed with the VF =1√ε,
expression . where ε is the dielectric constant of the insulating material.
Approximation of the velocity of propagation can be computed with the expression Velocity Of
Vp = 1/√LC ft/s Propagation
Logical to assume that any line will slow down or delay any signal applied to it. This Time Delay
delay time is computed with the expression
td = √LC
Introduced by a coaxial cable can also be calculated by using the formula Time Delay
ε is the dielectric constant of the cable. td = 1.016√ε ns/ft
Calculating The phase shift using time delay and period of time. θ = 360 td /T
Are not desirable. The reflection indicates that the power produced by the generator Standing Waves
is not totally absorbed by the load.
This moving charge from right to left. Reflection, Or

Reflected Wave
The input wave from the generator to the end of the line Incident Wave
Ideally, a transmission line should be terminated in a load that has a resistive Matched Lines
impedance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.
The power sent down the line toward the load is Forward Or Incident
Power
The power not absorbed by the load Refected Power
Most often, lines do not terminate in a short or open circuit. Rather, the load Mismatched (Resonant)
impedance does not exactly match the transmission line impedance. Lines
The magnitude of the standing waves on a transmission line is determined by the Standing Wave Ratio
ratio of the maximum current to the minimum current, or the ratio of the maximum (SWR).
voltage to the minimum voltage, along the line
Calculating the Standing Wave Ratio (SWR). 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱

𝐒𝐖𝐑 = or
𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
The SWR is the ratio of the load impedance Zl to the characteristic impedance Z0,. If 𝐙𝐋
ZL >Zo. 𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝐙𝐨
The SWR is the ratio of the characteristic impedance Zo to load impedance ZL ,. If 𝐙𝐨

Zo >ZL. 𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝐙𝐋
The ratio of the reflected voltage wave Vr to the incident voltage wave Vi is called 𝐕𝐫
Ƭ=
the reflection coefficient 𝐕𝐢
37
If the load is not matched but also is not an open or short, the line will have voltage 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
Ƭ=
minima and maxima, as described previously. These can be used to obtain the 𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝐕𝐦𝐢𝐧
reflection coefficient by using the formula
𝐒𝐖𝐑 − 𝟏
Ƭ=
𝐒𝐖𝐑 + 𝟏
The SWR is obtained from the reflection coefficient according to the equation. 𝟏+Ƭ
𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝟏−Ƭ
The reflection coefficient can also be determined from the line and load impedances 𝐙𝐋 − 𝐙𝐨
Ƭ=
𝐙𝐋 + 𝐙𝐨
One of the best and most practical ways to compute the SWR is to measure the 𝐏𝐫
𝟏 + √( )
forward power Pf and rel ected power Pr and then use the formula. Ƭ= 𝐏𝐟
𝐏𝐫
𝟏 − √( )
𝐏𝐟
Special transmission lines constructed with copper patterns on a printedcircuit board Microstrip Or Stripline
(PCB), called microstrip or stripline, can be used as tuned circuits,filters, phase and
impedance-matching circuits at these high frequencies.
Is a flat conductor separated by an insulating dielectric from a large conducting Microstrip

ground plane
is a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground planes Stripline
The mathematics required to design and analyze transmission lines is complex, The Smith Chart
whether the line is a physical cable connecting a transceiver to an antenna or is
being used as a i lter or impedance-matching network.
The engineer’s name was Philip H. Smith, and in January 1939 he published the Philip H. Smith
Smith chart,
Antennas and Wave Propagation

CHAPTER 14
38
Definition Terms
It is made up of both electric and magnetic field. called an electromagnetic wave. Radio Signal
Is an invisible force field created by a magnet. An antenna is a type of electromagnet. Magnetic Field
The strength of a magnetic field H produced by a wire antenna is expressed by: H = 1/2πd
Where: I = current,
A = distance from wire, m
A invisible force field produced by the presence of a potential difference between two Electric Field
conductors.
The strength of an electric Field E is expressed by: E = q/4πεd²

Where :q = charge between the two points, C,
ε = permittivity,
d = distance between conductors, m
Acts as the interface between a transmitter or receiver and free space. It either Antenna
radiates or senses an electromagnetic field. An be a length of wire, a metal rod, or a
piece of tubing.
The ratio of the electric field strength of a radiated wave to the magnetic field strength Impedance Of Space,
is a constant. Or The Wave
Impedance,
The resistive component, an antenna can have a reactive component. The resistive Antenna Radiation
component is called the. Resistance
Describes the region directly around the antenna where the electric and magnetic Near Field
fields are distinct.
That is approximately 10 wavelengths from the antenna is the radio wave with the Far Field
composite electric and magnetic fields.
Refers to the orientation of magnetic and electric fields with respect to the earth. Polarization
Electric field is parallel to the earth, the electromagnetic wave is horizontally Horizontally Polarized
polarized.
The electric i eld is perpendicular to the earth, the wave is Vertically Polarized
vertically polarized
In which the electric and magnetic fields rotate as they leave the antenna. Circular Polarization,
Tell us that an electric field changing with time acts as charges in motion or current Maxwell’s Equations
flow that, in turn, set up a magnetic field. As the magnetic field changes over time, it
sets up an electric field.
One of the most widely used antenna types is the half-wave dipole . This antenna is Hertz Antenna
also formally known as the Hertz antenna after Heinrich Hertz.
39
Who first demnstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves Heinrich Hert
Is two pieces of wire, rod, or tubing that are one-quarter wavelength long at the Dipole Antenna
operating resonant frequency. Also called a doublet.
The transmission line is connected at the center. The dipole has an impedance of 73 Radiation Resistance
ohms at its center, which is the Radiation resistance.
Another common way to increase bandwidth is to use a version of the dipole Conical Antenna
antenna.
Preferred at the lower frequencies (,<30 MHz) because the physical construction, Horizontal Mounting
mounting, and support are easier.
Common at the higher frequencies (VHF and UHF), where the antennas are shorter Vertical Mounting
and made of self-supporting tubing.
Any antenna is the shape of the electromagnetic energy radiated from or received by Radiation Pattern
that antenna.
The measure of an antenna’s directivity , is also measured on an antenna’s radiation Beam Width
pattern
Defined as the output of an electronic circuit or device divided by the input. Gain
The power radiated by an antenna with directivity and therefore gain is called the Effective Radiated
effective radiated power (ERP) . Power (ERP)
The ERP is calculated by multiplying the transmitter power fed to the antenna Pt by ERP = Ap•Pt
the power gain Ap of the antenna:
Is a theoretical point source of electromagnetic energy. Isotropic Radiator
The antenna, defined as the part of the field less than 10 wavelengths from the Near Field
antenna at the operating frequency, a portion of the surface area on the sphere.
10 or more wavelengths distant from the source, the sphere is so large that a small Far Field
area appears to be l at rather than curved.
A popular variation of the half-wave dipole. Like the standard dipole, it is one-half Folded Dipole
wavelength long. However, it consists of two parallel conductors connected at the
ends with one side open at the center for connection to the transmission line.
Another widely used antenna is the one-quarter wavelength vertical antenna.It is Marconi Antenna
similar in operation to a vertically mounted dipole antenna.
Antennas, which transmit an equal amount of energy in the horizontal direction. Omnidirectional
Antennas
One-half of the pattern is below the surface of the earth. Vertical Radiation
Patter
Once a good electrical connection to the earth has been made, the earth becomes Ground Plane
what is known as a Ground plane.
Horizontal wires at the base of the antenna. Radials
40
The greater the number of radials, the better the ground and the better the radiation. Counterpoise
The entire ground-plane collection of radials is often referred to as a Counterpoise
Refers to the ability of an antenna to send or receive signals over a narrow horizontal Directivity
directional range.
Provide greater eficiency of power transmission. Directional Antenna
The transmitted power radiates out in all directions. Omnidirectional

Antennas
, It receives signals best in two directions Bidirectional
Antennas send or receive signals in one direction only. Unidirectional
The three smaller patterns or loops going off in different directions from the main Minor Lobes
larger pattern.
Two basic types of antenna arrays are used to achieve gain and directivity. Parasitic Arrays And
Driven Arrays
Consists of a basic antenna connected to a transmission line. Parasitic Array
Additional conductors that are not connected to the transmission line. placed in Parasitic Elements
parallel with and near the driven elements.
The antenna itself is referred to as the driven element Driven Element
A parasitic element that is typically about 5 percent longer than the half-wave dipole- Reflector
driven element.
Is approximately 5 percent shorter than the half-wave dipole driven element and is Director
mounted in front of the driven element.
An antenna made up of a driven element and one or more parasitic elements. Yagi Antenna
The other major type of directional antenna, an antenna that has two or more driven Driven Array
elements.
Usually consist of two or more halfwave dipoles mounted end to end. Collinear Antennas
Generally used only on VHF and UHF bands because their length becomes
prohibitive at the lower frequencies.
Like the collinear antenna, the broadside is bidirectional in radiation, but the radiation Broadside Array
pattern has a very narrow beam width and high gain.
Uses two half-wave dipoles spaced one-half wavelength apart. Both elements are End-Fire Array,
driven by the transmission line.
A special type of driven array is the wide bandwidth and multiple frequencies must Log Periodic Antenna
be covered.
One of the most critical aspects of any antenna system is to ensure maximum power Impedance Matching
transfer from the transmitter to the antenna.
41
Are used to maximize power output and input. Most of these techniques are aimed at Antenna Tuning Or
impedance matching. Antenna Matching
ZQ = characteristic impedance of quarter-wave matching stub or Q section ZQ =√ Zo zl

Zo = characteristic impedance of transmission line or transmitter at input of Q section
ZL =impedance of load
Another commonly used impedance-matching technique, a type of transformer used Baluns.

to match impedances.
When baluns and matching sections cannot do the job, this tuners are used. Antenna Tuners.
Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna, it travels or propagates Radio Wave
through space and ultimately reaches the receiving antenna Propagation
Act very much as light waves do. Radio Waves
Can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and focused by other objects. Light Waves
Light waves are reflected by a mirror. Reflection

Angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Is the bending of a wave due to the physical makeup of the medium through which Refraction
the wave passes.
The degree of bending depends on the index of refraction of a medium n. Index Of Refraction
The relationship between the angles and the indices of refraction is given by a n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
formula known as Snell’s law:
n1= index of refraction of initial medium
n2 = index of refraction of medium into which wave passes
θ1 =angle of incidence
θ2 = angle of refraction
The bending of waves around an object. Diffraction is explained by what is known as Diffraction
Huygens’ principle.
Is based on the assumption that all electromagnetic waves, light as well as radio Huygens’ Principle
waves, radiate as spherical wave fronts from a source. Each point on a wave front at
any given time can be considered as a point source for additional spherical waves.
Follow the curvature of the earth and can, therefore, travel at distances beyond the Ground Waves.
horizon. main signal path for radio signals in the 30-kHz to 3-MHz range.
Signals are radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere known as the Sky Wave
ionosphere, where they are bent back to earth.
The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into three layers D Layer, E Layer, And
F Layer
F1 and F2 layers, the closest to the sun, are the most highly ionized and have the F Layer
greatest effect on radio signals. The F layers exist during both day and night.
The farthest from the sun, are weakly ionized. They exist only during daylight hours, D And E Layers
during which they tend to absorb radio signals in the medium-frequency range from
300 kHz to 3 MHz.
42
The signal reflected back from the ionosphere strikes the earth, is reflected back up Multiple-Skip Or
to the ionosphere, and is re-reflected back to earth. Multiple-Hop
Transmission
The distance from the transmitting antenna to the point on earth where the first Skip Distance
refracted signal strikes the earth to be reflected .
If a receiver lies in that area between the place where the ground wave is fully Skip Zone
attenuated and the point of first reflection from the earth, no signal will be received.
A wave travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving Direct Waves, Or
antenna. Direct wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-of-sight Space Waves.
communication.
The formula for computing the distance between a transmitting antenna and the d =√2ht
horizon is
Where : ht = height of transmitting antenna, ft
d = distance from transmitter to horizon, mi
Practical transmission distance D for straight-line wave transmissions, the height of D = √2ht + √2hr
the receiving antenna must be included in the calculations.
Characteristic of most radio signals with a frequency above approximately 30 MHz, Line-Of-Sight
particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals. Communication
A combination of a receiver and a transmitter operating on separate frequencies. Repeater
The “ultimate” repeater. Located in a geostationary orbit 22,500 mi above the Communication
equator. Satellite
Receiver- transmitter combination within the satellite. Transpond
The power density at a given distance from an isotropic radiator is predicted by the Pd = Pt/4πd²
formula:
Where: Pd = power density of signal, W/m2
d = distance from point source, m
Pt = total transmitted power, W
Another way to predict received power is to estimate the total power attenuation over Path Attenuation.
a transmission path.
This Path Attenuation in decibels is given by dB loss =92.4 + 20 log

Where: f = frequency of operation, GHz fGHz + 20 log dkm
d = distance traveled, Km, mi
dB loss =96.6 + 20 log
fGHz + 20 log dmi
Is the variation in signal amplitude at the receiver caused by the characteristics of the Fading
signal path and changes in it.
Caused by: variation in distance between transmitter and receiver, changes in the
environmental characteristics of the signal path, the presence of multiple signal
paths, and relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
One of the worst sources of fading is multipath interference.Occurs when a Rayleigh Fading
transmitted signal takes multiple paths to the receiver because of reflections.
Statistical response curve that mathematically describes the variation of the received Rayleigh
signal.
43
Fading can also be minimized by using this system.Uses multiple transmitters, Diversity System
receivers, or antennas to mitigate the problems caused by multipath signals.
It uses two receiver antennas spaced as far apart as possible to receive the signals Space Or Spatial
Diversity
Internet Technologies
CHAPTER 15
Definitions Terms
A communication system that accomplishes one of three broad uses: (1) share Internet
resources, (2) share files or data, and (3) communication.
The exchange of notes, letters, memos and other personal communication by the way E-mail
of electronic mail software and service companies.
Refers to the ability to transfer files of data or software from one computer to another. File Transfer
Allows you to access in remote computers and download them to your computer, File Transfer Program
where they may be used.
A specialized part of the Internet where companies, organizations, the government, or World-Wide Web
even individuals can post information for others to access and use.
A software that lets the user navigate and explore the Web and access and display Browser
the information.
A method that allows different pages or websites to be linked. Hypertext
A language used to create Web pages. Hypertext Markup

Language (HTML)
Doing business over the Internet, usually buying and selling goods and services by E-commerce
the way of the Web.
Allows a person to look for information on any given topic. Internet Searches
Specialized softwares that can look for websites related to the desired search topic. Search Engines
The technique of replacing standard telephone service with a digital voice version with Voice over internet
calls taking place over the Internet. Protocol (VoIP)
The video (and accompanying audio) is digitized, compressed and sent via the Video over Internet
Internet. Protocol (VidoIP)
Serial binary pulses, usually grouped as bytesof data within larger groups. Packets
Series of characters used by an individual or computer on the Internet that acts as a Internet Address
kind of identifier or address.
A specific type of organization using the Internet. Domain
A particular computer connected to the Internet. Host
44
An address by computers to identify and locate one another. E- mail Address
A special address used to locate sites on the Web. Uniform Resource

Locator (URL)
Specifies the communication protocol to be used by the URL. Hypertext Transfer

Protocol (HTTP)
A fast Internet connection provided by a telephone company or a cable TV company, Broadband Connection
with transmission speeds greater than the speed obtained with a typical telephone
modem
Most widely used broadband connection; ideal for supporting fast data transfers Cable TV Modem
Second most widely used broadband connection; gives a data rate from 1.5 to 50 Digital Subscriber Line
Mbps (DSL)
A company set up especially to tap into the network known as Internet Internet Service
Provider (ISP)
A general term for the Internet; a massive unseen networking infrastructure that is Cloud
constantly changing and has never been mapped
The process of storing and accessing programs or data over the Internet Cloud Computing
The process of subscribing to a software program; it maybe a game, a database, or Software as a Service
some application software (SaaS)
A development platform that offers all the tools you need to build your own cloud Platform as a Service
application (PaaS)
A company that supplies hardware such as severs or virtual computers and storage Infrastructure as a
units Service (IaaS)
A packet-switching protocol that packages data to be transmitted into frames Frame Relay
A packet switching system that uses very short 53-byte data packets with a 48-byte Asynchronous
data payload and a 5-byte header that designates the destination as well as the type Transfer Mode (ATM)
of data to be handled
Developed to transmit digitized telephone calls in T1 format over fiber-optic cable at Synchronous Optical
high speeds Network (SONET)
An ANSI standard as well as a subset of the broader international standard Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH)
The electrical signal to be transmitted Synchronous Transport

Signal (STS)-
SONET/Synchronous
Transport Mode (STM)-
SDH
A packet-based technology and was optimized to carry Ethernet as well as SONET Optical Transport
Network (OTN)
An intelligent computer-like device that looks at all packets transmitted to it and Router
examines their Internet Protocol destination addresses, determines the next best path
45
for the data to take and stores information about other routers and networks to which
it is connected to; single most important piece of equipment in the Internet
Performs both serial-to-parallel and parallel-to-serial data conversion Serializer/Deserializer

(SERDES)
A collection of companies that install, service and maintain large nationwide and even Internet Backbone
worldwide networks of high speed fiber-optic cable
Interconnection points or facilities that provide links between backbones Network Access Points
(NAPs)
Data to be sent is divided up into short chunks called packets and transmitted one at a Packet-Switching
time
An 8-bit word Octet
Typically less than 1500 octets long Packets
Another term to describe a packet Datagram
Packets are packaged into long continuous synchronous data streams and Packet over SONET
transmitted by the way of the SONET (PoS)
A set of software protocols that make sure that the data is properly partitioned, Transmission Control
transmitted, received and reassembled Protocol/ Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP)
Facilitates the transmission of long files of data File Transfer Protocol

(FTP)
Implements E-mails Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol (SMTP)
Provides access to the World Wide Web Hypertext Transfer

Protocol (HTTP)
Host-to-host layer; divides the data into packets to be sent Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)
A single serial bit stream in which each of the fields is transmitted one after another TCP Header
Ensures that the packet gets to its destination over the Internet Internet Protocol Layer
A 32-bit address divided into four 8-bit segments separated by dots Dotted Decimal Form
An organization known to assign the destination addresses Internet Assigned

Numbers Authority
(IANA)
Most widely used IP protocol having a destination address size of only 32 bits Internet Protocol
version 4 (IPv4)
A newer version of protocol, which has a 128-bit address field that should provide Internet Protocol
more than enough destinations for massive expansions version 6 (IPv6)
The ability of the IP to move fast audio and video data over the Internet from a single Multicasting
source to multiple destinations
46
Another protocol used at the transport level; provides a connectionless service for User Datagram
applications and few error recovery services Protocol (UDP)
A message wherein the senders are not concerned that everyone receives the Junk Mail
package they sent
Used to identify workstations, routers, switches and other devices Class A, B, and C IP
Address
IP addresses reserved for special use Class D and E IP

Addresses
The default route; simplifies routing tables used by IP Default IP (0.0.0.0)
Reserved for loopback; used to refer to the local host Loopback IP (127.0.0.1)
Refers to the actual network itself; all host bits set to 0 Network Address
IP addresses with all node bits set to 1; local network broadcast addresses and must Subnet/ Network
not be used Broadcast
IP addresses with all bits set to 1; broadcast address and must not be used Network Broadcast
A special sequence of bits used to determine if the packet is being sent to the network Network Mask
A technique used as a means to help the routers more efficiently route packets and Subnetting
manage the size of their router tables
A unique address assigned to the physical device Media Access Control

Address (MAC)
A logical address used to determine where in the network the host is located Internet Protocol
Address (IP)
Provides a way to meet the Internet’s nearly insatiable need for storage Storage Area Networks
(SANs)
Fast parallel transmission bus used to connect external drives to a PC or server Small Computer
Storage Interface
(SCSI)
A form of mass storage in parallel format with a distance of just several feet Direct attached Storage
(DAS)
A more flexible system using fast serial data transfer Network Attached
Storage (NAS)
An optical fiber transmission standard established by ANSI; defined by a protocol and Fiber channel
a fiber optic physical layer that can be used to connect computers and storage
systems in a loop or ring, point-to-point or through switches
Where the connection to the fiber-optic cable is made through Host Bus Adapter
(HBA)
A protocol used by FC systems to communicate over longer distances via the Internet Fibre Channel over
Internet Protocol (FCIP)
47
Allows FC SANs to be linked by using TCP/IP with standard Ethernet switches or Internet Fibre Channel
routers Protocol (iFCP)
A lower cost SAN connection system that uses standard off-the-shelf Ethernet Internet SCSI (iSCSI)
components and TCP/IP software
Refers to protecting the data from interception and protecting the sending and Internet Security
receiving parties from unwanted threats such as viruses and spam
Some type of way to read, steal or compromise data Security Threats
GA small program designed to implement some nefarious action in a computer Virus
A more recent threat, while not actually damaging, is unwanted ads and solicitations Spam
via E-mail
A kind of software that monitors a computer and its user while he or she accesses the Spyware
Internet or E-mail
A process that transmits errors in the communications protocol and causes the Denial-of-Service
computer to crash or hang up Attacks (DoS)
A DoS attack that usually overwhelms ISP servers with a huge number of worthless Smurfing
packets, thereby preventing other ISP subscribers from using the system
The transmission of an inquiry by way of the Internet Control Message Protocol that is Pinging
a part of the TCP/IP to see if the particular computer is connected to the internet and
active
The process of obscuring information so that it cannot be read by someone else; Encryption
involves converting a message to some other form that makes it useless to the reader
A reverse process that translates the encrypted message back to readable form Decryption
The information or message to be transmitted in an encryption process Plaintext
The encrypted text or the secret code that is transmitted after the plaintext is Ciphertext
encrypted in a predetermined computer algorithm
A type of encryption wherein both sending and receiving parties must have the same Secret Key Encryption
key (SKE)
A type of encryption that uses two keys (a public and private key) in the encryption Public Key Encryption
process (PKE)
An encryption method using a 56-bit key for encryption Data Encryption

Standard (DES)
An encryption method that puts the plaintext through three separate sequential DES 3-DES
encryptions, creating a virtually unbreakable code
Developed by the NIST to replace DES with a method better suited to network use Advanced Encryption
and hardware as well as software implementation Standard
A newer PKE algorithm that uses a smaller 160-bit key that provides equivalent Elliptic Curve
protection of a 1024-bit RSA key, but computation is significantly faster Cryptosystem (ECC)
Methods of ensuring data integrity during encryption Hash Functions
48
The process of verifying that you are who you say you are; ensures that the Authentication
transmitting and receiving parties are really who they say they are and that their
identities have not been stolen or simulated
A method of authentication using hashing and public key encryption to verify identity Certificate-based
in various transactions Authentication
Organizations issuing public keys to those individuals or organizations and vouches Certification Authority
for their identity
A protocol where the processes of encryption/decryption and authentication are used Secure Socket Layer
together to ensure transactions over the Internet (SSL)
A more advanced version of SSL Transport Layer

Security (TSL)
A piece of software that monitors transmissions on a network and inspects the Firewall
incoming information to see if it conforms to a set of guidelines established by the
software or the organization or person owning the network
A program that scans all files on the hard drive either automatically or on command, to Antivirus
look for viruses
Scans all files, searches for patterns that designate a spyware program and then Antispyware
removes the said program
Typically setup to monitor incoming e-mail traffic and look for clues to whether it is Antispam
legitimate e-mail or spam
A software used to block off segments of a network or create a subnet software to Virtual LAN (VLAN)
assign access only to authorized users
A popular alternative to VLAN by creating a secure connection through the internet Virtual Private Network
(VPN)
The process of encrypting and encapsulating a datagram in one additional encrypted Tunneling
IP datagram and transmitting the combined packet
Microwave and Millimeter Wave

CHAPTER 16 Communication
Definitions Terms
Ultrahigh, superhigh, and extremely high frequencies directly above the lower frequency Microwave
ranges where most radio communication now takes place and below the optical
frequencies that cover infrared, visible and ultraviolet light
Generally considered to extend from 1 to 30 GHz, although some definitions include up to Microwave Region
300 GHz
Frequencies above 30 GHz Millimeter Waves
Frequencies above 300 GHz Submillimeter

Waves
49
A certain amount of bandwidth which the information signal occupies Channel
Broadband scheme that allows many radios to share a single bandwidth Orthogonal
Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
Average TV signal bandwidth 6 MHz (approx..)
A small capacitance that exists between the leads. Residuals
The amount of time it takes for the current carriers (holes or electrons) to move through a Transit Time
device.
Starts with a carrier generator and a series of amplifi ers. It also includes a modulator Microwave
followed by more stages of power amplification. The final power amplifier applies the Transmitter
signal to the transmission line and antenna. The carrier generation and modulation stages
of a microwave application are similar to those of lower-frequency transmitters. Only in
the later power amplification stages are special components used.
Like low-frequency receivers, are the superheterodyne type. Their front ends are made up Microwave
of microwave components. Receivers
A special RF amplifier where signal is applied Low-noise Amplifier

(LNA)
The transmission line most commonly used in lower- frequency radio communication Coaxial Cable
Low-loss coaxial cable with stiff inner conductor is separated from the outer tubing with Hard-line Cable
spacers or washers
A special hollow rectangular or circular pipe used for the transmission line Waveguide
Preferred for reactive circuits at the higher frequencies because it is simpler and less Microstrip
expensive than stripline
Used where shielding is necessary to minimize noise and cross talk Stripline
Special chip configurations to reduce internal inductances and capacitances of transistor Geometries
elements
Extends the frequency range beyond 20 GHz by adding an extra layer of semiconductor High Electron
material Mobility Transistor
(HEMT)
Makes even higher-frequency amplifi cation possible in both discrete form and integrated Heterojunction
circuits Bipolar Transistor
(HBT)
Can be made up of a single transistor or multiple transistors combined with a biasing Small Signal
circuit and any microstrip circuits or components as required Microwave Amplifier
Another type of small-signal microwave amplifier Multistage

Integrated Circuit
Commonly used in the front end of a microwave receiver to provide initial amplification for Microwave Amplifier
the mixer
50
One that incorporates two or more stages of FET or bipolar transistors made on a Monolithic
common chip to form a multistage amplifier Microwave
Integrated
Circuit (MMIC)
Combines an amplifier IC connected to microstrip circuits and discrete components of Hybrid Circuit
various types
Waveguide cutoff frequency Fco=300/2a
The electric field is at a right angle to the direction of wave propagation Transverse Electric
Field
The magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation Transverse

Magnetic Field
The pattern of the electromagnetic fi elds within a waveguide Operating mode
Used to interconnect two sections of waveguide Choke Joint
Introduce reflections and power loss, but these are kept small by proper design Curved Sections
Split or combine two or more sources of microwave power T Sections/

Junctions
The junction is formed on the short side Shunt T
The junction is formed on the long side Series T
The power level of the signals at A and B is one-half the input power Power Divider
The output power is the sum of the individual powers Power Combiner
Used as a duplexer to permit simultaneous use of a single antenna by both a transmitter Hybrid T
and a receiver
Can be accomplished by using a resistive material shaped as a triangle or wedge at the Termination
end of a closed line
Used to facilitate the measurement of microwave power in a waveguide and the SWR Directional Coupler
Coupling factor, dB C=10log*Pin/Pout
Using two sections of line to sample the energy in both directions allows determination of Bidirectional
the SWR Coupler
A waveguidelike device that acts as a high-Q parallel resonant circuit Cavity Resonator
A three-port microwave device used for coupling energy in only one direction around a Circulator
closed loop
Allows a single antenna to be shared by a transmitter and receiver Diplexer
Often used in situations where a mismatch, or the lack of a proper load, could cause Isolator
reflections so large as to damage the source
Comprises a piece of semiconductor material and a fi ne wire that makes contact with the Point-Contact-Diode
semiconductor material
51
Sometimes referred to as hot carrier diodes Schottky Diode
The most important use of microwave diodes Mixers
Basically a voltage variable capacitor Varactor Diode
It is a PN-junction diode made with gallium arsenide or silicon Step-Recovery

Diodes / Snap-off
Varactors
A thin piece of N-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) or indium phosphide (InP) semiconductor Gunn Diode
that forms a special resistor when voltage is applied to it
Two other microwave diodes widely used as oscillators IMPATT and

TRAPATT Diodes
A special PN-junction diode with an I (intrinsic) layer between the P and N sections PIN Diode
A combination of two series switches and a shunt switch Tee Configuration
A microwave vacuum tube using cavity resonators to produce velocity modulation of an Klystron
electron beam that produces amplification
Special elements called focusing plates to which have been applied high voltages force Electrostatic
the electrons into a narrow beam Focusing
makes use of coils around the tube through which current is passed to produce a Electromagnetic
magnetic field. This magnetic field helps focus the electrons into a narrow beam Focusing
Speeding up and slowing down of the electron beam Velocity Modulation
Bunched electrons move toward the collector in clouds of alternately dense and sparse Density Modulated
areas, the electron beam Beam
A combination of a simple diode vacuum tube with built-in cavity resonators and an Magnetron
extremely powerful permanent magnet
One of the most versatile microwave RF power amplifiers, which can generate hundreds Travelling Wave
and even thousands of watts of microwave power Tubes (TWT)
The main virtue of the TWT Extremely Wide

Bandwidth
A positive plate in the TWT which attracts electrons and to which a high dc voltage is Collector
applied
A variation of the TWT, the wave travels from the anode end of the tube back toward the Backward Wave
electron gun, where it is extracted Oscillator (BWO)
Used for amplification at microwave frequencies above 30 GHz into the millimeter wave Gyrotrons
range
Similar to a TWT; its gain is lower but is somewhat more efficient Crossed-field
Amplifier (CFA)
At low microwave frequencies, less than 2 GHz, standard antennas are commonly used, Low Frequency
including the dipole and its variations such as the bow tie, the Yagi, and the ground-plane Antennas
antenna
52
This antenna is a fat, wide-bandwidth, half-wave dipole fed with low-loss coaxial cable Corner Reflector
The spacing between the dipole and the corner of the reflector 0.25λ to 0.75λ
The overall gain of a corner reflector antenna 10 to 15 dB
Antennas having excellent gain and directivity, created by flaring the end of a waveguide Horn Antennas
A type of antenna created by flaring the waveguide in only one dimension Sectoral Horn
A type of antenna created by flaring both dimensions of a waveguide Pyramidal Horn
Antenna created if a circular waveguide is flared at the end Conical Horn
Typical length of horn at operating frequency 2λ to 15λ
The area of the rectangle formed by the opening of the horn, and it is the product of the Aperture
height and width of the horn
The angle formed by extending lines from the center of the antenna response curve to the Beam Width
3-dB down points
Beam width of a pyramidal horn B= 80/(w/λ)
Approximate power gain of a pyramidal horn antenna G=4π(KA/λ^2)
An important consideration at microwave frequencies because the spectrum transmitted Bandwidth

on the microwave carrier is usually very wide so that a considerable amount of
information can be carried
A large dish-shaped structure made of metal or screen mesh Parabolic Reflector
Gain of a parabolic antenna G=6(D/λ)^2
Beam width of a parabolic reflector B= 70/(D/λ)
The horn antenna is positioned at the center of the parabolic reflector. At the focal point is Cassegrain Feed
another small reflector with either a parabolic or a hyperbolic shape. The electromagnetic
radiation from the horn strikes the small reflector, which then reflects the energy toward
the large dish, which in turn radiates the signal in parallel beams
An antenna with a wire helix Helical Antenna
The rotation of the electromagnetic field in a helical antenna Circular Polarization
One of the most widely used omnidirectional microwave antennas Bicone Antenna
A radiator made by cutting a one-half wavelength slot in a conducting sheet of metal or Slot Antenna
into the side or top of a waveguide
Uses a special dielectric material to collimate or focus the microwaves from a source into Dielectric/Lens
a narrow beam Antenna
The antenna is a circular or rectangular area of copper separated from the ground plane Patch Antenna
on the bottom of the board by the thickness of the PCB’s insulating material
An antenna system made up of a large group of similar antennas on a common plane Phased Array
53
Because antennas are so small at microwave frequencies, they can be conveniently Printed Circuit
made right on a printed-circuit board that also holds the transmitter and/or receiver ICs Antenna
and related circuits.
A single closed loop that is usually rectangular but could be round as well Loop Antenna
This unique antenna is a variation of the ground plane as it is designed to work over a Inverted-F
conducting ground plane
An attempt to shorten an antenna by bending the conductors back on themselves to save Meander Line
space
One whose copper pattern elements are formed on some type of resonant dielectric Dielectric Antenna
material such as ceramic or some derivative thereof
Antennas that work in conjunction with electronic decision-making circuits to modify Intelligent/Smart
antenna performance to fi t changing situations Antennas
It uses two or more antennas that receive the signal from different physical positions Diversity
Uses two or more antennas for receiving but also uses two or more antennas for Multiple Input,
transmission Multiple Output
Systems that automatically adjust their characteristics to the environment Adaptive Antennas
By using many antennas, the transmit/receive pattern can be adjusted as required by the Beam Forming
situation. The beam may be narrowed or widened, and the direction of the beam may be Antennas
electronically adjusted on the fly thanks to electronic controls
They are particularly beneficial to cell phone systems because they can actually boost the Spatial Division
system capacity since they can reuse the same frequencies multiple times and allow the Multiple Access
antenna to keep signals on the same frequency from interfering with one another (SDMA)
1. Radar Major applications

a. Aircraft and marine navigation of microwave and
b. Military threat detection millimeter-wave
c. Altimeters radio
d. Weather plotting
e. Traffi c speed enforcement
f. Automotive collision avoidance and speed control
2. Satellite
a. Telephone communication
b. TV transmission (cable, short-range, direct broadcast)
c. Surveillance
d. Weather plotting
e. Navigation (GPS, etc.)
3. Wireless local-area and personal-area networks
a. IEEE 802.11b/g Ethernet, 2.4 GHz, rates of 11 to 54 Mbps
b. IEEE 802.11a Ethernet, 5 GHz, rate of 54 Mbps
c. 802.11n Ethernet, 2.4 GHz, rate to 600 Mbps
d. 802.11ac Ethernet, 5 GHz, 3 Gbps
e. 802.11ad WiGig, 60 GHz, 7 Gbps
f. Bluetooth 2.4 GHz, rate to 3 Mbps
g. Ultrawideband Rate to 1 Gbps
4. Wireless broadband access to the Internet
a. LTE
b. WiMAX
5. Cell phones (allocations in the 1.8-, 1.9-, 2.3–2.7 and 3.6 GHz ranges)
Fifth generation (5G) cell phones are expected to be in the millimeter
54
range (e.g., 28 or 38 GHz).

6. Backhaul 18–90 GHz, 500 Mbps-10 Gbps
7. Heating
a. Microwave ovens (domestic)
b. Microwave heating (industrial)
8. Radio telescopes
The electronic communication system based on the principle that high-frequency RF RADAR (Radio
signals are reflected by conductive targets Detection and
Ranging)
The reflected or return radio signal Echo
The distance to a remote target is calculated by using the expression
D=T/12.36
where D 5 distance between radar unit and remote object, nautical miles
T 5 total time between transmission and reception of signal, μs
In short-distance applications, the yard is the common unit of distance measurement.

A radio signal travels 328 yd/μs, so the distance to an object in yards is computed as
D=328T/2 = 164T
A measure of the area of the target “illuminated” by the radar signal Cross-section
Most commonly used radar system. Signals are transmitted in short bursts or pulses Pulsed Radar
Time between transmitted pulses Pulse Repetition

Time (PRT)
PRF=1/PRT Pulse Repetition

Frequency
If the PRT is too short relative to the distance of the target, the echo may not return Double
during the time interval between two successive pulses, but after the second transmitted Range/Second
pulse Return Echo
A type of radar where a constant amplitude continuous microwave sine wave is Continous Wave
transmitted Radar
The frequency shift that occurs when there is relative motion between the transmitting Doppler Effect
station and a remote target
Through a variety of special signal processing techniques, multiple moving targets can be Moving Target
distinguished not only from one another but from fixed targets as well Indication (MTI)
A waveguide assembly containing special devices that prevent interference between the Radar Duplexer
transmitter and receiver
Prevent transmitter power from reaching the receiver Transmit-Receive

Tubes
Effectively disconnect the transmitter from the circuit during the receive interval Anti-Transmit-
Receive Tubes
A form of pulsed radar that radiates a stream of very short pulses several hundred Ultrawideband
picoseconds long rather than a burst of RF at a specific carrier frequency Radar (UWB
55
Satellite Communication
CHAPTER 17
Definitions Terms
The ability to launch a satellite and keep it in orbit depending upon following well- Orbital Dynamics
known
physical and mathematical laws
The escape velocity needed to cause a spacecraft to break the gravitational pull of the Approximately 25,000
earth mi/hr
The lowest practical earth orbit 100 mi
The typical distance of communication satellites from Earth 22,300 mi
A plane passing through the center of gravity of the earth Geocenter
Direction of satellite rotation in the same direction as the Earth's rotation Posigrade
Direction of satellite rotation against the direction of the Earth’s rotation Retrograde
An orbit where the speed of rotation is constant Circular orbit
An orbit where the speed changes depending upon the height of the satellite above Elliptical orbit
the earth
The distance between the center of the earth and the satellite Satellite Height
Highest point above earth Apogee
Lowest point above earth Perigee
Speed of low earth satellites of about 100 mi in height 17,500 mi/hr
Typical speed of very high satellites such as communication satellites, which are 6800 mi/hr
approximately 22,300 mi out
The time it takes for a satellite to complete one orbit Period/Sidereal Period
The period of time that elapses between the successive passes of the satellite over a Revolution
given meridian of earth longitude
The angle formed between the line that passes through the center of the earth and the Angle of Inclination
north pole and a line that passes through the center of the earth but that is also
perpendicular to the orbital plane.
Orbits with 0° inclination Equatorial Orbits
Orbits with inclinations of 90° Polar Orbits
When the satellite moves from south to north and crosses the equator Ascending Orbit
When the satellite goes from north to south across the equator Descending Orbit
56
The angle that appears between the line from the earth station’s antenna to the Angle of Elevation
satellite and the line between the earth station’s antenna and the earth’s horizon
The satellite orbits the earth about the equator at a distance of 22,300 mi (or 35,888 Geosynchronous Earth
km). A satellite at that distance rotates about the earth in exactly 24 h. In other words, Orbit (GEO)
the satellite rotates in exact synchronism with the earth
The satellite location is specified by a point on the surface of the earth directly below Subsatellite Point
the satellite (SSP)
Drawn on the surface of the earth between the north and south poles Longitude or Meridians
Defined as the angle between the line drawn from a given point on the surface of the Latitude
earth to the point at the center of the earth called the geocenter and the line between
the geocenter and the equator
The line on the surface of the earth, drawn between the north and south poles, that Prime Meridian
passes through Greenwich, England
Refers to the direction where north is equal to 0° Azimuth
Angle measured clockwise with respect to north Azimuth Angle
Relay stations for earth sources Communication

Satellites
A satellite application where transmitting station sends the information to the satellite, Repeater
which in turn retransmits it to the receiving stations
The original signal being transmitted from the earth station to the satellite Uplink
The retransmitted signal from the satellite to the receiving stations Downlink
The transmitter-receiver combination in the satellite used for amplification and Transponder
frequency translation
Band Frequency Frequency Bands used

P 225–390 MHz in Satellite
J 350–530 MHz Communications
L 1530–2700 MHz
S 2500–2700 MHz
C 3400–6425 MHz
X 7250–8400 MHz
Ku 10.95–14.5 GHz
Ka 17.7–31 GHz
Q 36–46 GHz
V 46–56 GHz
W 56–100 GHz
One system for effectively doubling the bandwidth and information-carrying capacity of Frequency Reuse
a satellite
Using narrow beam or spot beam antennas, the area on the earth covered by the Spatial Isolation
satellite can be divided up into smaller segments
This digital method spreads the signals of multiple users over the full transponder Code-Division Multiple
channel bandwidth and sorts them by use of pseudorandom codes Access
57
The main payload on a communication satellite that performs the function of a Communication
repeater or relay station Subsystem
A circuit that takes a signal and increases the voltage or power level of that signal Amplifier
without changing its frequency or content
Uses a single mixer to translate the uplink signal to the downlink frequency Single-Conversion
Transponder
Makes the frequency translation in two steps with two mixers Dual-Conversion
Transponder
Demodulates the uplink signal after the frequency is translated to some lower Regenerative Repeater
intermediate frequency
This permits many more signals to be received and transmitted Multi-Channel

Configurations
Width of a typical communication satellite spectrum 500 MHz
The center frequency spacing between adjacent channels 40 MHz
The spacing between channels to minimize adjacent channel interference 4 MHz
A process that occurs in the remainder of the transponder and is used to separate all Channelization Process
various received signals
Used to increase the signal level High Power Amplifiers

(HPAs)
Large arrays of photocells connected in various series and parallel circuits to create a Solar Panels
powerful source of direct current
Allows a ground station to monitor and control conditions in the satellite, typically Telemetry, Command,
consists of various electronic sensors for measuring temperatures, radiation levels, and Control (TC&C)
power supply voltages, and other key operating characteristics Subsystem
Made up of the special components that enable the satellite to fulfill its intended Application Subsystem
purpose. For a communication satellite, this subsystem is made up of the
transponders
Application payload for which is used for navigation Global Positioning

System (GPS)
The terrestrial base of the system Ground/Earth Station
An earth station consists of five major subsystems:

Receive Subsystem,
Transmit subsystem,
Ground Control Equipment (GCE) Subsystem
Power Subsystem
The receive subsystem of the earth station Downlink
Amplifies the downlink satellite signal and translate it to a suitable intermediate Receive Subsystem
frequency
A tuning arrangement where the first local oscillator is made adjustable RF Tuning
58
A tuning arrangement where the second local oscillator has a fi xed frequency to IF Tuning
achieve the final conversion.
Consists of one or more racks of equipment used for demodulating and demultiplexing Receiver Ground
the received signals Control Equipment
The transmitting subsystem of the earth station Uplink
Translates the baseband signals modulated on to carriers up to the final uplink Up Converter
microwave frequencies
Generate the high-power signals that are applied to the antenna Power Amplifiers
An amplifier providing sufficient drive to the final high-power amplifier Intermediate Power
Amplifier
Three types of power amplifiers used in earth stations:

transistor
traveling-wave tube (TWT)
klystron
Takes over if an ac power failure occurs Backup Power System
A smaller backup power system which derives its power from batteries Uninterruptible Power
Supply (UPS)
Consists of a receiver and the recorders and indicators that display the telemetry Telemetry Equipment
signals
Permits the ground station to control the satellite; this system usually contains a Control Subsystem
computer for entering the commands that modulate a carrier that is amplified and fed
to the main antenna
A general term for all the electronic equipment used to deal with the information Instrumentation
transmitted back to the earth station
A miniature low-cost satellite ground station Very Small Aperture

Terminal (VSAT)
Satellites which permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide Communication

Satellites
Uses special broad U.S. coverage satellites with high power to transmit cable-TV-like Direct Broadcast
services direct to homes equipped with special receivers Satellites
A standards organization that establishes technical standards for movies and video Motion Picture Experts
Group
Uses low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone Satellite Cell Phones
system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the
system
It uses a constellation of 66 satellites in six polar orbits with 11 satellites per orbit 420 Iridium System
mi above the earth
A special form of time-division multiplexing, used to provide multiple voice channels Time Division Multiple
per satellite Access (TDMA)
59
In addition to voice communication, Iridium will be able to provide a whole spectrum of

other communication services including:
1. Data communication E-mail and other computer communication.
2. Fax Two-way facsimile.
3. Paging Global paging to receivers with a two-line alphanumeric display.
4. Radio Determination Services (RDSs) A subsystem that permits satellites to locate
transceivers on earth. Accuracy is expected to be within 3 mi.
This LEO system uses 44 satellites in orbits inclined 52° and CDMA for voice and data Globalstar
communication
One of the oldest satellite services companies, has served the marine industry for INMARSAT
decades. They use 11 geostationary satellites to provide worldwide coverage
This service provides hundreds of channels of music, news, sports, and talk radio Digital Satellite Radio
primarily to car portable and home radios
From their vantage point high in the sky, this type satellite can look at the earth and Surveillance Satellites
transmit what they see to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes
Collect information about enemies and potential enemies, permit monitoring for the Intelligence Satellite
purpose of proving other countries’ compliance with nuclear test ban and missile
stockpile treaties
These satellites photograph cloud cover and send back to earth pictures that are used Meteorological/Weather
for determining and predicting the weather Satellites
Photograph the earth for the purpose of creating more accurate and more detailed Geodetic Satellites
maps
Refers to the multiple satellite systems used for worldwide navigation Global Navigation
Satellite System
(GNSS)
Also known as Navstar, is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by Global Positioning
anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint her or his location on earth System (GPS)
The constellation of satellites orbiting above the earth with transmitters that send Space Segment
highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
A term normally associated with specifying the location of a celestial body Ephemeris
The signal transmitted by a GPS satellite Coarse-acquisition

(C/A) code
Refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control Control Segment
and update information
Electronic oscillators that use the oscillating energy of a gas to provide a stable Atomic Clocks
operating frequency
Elements typically used in atomic clocks Cesium and Rubidium
A complex superheterodyne microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals, GPS Receiver
decode them, and then compute the location of the receiver
The determination of the location of a GPS receiver is based on measuring the GPS Triangulation
distance between the receiver and three satellites. The distance is determined by
60
measuring the time of arrival of the satellite signals and then computing distance
based on the speed of radio waves, with correction factors
A difference between the clock frequency in the receiver and the clock in the satellites Bias
This service is implemented by the U.S. Coast Guard and is available only in the Differential GPS
United States, mostly on the coasts and along major waterways. (DGPS)
It was developed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Wide-Area
Transportation (DoT) so that aircraft could use GPS for blind instrument control Augmentation System
landings (WAAS)
Primary application of GPS:

Military
Related Navigation
Commercial applications include:
Surveying
Mapmaking
Construction
Initially functional in 1995 and was updated and restored in 2011. It too uses 24 GLONASS
satellites at a height of 11,890 miles. Operational frequencies are 1.602 GHz and
1.246 GHz
China's expansion of its regional system called Beidou. It is made up of 30 satellites at Compass
an altitude of 13,140 miles and 5 geostationary satellites. It also uses L-band
frequencies of 1.561098, 1.589742, 1.20714, and 1.26852 GHz
Currently only a few satellites are operational, but plans call for a total of 30 satellites Galileo
at a height of 14,430 miles. The system is expected to be more accurate than GPS. It
uses L-band frequencies of 1.164–1.215 GHz, 1.26–1.3 GHz, and 1.559–1.592 GHz.
India's GNSS will use seven geostationary satellites, for coverage mainly around India IRNSS
and the surrounding area
Japan's three-satellite system in construction, which will be a supplement for GPS QZSS
Telecommunication Systems
CHAPTER 18
Optical Communication
CHAPTER 19
Definition Terms
In fiber-optic communication, the way light energy is converted to heat in the Absorption
core material owing to the impurity of the glass or plastic.
The boosting of signal voltage and power. Amplification
61
Varying the amplitude of a carrier signal to transmit information. Amplitude

Modulation
An angle A between the incident ray and the normal at the reflecting surface.
Angle of incidence
A unit of measure for light wavelength, equal to 10210 m or 1024 μm. Angstrom (Å)
A widely used, sensitive, and fast photo sensor. It is reverse-biased. Avalanche

photodiode (APD)
The narrow frequency ranges over which the signal amplitude in a circuit is
highest. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. The
range of frequencies a cable will carry. It determines the maximum speed of the Bandwidth
data pulses the cable can handle.
In a multimode step index cable, a type of dispersion that occurs when multiple Chromatic
wavelengths of light are used. Dispersion
The first step in cutting fiber-optic cable, so that it is perfectly square on the Cleaving
end.
A method of multiplexing data on fiber-optic cable Coarse Wavelength

Division Multiplexing
(CWDM)
The area external to the end of a fiber-optic cable and defined by the critical Cone of Acceptance
angle. Any light beam outside the cone will not be internally reflected and
transmitted down the cable.
A special mechanical assembly that allows fiber-optic cables to be joined to one

another or used to connect a transmission line to a piece of equipment or to Connector
another transmission line.
The glass fiber in a fiber-optic cable that is usually surrounded by a protective Core
plastic cladding. Also the CPU in an integrated processor.
The angle between the incident light ray and the normal to the glass fiber
surface. This value depends upon the index of refraction of the glass. Critical Angle
A light frequency multiplexing method that uses 8, 16, 32, 64, or more data Dense Wavelength
channels on a single fiber. Division Multiplexing
(DWDM)
Pulse stretching caused by the many different paths through a fiber-optic cable. Dispersion
A type of optical amplifier. Erbium-doped fiber

amplifier (EDFA)
A communication system that uses electronic digital and optical multiplexing Fiber-optic
techniques for high-speed data communication. communication
system
A popular DSP filter whose output is a function of the sum of products of the Finite impulse
current input samples. response (FIR) filter
(non-recursive filter)
A cable whose index of refraction for the core varies smoothly and continuously Graded Index Cable
over the diameter of the core.
62
Light ray from a light source. The input wave from a generator to the end of a Incident ray
fiber-optic transmission line.
A figure obtained by dividing the speed of a light wave in a vacuum by the

speed of a light wave in a medium that causes the wave to be bent. The ratio of
the speed of light in air to the speed of light in the substance. Index of Refraction
The region of the optical spectrum just below visible light, from 0.7 to 1000 µm. Infrared Spectrum
A type of modulation used when the information or intelligence signal controls Intensity Modulation
the brightness of a laser transmitter. A form of amplitude modulation.
A single-frequency light source that produces a very narrow beam of brilliant Laser
light of a specific wavelength.
This law states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. LC Law of reflection
filter A filter made with inductors and capacitors.
A type of electromagnetic radiation that occupies the part of the frequency Light
spectrum lower in frequency than x-rays but higher in frequency than
microwaves and includes infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light.
A light-sensitive device that converts light pulses into an electrical signal. Light detector
(photocell)
A laser or LED and its associated driving circuitry. Light Transmitter
One-millionth of a meter. Light waves or small dimensions in integrated circuits Micrometer (µm) or
are expressed in terms of this unit. micron
In a multimode step index cable, an attenuation or stretching of a pulse at the Modal dispersion
end of the cable.
The process by which a baseband voice, video, or digital signal is modified by Modulation
another, higher-frequency signal called the carrier.
One-billionth of a meter. Light waves are often expressed in terms of Nanometer (nm)
nanometers.
A number less than 1 that indicates the range of angles over which a particular Numerical aperture
cable will work. (NA)
A communication system that uses light to transmit information from one place Optical
to another. communication
system
A term referring to the ways that light can be processed. Physical optics
A device used as a switch or variable resistor in a microwave circuit. This PN- PIN Diode
junction diode has an I layer between the P and N sections.
63
Silicon PN-junction diode that is sensitive to light. It is the most widely used light Photodiode
sensor.
A light-sensitive transistor used for light detection. Phototransistor
An accounting of all attenuation and gain in a fiber-optic system. Power (flux) budget
Modulation used to transmit analog data in the form of pulses whose amplitude, Pulse Modulation
width, or time position is varied. (PM)
The speaker in a telephone handset. A collection of electronic components and

circuits that accepts the transmitted message from a channel and converts it
back to a form understandable by people. A device in which a modulated light Receiver
wave is picked up by a photodetector. The signal is amplified and then
demodulated to recover the original signal.
When light rays strike a reflective surface, the light waves are thrown back, or Reflection
reflected. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Radio
waves are reflected by any conducting surface they encounter along a path.
The bending of a light ray that occurs when light rays pass from one medium to Refraction
another. The bending of radio waves in the ionosphere.
The process of converting a weak optical signal to its electrical equivalent,

amplifying and reshaping it electronically, and then retransmitting it on another Regeneration
laser. Also used to rejuvenate electrical signals transmitted over long distances.
Light lost due to light waves entering at the wrong angle and being lost in the Scattering
cladding of a cable because of refraction.
Approximately 300,000,000 m/s, or about 186,000 mi/s, in free space. Light Speed of light
waves travel in a straight line.
A collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert an Transmitter

electrical signal into one that can be transmitted over a given medium.
The input stage of a light receiver circuit during which the diode current is Transimpedance
converted into an output voltage and amplified. amplifier (TIA)
A laser used in fiber-optic systems whose frequency can be varied by changing Tunable laser
the DC bias on the device or mechanically adjusting an external cavity.
The range of frequencies above violet visible light, which has a wavelength of Ultraviolet range
400 nm, or 0.4 µm.
Cell Phone Technologies

CHAPTER 20
Definition Terms
64
The original cell phone system, based on analog radio technologies. Advanced mobile
phone system
(AMPS)
The narrow frequency ranges over which the signal amplitude in a circuit is Bandwidth
highest. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. The
range of frequencies a cable will carry. It determines the maximum speed of the
data pulses the cable can handle.
A wireless PAN system. One of its applications is to provide hands-free cell Bluetooth
phone operation.
In the cellular radio system, the small geographic service areas. Cells
Standard telephone service provided by two-way radio at remote locations. Cellular radio system
The system that has superseded the original analog AMPS system. Digital cell phone
system
In electronics, the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given Frequency
period of time.
A method of implementing full duplex operation using two separate bands, one Frequency division
for transmit and the other for receive. duplexing (FDD
Simultaneous two-way communications. Full Duplex
A method of pre-filtering MSK in which harmonic content and overall signal Gaussian filtered
bandwidth are reduced. MSK (GMSK)
The most popular 2.5G technology, designed to work with GSM phones. It GPRS (general
transmits data as well as digitized voice. packet radio service)
A switching at the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). From a weaker Handoff
cell to a stronger cell, to provide optimum transmission and reception.
A popular modulation technique used in modems for increasing the number of High-level data link
bits per baud. control (HDLC)
protocol
An improved version of the 3G WCDMA system using higher-level High Speed
Anyone modulation like 16QAM to achieve higher data speeds in cellular Downlink Packet
downlink. Access (HSDPA)
A TIA cell phone standard, also known as CDMA One, which uses spread IS-95 CDMA
spectrum.
The master control center to which the cells in a cellular phone system are Mobile telephone
connected by telephone lines or microwave radio relay links. switching office
(MTSO)
The process by which a baseband voice, video, or digital signal is modified by Modulation
another, higher-frequency signal called the carrier.
A wireless technique that makes use of multiple antennas at the transmitter and Multiple input
receiver to make use of multipath signals to improve communications range, multiple output
speed, and reliability. (MIMO)
65
A circuit that digitizes voice signals. Vocoder
The trade name of the wireless local area networking technology defined by the Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11 standard. It uses the 2.4 and 5.8 GHz bands to send high-speed
data at a range up to 100 meters. It is widely used to access the Internet via hot
spots with a laptop computer.
Second-generation digital cell phone system. The systems are GSM, TDMA, 2G cell phone
and CDMA. system
A generation of cell phone between the original second-generation (2G) digital

phone and the newer third- generation (3G) phone. It brings data transmission 2.5G cell phone
capability to 2G phones. system
Third-generation cell phones, which are true packet data phones with enhanced 3G cell phone system
digital voice and high-speed data transmission capability.
Wireless Technologies
CHAPTER 21
Definition Terms
It is a form of amplitude modulation Backscatter
Modulation
A wireless PAN system. One of its applications is to provide hands-free cell Bluetooth
phone operation.
A type of phase modulation that simplifies the demodulation process because Differential phase-shift
the transmitted signal itself becomes the phase reference. keying (DPSK)
The use of infrared light for short-distance data communication. Infrared (IR) wireless
The most widely used IR data communication system. IrDA system
The radio waves within about one wavelength of the radiating antenna. Near field
A short range wireless technology similar to RFID that uses the near magnetic Near field
field of a radio wave for data transfers at distances to 8 inches. Used for communications (NFC)
payment and access when used in a cell phone.
This gateway or router uses a software approach to make it appear as if each Network Address
networked PC has its own Internet address, when in reality only the one Translation (NAT)
associated with the incoming broadband line is used.
It is a very small wireless network that is created informally or on an ad hoc Personal-area network
basis. It typically involves only two or three nodes, but some systems permit (PAN)
many nodes to be connected in a small area.
The linking of one Bluetooth device that serves as a master controller to up to Piconet
seven other Bluetooth devices.
66
A growing wireless technique similar to bar coding. Radio frequency

identification (RFID)
A linking of piconets. Scatternet
A small handheld battery powered unit that transmits a serial digital code via TV remote control
an IR beam to a receiver that decodes it and carries out the specific action
defined by the code.
Two stronger encryption standards and WPA2 are also available in several Wi-Fi protected access
forms to further boost the encryption process. (WPA)
A type of wireless that transmits data in the form of very short pulses. Ultrawideband (UWB)
wireless
Communication Tests and Measurements

CHAPTER 22
Definition Terms
Variable tuned circuit with an indicator that tells when the tuned circuit is Absorption wave meter
resonant to a signal coupled to the meter by a transmitter; provides a rough
indication of frequency.
Device that amplifies the signal to be measured and displays it on the face of Analog oscilloscope
a CRT at a specific sweep rate.
A signal generator that uses digital techniques to generate almost any Arbitrary waveform
waveform. generator
A device used to achieve highly accurate alignment and splicing of fiber-optic Automatic splicer
cable.
A feature of frequency counters that selects the best time-base frequency for Autoranging
maximum measurement resolution without over ranging.
The number of bit errors that occur for a given number of bits transmitted. Bit error rate (BER)
A device that uses high-speed sampling or A/D techniques to convert the Digital storage
signal to be measured into a series of digital words that are stored in internal oscilloscope (DSO; digital
memory. or sampling oscilloscope)
A tunable oscillator used to determine the approximate resonant frequency of Dip oscillator
any de- energized LC-resonant circuit.
The process used in radio receivers in which high-frequency radio signals are Down conversion
converted to a lower, intermediate frequency.
A resistor that is connected to the transmission line in place of the antenna to Dummy load
absorb transmitter output power.
67
Any interference to a communication device by any other electrical or Electromagnetic

electronic device. interference (EMI)
The dissipation of a large electric field; lightning is an example. Electrostatic discharge
A diagram or pattern that is a display of overlapping individual bits of binary Eye diagram
data displayed on a common oscilloscope.
A special version of the DFT algorithm developed to speed up the calculation Fast Fourier transform
of signal spectrum analysis. (FFT)
A portable device used for detecting the presence of RF signals near an Field strength meter (FSM)
antenna.
In electronics, the number of cycles of a repetitive wave that occur in a given Frequency
period of time.
A test instrument that measures signal frequency. Frequency counter
A signal-generating circuit whose output can be changed in discrete Frequency synthesizer

increments by digital means.
The use of circuits to separate frequencies. Filtering
The common reference point for most voltages in a circuit. Ground
An unintentional circuit that occurs when multiple circuits or pieces of Ground loop
equipment are connected to a common ground at different points.
A resistive T network that provides the correct match between the receiver Impedance-matching pad
and input and the generator.
An instrument (often bridge type) that accurately measures the impedance of Impedance meter
a circuit, a component, or an antenna at RF frequencies.
The lower frequency to which super heterodyne receivers convert all Intermediate frequency (IF)
incoming signals. The mixer output of a super heterodyne receiver, it is the
difference between the input signal frequency component and the local
oscillator frequency.
Pulses that blur into one another cause this type of interference. The longer Intersymbol interference
the cable or the higher the bit rate, the greater the distortion. (ISI)
A type of noise that shows up as a time variation of the leading and trailing Jitter
edges of a binary signal.
A test instrument designed to analyze linear circuits. It is a combination Network analyzer

instrument that contains a wide-range sweep sine-wave generator and a
CRT output that displays not only frequency plots like a spectrum analyzer
but also plots of phase shift versus frequency.
68
In electronics, any signal that is a mixture of many frequencies at many Noise

amplitudes that gets added to a radio or information signal as it is transmitted
from one place to another or as it is processed. Random signal variations
picked up by a receiver or caused by thermal agitation and other conditions
inside the receiver circuitry. Random, undesirable electronic energy that
enters a communication system via the communication medium and
interferes with the transmitted message.
A bridge circuit driven by a random noise voltage source that has an antenna Noise Bridge
or coaxial cable as one leg of the bridge. Used to make antenna
characteristic impedance measurements and measurements of coaxial cable
velocity factor and length.
The amount of voltage between the highest expected noise voltage and a Noise margin
threshold level above which triggering occurs.
An optical test instrument that provides the OTDR measurement and is also Optical signal analyzer
a sampling oscilloscope capable of displaying signals of more than 10 Gbps.
A device that generates a light pulse and sends it down a fiber-optic cable to Optical time domain
be tested. If there is a defect in the line, light will be reflected. The time reflectometer (OTDR)
between the generated and reflected pulses is measured.
In amplitude modulation, the condition that occurs when the count capability Overranging
of a counter is exceeded during the count interval.
A device that produces fixed binary bit patterns in serial form to use as test Pattern generator
signals in data communication systems.
A commonly used RF test meter that measures the forward and reflected Power meter
power output of a circuit.
A frequency division technique that involves the division of the input Prescaling
frequency by a factor that puts the resulting signal into the normal frequency
range of the counter.
A test instrument used to capture and analyze the data transmitted in a data Protocol analyzer
communication system.
A type of sensitivity measurement that determines the amount of RF input Quieting method
signal needed to reduce output noise to 20 dB.
A rectifier with a filter capacitor that stores the peak value of the sine-wave RF probe (detector probe)
RF voltage.
A signal generator used in testing. A variable-frequency oscillator or a RF signal generator
frequency-synthesizer.
A special piece of test equipment optimized for measuring the voltage of RF voltmeter
high-frequency signals.
An average that expresses current or voltage magnitude. Root-mean-square (rms)
The process of surrounding EMI emitting circuits or sensitive receiving Shielding

circuits with a metal enclosure to prevent the radiation of pickup of signals.
69
A device that produces an output signal of a specific shape at a specific Signal generator
frequency and, in communication, usually with some form of modulation.
A common way to troubleshoot receivers by using a signal generator of the Signal injection
correct output frequency to test stages of a receiver or transmitter for the
correct output response.
A common way to troubleshoot equipment by using a signal detection device Signal tracing
to follow a signal through various stages of the equipment.
An oscilloscope-like test instrument used to display received signals in the Spectrum analyzer
frequency domain.
A meter that measures forward and reflected power and therefore can Standing wave ratio (SWR)
display SWR. meter
A widely used type of RF spectrum analyzer. Superheterodyne RF

spectrum analyzer
A signal generator with an output frequency that can be linearly varied over Sweep generator
some specific range.
An instrument used to make tests and measurements of items such as opens TDR tester (cable analyzer
or short circuits, cable attenuation, or cable miswiring. or LAN meter)
A measure of the linearity of amplifiers, mixers, and other circuits. Third-order intercept test
(TOI or IP3)
A test for all types of cables and transmission lines. Time domain reflectometry
(TDR)
70

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Principle of Electronics Communications Systems by Louis Frenzel BOOK REVIEW

Invented the telegraph (patented in 1844) Samuel Morse

Invented the facsimile Alexander Bain

Invented the telephone Alexander Bell

Invented phonograph Thomas Edison

Invented photography George Eastman

Discovered radio waves Heinrich Hertz

Demonstrated “wireless” communications by radio waves Guglielmo Marconi

Invented the two-electrode vacuum tube rectifier John Fleming

Invented amplitude modulation Reginald Fessenden

Invented of the triode vacuum tube Lee de Forest

Invented and demonstrated the television Vladimir Zworykin

Invented the superheterodyne receiver and frequency modulation Edwin Armstrong

Invented transistor Bell Laboratories

Invented integrated circuits Jack Kilby and Robert

It is the process of exchanging information. Communication

It is the “message” or an intelligence signal in Electronics Communication Systems. Information

It is a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the Transmitter

A simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted in one-way Simplex

The bulk of electronic communication in two-way. Duplex Communication

It is a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current. Analog Signal

It is where the composite signal is recovered. Demodulator

It is where the individual baseband signals are regenerated. Demultiplexer

It is the range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies. Electromagnetic

The normal range of human speech. Voice Frequencies

Electromagnetic signals with frequencies higher than 30 GHz Millimeter waves

A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also the Bandwidth

Organizations that maintain standards for communication system:

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications

It means amplification. Gain

It refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Attenuation

is used for current gain or attenuation

is used to compute power gain or attenuation.

𝑨𝑻 = 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 … . +𝑨𝒏 Overall Gain

A decibel value that is computed by comparing a power value to 1mW dBm

It is an opposition that directly affects the amount of current in a circuit. Reactance

𝑿𝒄 = 𝟏⁄𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 Capacitive Reactance

It is simply a winding of multiple turns of wire. Inductor (coil or choke)

𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 Inductive Reactance

Quality factor (Q)

and for parallel circuit:

Current levels at which the response is down 70.7 % Half-power points

It is define by the bandwidth of resonant circuit. Selectivity

The circulating current in the tank circuit. Tank current

It is defined as a doubling or halving of frequency Octave

It represents a one-tenth or times-10 relationship of frequency Decade

They are also referred to as bandstop or band-reject filters Notch Filter

It is made with inductors and capacitors LC Filters

It is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the circuit Pole

It refers to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the circuit Zero

It have an extremely good selectivity Chebyshev ﬁlter

The test instrument for producing a frequency-domain display Spectrum analyzer

Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals

Sine Wave Carrier

Sine Wave Modulating

It should be a number between 0 and 1 Modulation index (m)

The amount or depth of AM Percentage of

The modulating index is greater than 1 Overmodulation

Peak value of the

Peak value of Carrier

A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency Frequency-domain

An amplitude modulation by square waves or rectangular binary pulses Amplitude-shift keying

A code transmission such as Morse code Continuous-Wave