CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Statement of the problem

Agriculture as an art of raising crops and livestock flourished primarily on the

fertile banks of most of the alluvial rivers of the world. With the spread of agriculture to

almost all parts of the tropical and temperate world human life gradually tended to be

more settled, organized and socialized. As a spontaneous but significant response to the

natural environment and growing social needs, agriculture has emerged both as a major

claimant of the land resources and a principal livelihood for most of the people. The

overwhelming dependence on agriculture has forced people to extend their agricultural

activities even to the most marginal areas creating thereby the earth’s agroecosystems

more diverse.

Agroecosystem implies communities of plants and animals interacting with their

physical and chemical environments which have been modified by people to* produce

food, fiber, fuel and other products for human consumption and processing (Altieri,

2000). The nature and degree of modification, however, vary over time and across space

depending mainly on the quantitative and qualitative changes experienced by the human

society. These changes make the concerned agroecosystems more dynamic and as a

result, there has been a conspicuous transformation of the agricultural practices from the

traditional to modem. The modem agricultural practices managed through capital- 7

intensive methods of farming are basically guided by the principle of profit

maximization, which has of late raised some issues relating to the sustainability of the

1
agroecosystems. An agricultural production system is said to be sustainable if it enhances

or maintains the productivity and profitability of the farming system in a region over the

years and conserves the integrity ancf diversity of both the agricultural production systems

and the surrounding natural ecosystems, and also enhances health, safety and aesthetic

satisfaction of the consumers and producers (Rao, 2002). Sustainable agriculture is thus

a system of farming having its roots in a set of values that reflect awareness of both

ecological and social realities.

During the last few decades, the issues on sustainability of development measures

have revived the tendency to look at the traditional systems as the important means of
s

promoting sustainable development. But, for meeting the immediate and expanding

demand, the lowly productive traditional practices are often disregarded and also the

question of sustainability of the modem practices is simply neglected in the name of

increasing the productivity (Bhagabati and Dutta, 1999).

The Brahmaputra valley, a major physiographic unit of Assam, is endowed with

rich natural diversity on the one hand and varied cultural manifestations shaped by the

traditional socio-economic values and wisdoms on the other. The physical and social

peculiarities of this river valley have helped development of characteristic

agroecosystems within it. But, during the recent period, the diversity and sustainability of

the valley’s agroecosystems have been considerably disturbed in the process of

replacement of the traditional agroecosystems by the modem ones. The modem practice

mainly means the monoculture of improved food crops grown intensively by applying

more chemical and mechanical inputs and implements. Although the intensive farming

system has the capability of feeding the ever-increasing human population, its negative

2
impact on the environment may be far-reaching. The concerns and issues related to the

resilient agroecosysteins in die context of much discussed ‘global change’ have led to a

renewed interest in the multi-species agroecosystem of traditional societies, which offer

scope for in-situ conservation of crop bio-diversity (Ramakrishnan, 2000). Traditional

agroecosystems reflect the adjustment of culture, traditions and customs with the local

environment which favours the use of local resources and varieties of crops, indigenous

technology, wisdom and values that balance the needs of the people, provide economic

opportunities and ensure social equity and ecological stability.

The Brahmaputra valley has long been under traditional land use practices

dominated by food grain and cash crop farming, fisheries, traditional homestead

gardening etc., which form the basis of sustainable livelihood of the rural communities.

The traditional land use practices adopted by the farmers belonging to different

communities have their roots in the community cultures in a given ecological setting,

which contribute immensely to the sustainability of the valley’s agroecosystems. One of

the most important advantages of traditional agroecosystems is that the farmers usually

get an opportunity to acquire a good understanding of the local ecosystems working

within the limits of the area, which may have great potentiality to contribute to the long­

term sustainability of the local agroecosystems (Gliessman, 2004).

Caught up in the process of modernization, much of the traditional ecological

knowledge developed through trial and error over a long period is getting depleted very

rapidly in most parts of the world and the Brahmaputra valley is no exception to it

(Ramakrishnan, 1998). The most deplorable point is that the depletion of the traditional

agroecosystems along with certain valuable local crop varieties and indigenous farming

3
 practices in the Brahmaputra valley has caused gradual disappearance of certain

agriculture- related traditions, customs and festivals.

The agroecosystems, whatever may he their characteristics, are naturally dynamic

since the linkages and functions among their components vary over time* and across

space from micro-spatial unit to broad ecological regions. Agriculture, being a function

of physical, socio-institutional and techtono-economic factors keeps on changing with the

ever changing objectives of producing more out put and marketable surplus (Mohammad,

1992). Thus, the traditional agroecosystems of the Brahmaputra valley are in the process

of transformation with the growing emphasis on commercialization based on

specialization which may eventually endanger the very sustainability of the long-

continued, reliable and, in many cases, eco-friendly agroecosystems. As such, there have

been perceptible changes with respect to all the parameters of agroecosystems. These

changes may be ascribed to the growing demand for rapid development of the

agricultural sector through extension of modem irrigated agriculture, application of

chemical fertilizer, HYV seeds, exploitation of ground water, alteration of land use and

cropping pattern and expansion of infrastructural facilities, etc. In addition, the

demographic instability, socio-economic changes, changing attitude and perception of the

people and farmers, government policies and efforts of the NGOs are simultaneously

contributing to the dynamism of the agricultural scenario of the Brahmaputra valley.

•

These changes in practice and over all characteristics of the agroecosystems stimulate

conflicts between the individuals with short-term personal interests and the entire

humanity with long-term collective interest (Ikerd, 1997). Human societies that lack

economic equity and social justice are inherently unstable which ultimately cause

4
irreparable damage to both the economic and ecological systems supporting them. It is

thus important to note that a system of agriculture, which fails to sustain a society, will

also not be sustained by the concerned society (Ikerd, 1997)..

The Brahmaputra valley in Assam, like many other river valleys of India, holds

immense promise for agroecosystem development and its sustainability. The valley with

an approximate east-west span of about 720 km and an average width of 80 km is a

unique physiographic entity favouring development of distinct agroecosystem zones

within it. The river Brahmaputra with its 32 major north and south bank tributaries has

been playing a great role on the valley’s agroecosystems primarily by carrying huge

amount of alluvium to be deposited regularly on the floodplains. The varied micro-

physiographic features and climatic conditions and the rich biological diversity combined

with socio-economic multiplicity have contributed to remarkable variation in the pattern

and processes of agricultural land utilization in the Brahmaputra valley (Bhagabati,

1990). As a result, a complex of agroecosystems has evolved in the valley with

distinctive characteristics.

It is worth mentioning here that the agroecosystems of the Brahmaputra valley are

basically dependent on the seasonal rhythm of monsoonal downpour. The average

annual rainfall in the valley is recorded at 230 cm, while the Himalayan sector of its

catchment recorded more than 500 cm. Moreover, the disturbing socio-economic

environment, bad health of the peasants, pressure of rising population, weak governance,

in addition to the sensitive physico-climatic conditions have generated a number of

problems in the agroecosystems of the valley. Among them, the problems originating

from unplanned and unscientific land use practices, high man-land ratio, small size of

5
landholding, and poor infrastructural facilities etc. are found to have paramount

significance.

Although, the agroecosystems of the valley are highly problem ridden, they have

great prospects for durable development if they are managed from the sustainable

development perspectives. Otherwise, there may be a gross misuse and abuse of the

agroecosystem leading to gradual decay of the biophysical productivity of the area.

Therefore, the agroecosystems of the Brahmaputra valley need proper

investigation for formulating strategies to mitigate the problems and bring about a

positive and sustainable change in the systems. With this rationale in mind the present

study entitled Agroecosystems in the Brahmaputra valley, Assam: Dynamics and

Sustainability has been undertaken for investigation.

1.2 Objectives of the study

The main objectives of the study are-

(i) to introduce the geographical background of the valley that basically shapes

the structure and functioning of the agroecosystems;

(ii) to discuss the importance of traditional knowledge and understanding of the

farmers for sustainable development of the agroecosystems in different

environmental settings of the valley;

(iii) to examine the influence of environmental and cultural factors on the

agroecosystems of the valley;

(iv) to study the salient features of the valley’s agroecosystems and to explore the

6
 prospects of bio-diversification and improvement of biophysical productivity

of the land; '

(v) to analyze the spatio-temporal changes of the agroecosystems in the context of

the changing environment and related issues; and

(vi) to suggest strategies and action plans for sustainable development of the

agroecosystems with reference to the valley’s peculiar environmental

framework and its probable change in the emerging national and global socio­

economic scenario.

1.3 Research questions

The study is designed to be carried around the following research questions:

(i) How do the environmental settings of the valley provide bases for

evolving varied agroecosystems in different parts of the valley?

(ii) In what ways do the traditional values and indigenous knowledge of the

farmers contribute towards diversity and sustainability of the valley’s

agroecosystems?

(iii) How do the environmental and cultural factors influence the valley’s

agroecosystems?

(iv) How far and in what ways the agroecosystems in the valley are getting

modified over time and changing socio-economic context?

7
 (V) What are the problems developed in the agroecosystems of the Valley in

course of time that affect the biophysical productivity of land in particular

and the overall environment of the concerned areas in general?

(vi) Are the agroecosystems currently prevalent in the valley sustainable? If not,

what are the probable measures to be adopted to make the agroecosystems

economically more viable and ecologically more acceptable?

(vii) What may be the broad strategies towards making the agroecosystems

further responsive to the emerging ecological and economic changes in the

valley and its neighbouring areas?

1.4 Methodology and database

The Brahmaputra valley, which represents a broad agroecosystem zone within

the state of Assam, has been selected for this study in order to investigate the dynamism

and sustainability of its diversified’agroecosystems. The agroeeological conditions of the

valley have been studied on the basis of direct field experiences and surveys through

well-designed schedule (Appendix 1), relevant secondary data collected, consultation of

maps and relevant books, journals, and above all deep personal involvement with the

problem. Required base materials for the study are collected /generated and compiled

from sources like Survey of India’s toposheets with scale 1:50,000, satellite images,

atlases, revenue maps etc. Relevant literatures were reviewed to develop necessary

conceptual framework and appropriate methodology to carry out the work from right

perspectives.

8
 Relevant secondary data on agroecosystems of the Brahmaputra valley have been

acquired from various government sources like the Directorate of Agriculture,

Department of Water Resource Development, Meteorological Centre, Directorate of

Census, Department of Soil Conservation, Assam Agricultural University etc.

Meaningful quantitative, cartographic and computer techniques and soft wares (like Arc

GIS 9.2, MS Excel, SPSS etc.) are applied in processing and representing the data in the

form of tables, maps and diagrams. Efforts are made to analyse the problem following

certain concepts and models already available in the field of agroecosystem studies so

that some kind of generalizations may be made on the issues with respect to individual

components and the overall agroecosystems developed in the valley.

Although there is similarity of the agroecological conditions all over the valley,

there are some micro-agroecological zones within it which have different characteristics

and significance consequent upon the variation of certain physical and cultural

conditions. In order to study the nature of difference in the agroecological situation

among different culture groups, three villages namely Muktapur village of Kamrup

(rural) district inhabited by typical non-tribal Assamese people, Araimuria village of

Tinsukia district inhabited by tribal Assamese people and Ram-Hari Char part-2 of

Goalpara district inhabited by the immigrants have been selected for detail investigation.

Among these study villages, the Muktapur village is very intensively surveyed in

order to have a deeper understanding of the village level agroecosystems. In this village,

6 different types of primary survey, viz, benchmark household survey, food consumption

survey, survey of social organizations, survey of pond ecosystems, dag survey, survey of

9
periodic market were conducted to have a complete picture on the existing pattern and

change in the village agroecosystem..

With the help of benchmark survey, relevant data on demographic structure,

occupational pattern, cropping pattern and practices, bio-physical productivity, size of

landholding and plots, land tenure system, living standard, household amenities, diseases

pattern, livestocks, income, use of traditional agro-ecological knowledge and indigenous

technology, participation in group activities, marketing of agricultural commodities, etc

are obtained. In addition to these, the data / information regarding the availability, status,

uses, ownership and management of natural resources generated through the household

survey have been summarized and analyzed. The information relating to the use and

management of community resources are collected from the members of the Chuburi

(hamlet) Development Committee or the committees formed to manage some common

resources. With the help of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and discussion with the

people individually and in group, the resources of the village have been classified,

tabulated and mapped according to their ownership and utility. In addition, oral

interviews were conducted among some old and experienced farmers to know about the

change in the availability and utility of natural resources in the village. Personal field

visit was made in the entire village to have an overall idea of the existing resource base

within the village.

Through the pond ecosystem survey, the data / information regarding the

distribution, size, type, status, uses, and ownership pattern and management of different

types of wetlands obtained from the households have been analyzed. With the help of

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and interview with the villagers individually and in

10
group, the wetlands of the village have been classified. Besides, oral interviews were

conducted among some elderly and experienced people to get an idea as to the change in

the wetland resources in the village.

The Muktapur village is mainly served by a periodic market, known as Muktapur

hat. The trade in this hat has been mainly confined to crops and other agricultural

products, while the participants are constituted by the local peasant community,

government employees and pretty businessmen. During the year 2007-2008, a random

sample survey with a purposively designed questionnaire was conducted to interview

around 100 vendors who are engaged in agricultural business and same number of

customers in every month of the year in order to know the location of their residence,

land holding size, frequency of visit and the sources of goods supplied. To understand the

seasonal variation of the market function all the vendors and customers were interviewed

with the same questionnaire on 15th April and 17th July, 2008. On the other hand, the

internal structure of the hat was studied by plotting the location and spatial arrangement

of the shops on a sketch. Information pertaining to the historical background, tax

structure, management etc. were collected by interviewing some members of the hat

management committee and vendors of different categories.

In Muktapur village, a dag survey for preparing a detailed land use map of the

village was conducted. The dag map was collected from the Revenue Office. It shows the

distribution of land owned by an individual or a small group. The inhabitants of a chuburi

(hamlet) may own lands in different dags identified by the Revenue Department of the

Government. Dags are the smallest land units of the village landscape which are

generally demarcated by the village surveyors using some numbers. While carrying out

11
the field survey, the dags were again sub-divided according to the subsequent

fragmentation of the plots in consultation with the owners of the concerned dags. The

data/ information regarding the land use pattern and its change, cropping pattern, flood-

level, soil quality, land classes, etc. have been obtained for each of the fragmented dags

in consultation with the owners practically in the field.

The remaining two villages were surveyed with the help of purposively designed

questionnaires/ schedules. All the households of these two villages were surveyed to

collect data on demographic structure, occupation, cropping pattern, method of cropping,

changing pattern, of land use, size of farm lands and landholdings, use of natural

resources, livestock, and traditional knowledge systems associated with agroecosystem of

the villages. Moreover, other information related to flood damage, health and hygiene, etc

have been collected from the field. In addition, oral interviews were conducted among

some aged farmers of the villages to know their perception on the changing pattern of

land use.

In order to identify and understand the problems and prospects associated with

the local agro-ecological resources and niches, transect charts or toposequence have been

prepared following the PRA method in all the three study villages.

1.5 Organization of the work

The work is organized in three parts: introduction, analysis and synthesis. The

first part is an introductory one consisting of an introduction to the problem (Chapter I),

and the geographical background of study area (Chapter II).

12
 The second part includes the analysis of the agroecosystems in the Brahmaputra

valley (Chapter III), changes in the agroecosystem (Chapter IV), selected village studies

(Chapter V), sustainability of the agroecosystem (Chapter VI) in the Brahmaputra valley.

The last part is a synthesis of the work (Chapter VII). It contains summary and

conclusion and some suggestions towards making the valley’s agroecosystems

ecologically, economically and culturally viable and sustainable.

1.6 Review of relevant works

Agroecosystems are often more difficult to study than any natural ecosystems as

they are made complicated by human interventions which alter the structure and

functions of normal ecosystem (Gliessman, 2004). The agro-ecological approach has

emerged during 1940s as a multidisciplinary approach to study the complex structure and

function of agroecosystem and the multidimensional problems occurred due to advanced

agricultural development. Although, the geographical studies are basically concerned

with the man-environment relationship, the ecological approach in geography has not

been much discussed. Even in agricultural geography, several studies have focused

basically on the ‘productivity-surplus-deficit-regional-imbalances framework’, but little

attention has been paid to agricultural studies from ecological point of view (Raza, 1992).

The ecological approach in agricultural geography has been attracting attention from

many geographers, especially after the Second World War. Many agricultural

geographers have studied the nature and characteristics of agroecosystems in different

environmental conditions of the world. It is noteworthy that as a single discipline,

agricultural geography is not capable to study the intrinsic mechanism of agroecosystem

13

r/2.3/
as well as its multidimensional parameters. Therefore, agricultural geographers borrowed

and.integrate some basic approaches, contents and concepts, ideas and methods from the

allied discipline like Ecology, Biology, Economics, Environmental Science, Bio­

technology, Anthropology and Crop Science. However, unlike the other disciplines, the

agricultural geographers have applied the ecological approach to study the spatial

distribution and variation of agroecosystems under different ecological conditions.

Ecological perspectives on agricultural system

During the last few decades, that there has been a growing consensus among the

agricultural geographers in applying the ecological principles to the agricultural systems.

It has now been realized that the ecosystem analysis might result in perfecting a system

which becomes suitable for objectively determining the efficiency of various agricultural

systems and providing an objective framework for prediction and planning in order to

execute the agricultural management strategies (Mitchell, 1979).

Conway (1984), one of the pioneers in agroecosystem study has emphasized on

applying the ecological concepts examining the consequences and problems of

agricultural intensification in Indonesia. He suggested for improving the ecological skills

of the farmers in managing the vegetation succession in fallow period to restore the soil

fertility. He recommended four system properties such as productivity, stability,

sustainability and equitability, which provide the useful basis for monitoring agricultural

development and agricultural intensification. Mitchell (1979), while discussing the nature

and structure of agroecosystem attempted to apply the concept of ecology in Indian

agroecosystems with a view to maintaining their independence, stability and productivity.

Jackson and Piper (1989) has made a critical analysis of the correlation between ecology

14
and agriculture. They opined that sustainable agroecosystem, relying primarily on

sunlight and locally derived nutrients should reflect largely in the pattern of succession,

energy flow, and nutrient cycling which usually occur in natural ecosystems. Gliessman

(2004) viewed that agro-ecology plays an important role in developing the understanding

for a transition to sustainable agriculture. He emphasized on integration of ecosystem and

social system knowledge about the agricultural processes, which will be helpful in the

management of sustainable agroecosystem. Vandermeer (1995) also advocated on the

applicability of biological measures for controlling pests and diseases as well as for

managing soil in order to spawn an ecological agriculture against the mechanized one.

Agricultural geographers, before the 1950s were almost obsessively preoccupied

with the explanations of distributional pattern of agricultural activities derived from the

study of physical environment (Morgan and Munton, 1971). Many geographers were in

favour of the environmental deterministic approach supporting the environmental impact

on agricultural systems.

Smit (1998) in his work ‘Implication of Global Environment Change’ has

discussed the forces of biophysical environment, government policies and programmes,

and macro-economic conditions, which influence the structure of agroecosystem and

degree of sustainability in the great plains of Canada. Simmons (1970) explored the idea

of land use as ecosystem modification. He observed that land uses are on a continuum of

ecological manipulation. Heckman (1979) studied the ecology of rice fields in Thailand

in order to investigate the agricultural systems.

During the second half of 20th century, many geographers in different parts of the

world have studied the intrinsic relationships of ecology and agriculture. The works

15
carried out by Stoddart (1965), Elton (1966) in eastern England, Amstrong (1970), Geertz

(1963) in Indonesia, Harris (1971) in Venezuela, Denevan(1971) in Peru, Igbozurike

(1971) in Nigeria, Chapman (1967) in southern England etc. worth mentioning in this

regard.

Armstrong (1992) recommended the application of the ecosystem concept for

investigating the land use and agricultural system. De and Sarkar (1992) recommended

the study of landscape ecology for finding out alternative strategies for the development

of agricultural systems. Raza (1992) suggested for a long-term man-environment

relationship for the development of an ecologically compatible agriculture. He

highlighted the ecological imbalance caused by modem agricultural practices. Singh

(1992) explored some environmental issues such as ecological imbalance, degradation of

soil quality, deforestation, depletion of ground water-reservoir, deterioration of human

health etc. which occurred due to the mechanization of agricultural systems. Bishnoi

(1992), while analysing the interrelationship of crop plants with environmental conditions

opined that environmental conditions are the influential factors in determining the natural

distribution of plants. Patnaik (1979) tried to establish a relationship between the

geomorphological characteristics and the pattern of agricultural development in

Meghalaya. Abbunoori (1992) has identified agro-ecological zones in the drought-prone

areas of Iran based on the relationship between crop-production and moisture status and

water balance. Basu (1992) examined the role of fluvial characteristics and processes of

the Bhagirathi valley on the agricultural systems. Ahmad (1992) discussed the influence

of macro and micro regional geomorphology on cropping pattern, field pattern, size and

distribution of landholding, productivity of crops, irrigation systems and agricultural

16
transport. Kar (1992) described the influence of geomorphic parameters of land on

agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions of Western Rajasthan. He suggested for better

understanding of the geomorphic parameters of land, careful monitoring of landform

changes and evolving suitable technologies and land use systems which retain the

ecological balance of the agricultural system in semi-arid regions.

In an interesting study, in lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh Singh

(1992) analysed how the Apatanis utilize the mountain ecosystem for cultivation of rice

in their well-organized wet fields. The method of rice cultivation, water management

practices done by the community are acclimatized with the overall ecological system of

the area. De (1992) discussed the soil fertility and soil productivity which have

significant influences on agricultural production. Gupta (1992) advocated for the

application of ecological approaches to land capability classifications in order to execute

land use planning and development. Gautam and Koirala (1998) attempted to define and

analyze the spatial distribution of the agro-ecological zones in Kulekhani watershed in

Makwanpur district of Nepal by applying GIS techniques. They were of the view that the

agro-ecological zoning could be a tool to explore the sustainability of land uses in

watershed environment. They have delineated nine agro-ecological zones based on the

land suitability for paddy and some other crops. Bhagabati and Das (1992) assessed the

performance of the agriculture in terms of cropping pattern, land use, landholding

structure, area and yield of crop, use of modem input and implements etc in different

ecologico-social spaces of Nalbari district of Assam. They discovered three distinct

ecologico-social spaces in the district, such as active flood-plain (charlands) dominated

by immigrant people, built up middle plain (Bhabar-Tarai zone) inhabited by the

17
indigenous non-tribal people and high plains settled by indigenous tribal people in the

study area. They concluded that the agricultural performance was higher at the active

flood-plain while it was medium in northern high plain and low in the middle built-up

plain. Das (1992) discussed the seasonal and spatial variations and characteristics of

climatic conditions and their impacts on agriculture. Based on climatic homogeneity and

variability he has regionalized six agro-climate zones in Assam, which are identical with

the cropping pattern of the different regions. He (1995) discussed the causes of

environmental degradation and its influence on sustainable development in Assam and

stated that the over-exploration of natural resources, free market economy, economic

globalization, agricultural modernization, developmental activities etc. are responsible for

the degradation of sustainable development. He suggested for economic utilization and

rational use of natural resources, restoration of damaged environment, elimination of

unsustainable pattern of production and consumption.

Sustainability issues

It is now well-recognized that the traditional organic agricultural systems are

more sustainable and eco-friendly which enhance the health, safety and mental

satisfaction of both producers and consumers on the one hand and help maintain the

integrity and diversity of both the agricultural production system and the ecological

conditions around the other (Rao, 2002). However, from the 19th century onwards

agricultural activities have been witnessing substantial changes with the advent of

modernization in agriculture and concurrently with the developmental activities in human

society. The modernization of agriculture has raised the productivity significantly but

these modernization processes have caused great loss to the ecological integrity and

18
diversity. Thus, the sustainability issues on agroecosystem study have drawn attention

with the deterioration in the quality of the natural resource base associated with the

modem agricultural practices. The studies on sustainable agriculture so far done have

suggested for a respect towards the traditional farming practices, age-old agricultural

knowledge and belief systems inheritably gained by the farmers of the concerned areas,

reduction of agrochemicals through the use of organic manure and pesticides, and

cultivation of local crop varieties, and integrated pest and disease management practices

for plant nutrition and plant protection. The agro-ecologists have given more attention to

the stability and equitability of agroecosystems for the sustainable livelihoods of the

farmers which are ecologically adaptive, socially just, economically viable and culturally

sensitive.

Altieri (2002) has emphasized on applying the agroecological principles for

achieving sustainable farming system. He viewed that through the application of ago-

ecological principles the basic challenge for sustainable agriculture can be easily

achieved. He suggested for minimizing the external inputs and for regenerating the

internal resources through diversifying the basic components of the agroecosystem.

Altieri and Nicholls (2004) also advocated in favour of integrating the pest and

biodiversity management approaches based on agro-ecological principles. They

emphasized on the importance of biodiversity for maintaining balanced and long-term

ecosystem function in agriculture. Hills (1992) examined the causes of degradation of

sustainability of agroecosystems. He suggested for the ecological integrity for attaining

the sustainability of agroecosystem. He also favoured the concept of ‘deep sustainability’,

which reevaluates goals in relation to higher values, and redesigns the systems in

19
achieving goals within the ecological limits. This approach focuses on solving problems

by creating healthy environment. Wolff (2004) blamed the spread of modem agriculture

and the globalization of food markets for the loss of agro-biodiversity. He focused on

intellectual property right, sovereignty regimes as well as the seed trade and livestock

breeding regulation as the legal factors for driving agro-biodiversity loss. Sandell (1993)

discussed the conceptual framework of ecological strategies concerning water, nutrients

and sustainability in the agricultural system in the northern dry zone of Sri Lanka. He

opined that conceptual framework of ecological strategies is necessary for analyzing the

empirical findings in any case study area, and to link this to a more general discussion of

agricultural and human attitudes towards utilization of natural resources. However, he did

not discuss the limitation of applicability of the conceptual framework of ecological

strategies in other physical and cultural contexts.

While discussing the conceptual background of sustainable agriculture, Ikerd

(1997) suggested some strategies for managing sustainable agriculture. He also

recommended an ecologically sound, economically viable and socially responsible

agricultural system. Dhaliwal et al. (2002) analyzed the structure of ecology and

strategies for sustainable agriculture. He recommended a shift of modem agriculture to an

ecologically based, diversified, resource conserving, integrated farming system to meet

the food and fibre requirements of the future generations. Leakey (2002) discussed the

role of agro-biodiversity on the sustainable development of agriculture in tropical

Australia and observed that the sustainability of land use in the tropical Australia has

typically been lost with the loss of agro-biodiversity because of the monoeultural practice

as well as the intensive use of agrochemicals. He advocated for the profitability of the

20
tree crop components in agrpeeosystems through domestication of indigenous tree
*" t '■*
j.

species. Khajuria and Chauhan (2002) discussed the causes of depletion of biodiversity,
j

and recommended strategies such as community participation, sustainable resource

management, conservation of biological entities etc for conserving the biodiversity.

In an interesting work, Walia and Jand (2002) emphasized on the integrated weed

management (IWM), i.e. cultural weed control practices with chemical and mechanical

control. They favoured the practices of crop rotation, multiple cropping, manipulating

sowing, line planting, cross-sowing etc. as the means of cultural weed control practices.

Singh (1990) has proposed the ago-climatic regional planning approach, i.e. integrated

development of a region with resource conservation for sustainable development of

agriculture. Swaminathan (1990), while discussing the concept of small farm and

sustainable agriculture, recommended a new approach to the breading and feeding of

crops, saving and sharing of rain water, linkages among the primary, secondary and

tertiary sectors of economic growth and scientific practices of soil, water and pest

management to attain the sustainability of agricultural system. Arunachalam and

Seetharaman (2004) discussed the environmental issues related to the mismanagement of

natural resources. They recommended the effective management of natural resources for

sustainable agriculture. Sinha (2004) discussed the social, economics, ecological and

technological aspects of sustainable agriculture. He stressed on the revival of traditional

wisdom and indigenous knowledge system towards achieving sustainable agriculture.

Kumar and Shrotiya (1990) suggested for an integrated nutrient management and supply

system in the agriculture. Kurien (1998) has depicted a few coastal proverbs which are

prevalent in a particular fishing community in Asia, and discussed the importance and

21
relevance of this knowledge base for ecosystem sustainability. Ramakrishnan (2000)

suggested towards the improvement of traditional crop and management practices of the

complex agroecosystem through the input of modem science in order to develop a

sustainable agriculture with improved production possibilities. Vanloon (2005)

emphasized on the consideration of six categories such as productivity, stability,

efficiency, durability, compatibility and equity as necessary for a holistic evaluation of

agricultural sustainability. Siwar and Hossain (2002) discussed the issues, experiences

and challenges of sustainable agriculture in some countries of North America, Latin

America, Europe, Australia, Africa and Asia and viewed that sustainable agriculture

requires the implementation of strategies for preserving natural resources and changing

production practices and a commitment towards changing public policies, economic

institutions and social values. Ohora (2002) focused on the recycling of organic waste

which are usually discharged from agriculture, agro-industry and daily life for attaining

sustainable agriculture in Japan. Sarma (2006), while discussing the present scenario of

different agroecosystems of the world put forward various strategies for the development

of sustainable agriculture. He suggested for enriching the element of biodiversity,

cultivation of promising varieties, integrated nutrients and pest management and

introduction of legume based cropping systems for achieving sustainability in the

agricultural system.

Land use/ land cover/ land capability studies

The land use pattern and practices could be successfully analyzed by applying the

ecosystem concept (Morgan and Munton, 1971). The altitude of land, soil quality, relief

characteristics etc. have been influencing the nature of agroecosystems in different

22
environments. However, the heavy dependence on the limited land resources and

injudicious application of chemical inputs have degraded the ecological characteristics of

land in most of the areas.

In this regard, Chauturvedi (1992) discussed the capability and suitability of land

resources for agricultural land use planning. Sarma (1992), while discussing the basis of

land classification in different parts of the world, emphasized on the issues relating to

land use, land capability and suitability, farming type, fertility and productivity of land.

The study on land use has been given due weightage by the Indian geographers.

Singh (1992) discussed the concept of land use in rural an urban landscapes with an

emphasis on agricultural land use mid associated problems. Shafi (1992) attempted to

categorise the village fields into some divisions in eastern Uttar Pradesh based on the

fertility and productivity of soil. Tyszykiewiez (1992) analyzed the changes of agrarian

structure in Poland during the 1960-1980. He ascertained the issues of land lease in

Poland as a prominent factor in the economic life in the countryside and in the

transformation of agriculture. Pofali (1992) has made a critical account on the land use

survey and planning and observed that land use potential which can be measured on the

basis of experimental data and interpretation of land and environmental features provide

some indices of potentials in land use planning and survey. Singh and Shah (2007)

discussed the causes of change in land use/land cover in Ukhrul district of Manipur. They

argued that the traditional practices of jhuming prevalent in the districts are responsible

for rapid loss of its forest cover. Thangamani and Rao (2007) analyzed the physical

characteristics of land and examined the land capability of a basin of Andhra Pradesh.

They suggested to cultivate some specific crops which are suitable to the land units. Joji

23
and Nair (2004) discussed the problems associated with the wetland ecosystem,

deforestation and land use/ land cover for sustainable management of environment in

Vamanapuram river basin of Kerela. Narayankumar and Kumaraswamy (2006), by using

the remote sensing data pointed out the degradation of natural aquatic environment of the

lake Oussuda due to the agricultural practices along the fringe of the lake,

Sarma (1970), who was one of the pioneers in the land use study in Assam had

discussed the changes in agricultural land use in Deharkuchi village of the then Kamrup

district. He ascertained that the change in agricultural land use was brought about due to

greater concentration of crops which had greater demand and high market value. Das

(1984), while dealing with the spatial pattern of the general and agricultural land use in

Assam highlighted the problems caused by small and fragmented landholdings in the

performance of agriculture. He (1988) also discussed the structural disabilities of small

farming in Assam and suggested for land reforms to solve the constraints of small farms

in order to boost up the state’s agricultural performance. In another work, Das (1992)

viewed that inequal and small size of landholding was impediment for the

implementation of plans and programmes for agricultural development and for elevating

the poor peasantry from the morass of poverty and frustration. He examined the

landholding structure in 39 selected villages in different districts of Assam. He suggested

for organization of cooperative farming, reduction of population pressure on agricultural

land by diverting surplus labour to other allied activities, removal of land alienation by

Govt, by abolishing the ownership of surplus agricultural land of non-cultivating families

and to distribute these land to marginal and small peasants in order to increase the size of

their uneconomic holding. But he failed to discuss the social constraints to achieve this

24
goal. He also attempted to examine the landholding structure of Assam in the context of

peasant mode of agricultural production. He suggested for land reforms by reducing the
i

hold of the non-cultivating classes over the land resources and protecting the interest of

small farmers. He also advocated for the cooperative farming to reduce the severe

diseconomies of the farms. Another work carried out by him in 2006 highlighted the

changing pattern of land use in Assam and its implication on the sustainable development

of the state. Das and Datta (1986) attempted to highlight the picture of land use in the

states of North East India by using some secondary data. Das and Das (1989) attempted

to analyze the land use pattern and its spatio-temporal variation during the 1961-1971 in

the Pagladia-Puthimari basin of Assam. They applied Weaver’s index to measure the

volume of change in land use. They concluded that land use change is minimum in the

areas inhabited by the indigenous people, while it is high in the immigrant areas.

Bhagabati (1990) analyzed the pattern and problems of small-scale agriculture in Assam

in general and Nalbari district in particular. While analyzing the relationship of cropping

intensity pattern with population structure, density, irrigational facilities and physical

base he recommended for consolidation of the fragmented landholdings in order to make

them convenient for the application of modem inputs and implements. A number of

works on the land use, land classification, landholding size and ownership pattern have

been carried out in Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya. The works carried
t

out by Sukla (1982), Singh (1982, 1985), Mohapatra and Alampokaba (1982), Bhagabati

(1985), Haloi (1984), Mahapatra and Haloi (1985), Saikia (1987), Ali (1985), Devee

(1985), Devi (1990), Das and Das (1989), Konwar (1990) are worth mentioning in this

connection.

25
Food security, poverty and malnutrition

There has been much hue and cry in both the developed and developing countries

of the world about the vicious circle of economy of food vis-Et-vis ecology of farm

management. The rapid growth of population and advent of modernization in agriculture

have now caused a great challenge to the food and health security of the , farmers.

Although the application of modem inputs and implements in agriculture has contributed

towards enhancing the productivity of crops, questions are there on the equitable growth

of agricultural productivity and the quality of modem agriculture.

Very recently, a new school of agricultural research has emerged who

recommended types of agricultural practices which are synchronized to the surrounding

ecological systems. The studies on the issues of heath and food security, poverty

alleviation and malnutrition are concerned with sustainable use of resources, land

reforms, wage employment, public distribution system (PDS), social security, reduction

in income inequalities etc. Swaminathan (2002) discussed the generic issues related to the

poverty and food insecurity. He emphasized on assuring sustainable food security, trade,

equity and environment and on achieving synergy between political and people power.

Vyas (2002), while discussing the concept of food security and its status all over the

word, has analyzed the role of the state, market and civil society in strengthening the food

security. Kashyap (2002) deals with the food availability and affordability issues in

Indian economy, especially in rural India. He has recommended the reduction of

population pressure on land through long-term policy package, raising agricultural

productivity and farmer’s income, judicious use of land, water and other natural resources

and qualitative upgradation of human resource on agricultural developmental activities.

26

%
Joshi (2002) discussed the changing food habits, gender issues involved, and implications

for food security in India, especially in Rajasthan. He also observed the changing pattern

of food consumption and its impact on health and nutrition. Choudhuri (2002) discussed

some issues related to poverty and equity in Indian agriculture. He emphasized on shared

economic growth or growth with equity and the implication of public distribution system,

employment guarantee schemes and integrated rural development programmes in order to

alleviate poverty and equitable growth among the rural poor. Rao (2002) attempted to

focus on the institutional environment and its influence on improving the condition of

agriculture and rural communities. He discussed the role of self help group (SHG),

PanChayati Raj institutions (PRI) and mainstream institutions on the growth and

development of agriculture. Sinha and Panda (1992) examined the sufficiency and

deficiency pattern of cereal by assessing the quantum of grain availability in a surplus

district and the quantum of deficiency in a deficient district.

In an attempt, Shafi (1992) tied to assess the changing growth rate in agricultural

production in developed and developing regions. After assessing; the prospective

production and economic growth and nutritional level, he emphasized on the components

of food security system such as holding up food reserves, preservation of food, protection

of plants from diseases and pests, processing and handling of foods. Mishra (1992)

highlighted that the slow rate of development and consequent persistence of poverty in

India are caused by low colonial base, inability to evolve indigenous development

models, ideological and bureaucratic rigidities, rapid population growth, inability of the

industrial sector for generating mass employment etc. He emphasized on the importance

of Gandhian model of development, integrated planning, spatial planning,

27
decentralization in the overall development of the country for eradicating poverty. Kumar

and Sarma (1992) analyzed the agricultural productivity in Hispura Anchal of Bihar by

calculating the caloric output per unit of land/man. By examining the population growth

and distribution, land use pattern, food crops production and average yield, food and

dietary standards and availability of calories of cereals, he delineated the surplus and

deficit regions in the study area. Gatade (2004) studied the capacity of land in Satara

district of Maharashtra to analyse the population-food balance on the basis of the

standard nutrition units of both production and consumption. The issues of agriculture

and food security in Sikkim were discussed by Choudhury (2006). He observed that the

food scarcity in the state occurred due to the reduction of cropland and also

disappearance of the traditional method of practice in agriculture.

During the last few decades, agricultural geography and nutritional sciences have

become compartmentalized in order to contribute effectively towards uplifting the food

production and elimination of human diseases. Altieri (2000) discussed the ecological

impact of transgenic crops on agroecosystem health. Das and Datta (2006), while

examining the impact of population growth on food availability in North East India,

suggested some measures to lessen the food scarcity and to alleviate malnutrition in the

region. Datta (2007), after discussing the pressure of human population on agricultural

land in Assam suggested to promote human resources and to mobilize other natural

resources in order to minimize the poverty, social unrest, environmental degradation etc.

Socio-economic dimensions of agroecosystem

With the pace of development and influence of globalization, the socio-economic

conditions of the people have been changing fast. During the last half of the twentieth

28
century, the agricultural geographers had paid attention to the social aspects of

agroecosystem. They all agreed to the fact that the transformation of human society in

terms of family structure, dress and food habit, house type, settlement pattern, economy,

local tradition, living standard etc. has greatly influenced the agroecosystems and vice-

versa. The increasing application of innovative measures and extension services and the

development plans and programmes that are formulated to improve the agriculture have

made the agroecosystem more dynamic. The nature of agroecosystem is determined by a

multifarious body of social, cultural, political, economic and ecological factors which

work at different spatio-temporal scales. Several studies carried out by the agro­

ecosystem researchers have focused on these factors in relations with production and

consumption pattern.

Loucks (1977) observed that the economic system governing the intensity of

imports and exports and the economic viability of the farm operators are integral

components of the agricultural ecosystem. Singh (2005) dealt with the agricultural

situation in a village of Bihar in relation to certain demographic and cultural attributes.

Neeraja et al. (2006) discussed the influence of socio-economic variables and the size of

landholdings, agricultural practices and cropping pattern in Nellore district of Andhra

Pradesh. Bharara (1992) studied the socio-economic characteristics of minor irrigation

system in the arid zones of Rajasthan and stated that the system of minor irrigation in the

arid zones of the state is embedded into the socio-cultural setup of the rural societies.

While discussing the importance of social and human capital for sustainable agricultural

Pretty (2002) emphasized on the social relationship, such as trust among people,

reciprocity and exchange of resources, common norms, rules and sanctions of the social

29
system, network or connectedness among the people etc. The human capital is the total

capability of the individuals which is based on the inheritably gained knowledge and skill

as well as their health and nutrition. Kuyvenhoven and Rubben (2002) emphasized on the

feasibility of economic conditions of the producer farmers for applying the agro-

ecological practices and principles in order to intensify sustainable agriculture. Hashim

(2002) discussed the impact of urbanization and industrialization on the sustainable

agriculture in Malaysia and stated that the rapid urbanization in the country has caused

serious challenges to the sustainability of the agricultural system as suitable agricultural

land is getting depleted fast and the natural resources remain under the threat of over

exploitation. Vidyanathan (2002) elaborated the role of institutions on the agricultural

development and observed that the government sponsored organizations can play

important role in comprehensive treatment of the agricultural system. Ahmed (2002)

focused on the performance of agriculture under different institutional setting in

Bangladesh and Vietnam. He also assessed the role of local government and public

institutions in the agricultural performance. Mishra (2002) discussed the institutional

arrangement on agrarian structure in rural Arunachal Pradesh and found that the changes

in agrarian structure and labour arrangement are the results of replacement of traditional

forms of collective decision-making, resource management and private property rights

over production assets. Patnaik (2002) demonstrates that financial liberalization and

removal of capital controls have worsen the terms of trade for primary commodities

exported by third world countries which will be disastrous for the small cultivators to

survive. He also studied the seriousness of the impact of present international economic

situation on agriculture. He argued that polices of liberalization and the removal of

30
national control on the flow of finance capital have the adverse effect on the price of

primary commodities. Appendinio (2002) observed that the white-corn price as a result

of the new trade regime has serious implications on the biodiversity of Mexican

agricultural system. Kay (2002) also analyzed how the globalization and neoliberal

transformation have deteriorated the domestically oriented agriculture, particularly the

cultivation of basic traditional crops. He was of the view that the modernization of the

peasant sector and integration of it with agro-business have caused the inequalities within

the peasant economy.

Akhtar. (1974) stated that the present cropping pattern in the Kumaon region of

U.P. has been evolved by the farmers who have followed the principles of self-

sufficiency in all commodities. He studied the changes in cropping pattern due to the

introduction of multi-purpose projects, economic reorientation, trade, economic crop etc.

He also discussed the geographic factors like altitude, climate, rainfall, nature of the soil,

and facilities of communication that determine the agricultural pattern in the higher
Himalayas of the Kumaon region. Rupa and Joshi (2003) analyzed the indigenous

management of lands over different land use categories and optimum utilization of lands

by the Apatanis people of Arunachal Pradesh. Based on the Sol topographical maps,

IRS 1C, LISS III data and field observation they studied the changes of land use due to

modem infrastructural development in the state. Mohiuddin (1971) presented a detailed

study of land use in a village of Lucknow district. Details of locations, local rainfall, land

classification, irrigation, land use in kharif season, land use in rabi season, double

cropped land, land use and socio-economic conditions and finally food balance sheet

have been described in details. The study carried out by Swamakar (1971) outlined the

31
temporal and spatial variation in the pattern of agricultural land use in the state of West

Bengal with reference to various physical and cultural elements such as physiography,,

rainfall, soil characteristics, means of irrigation and cultivated crops. Bhattacharya (1974)

discussed the size, functions and social character of farm as the reflection of various

physical and social orders of the world. He observed that the small and big farms,

collective and state farms - all portray interesting degree of unity and diversity in function

and social character. Bhagabati and Mudiar (1997) attempted to examine the effect of

flood on various facets of land use and cropping pattern and practices in Barbhag area of

Nalbari district, Assam. They also discussed the adaptability of the inhabitants, specially

the farmers, in the chronically flood affected area. They suggested for implementation of

master plan to be designed for controlling the flood problem and modernization of

farming practice in the line of sustainable agricultural development in order to improve

the socio-economic condition of the people. While discussing the pattern of cropping

intensity in the command area of the Kaldiya Irrigation Project, Bhagabati and Talukdar

(1995) examined the influence of the irrigation potential on cropping intensity in the area.

They concluded that cropping intensity is positively correlated to the intensity of

irrigation. The studies on cropping pattern, cropping practices, changes in agricultural

practices in the North-eastern region or any part thereof made by Phangsho (1989), Sukla

(1982, 1983), Sarma (1986), Ansari 91973), Das (1982), Datta (1983,. 1985) Das and Das

(1989), Bhagabati (1990), are worth mentioning in this regard.

Das (1973), while studying the socio-economic conditions of Galia village in the

Kamrup Dist of Assam attempted to make a plea for joint agricultural farming based on

land-labour-capital formula in order to change the distressing plight of the poor

32
cultivators. Saikia (1993) discussed the problems of surplus labour in tea plantation. He

mentioned that the problem of surplus labour in tea plantation of Assam has been created

as a result of seasonal and temporary mode of employment as the proprietors of tea

estates prefer such type of labour. Singh and Das (2000) examined the regional pattern of

agricultural labour productivity by considering labour employment in different agro-

ecological situations of the lower Brahmaputra valley. They concluded that the areas

composed of alluvial soil in the central part of lower Brahmaputra valley respond most

favourably to labour productivity than the foothill agro-ecological system.

Studies on agricultural regionalization on the basis of agricultural practice and

performance have been carried out by the geographer of this region with a view to

formulating planning strategies for agricultural development. Taher (1975) delineated the

regional sub-divisions of the Brahmaputra valley and studied the physical conditions and

agricultural potentialities of each region. He suggested for regional approach for the

purpose of planned development of agriculture. Sarma (1976) attempted to regionalize

the Brahmaputra valley into some micro-agricultural regions by studying the relationship

between crop area and production with the help of coefficient of correlation test. He

examined the regional variation of farming population in Assam with a view to

highlighting the problems of population pressure on its limited land resources. Dutta and

Bhagabati (2007) discussed the position and significance of rice farming in the cultural

and economic framework of Assam. They studied the dynamism of rice farming and its

prospects in the changing socio-economic context of the state. Bhagabati and Dutta

(1999) attempted to examine the emergence and expansion of modem innovations in

agricultural land and its impact on changing nature of productivity in Malaybari area of

33
Kamrup district of Assam. Goswami and Das (1999) also discussed the peasant’s

response to the modem agricultural innovations in the southern part of the Bongaigaon

district of Assam.

Studies on agricultural development have also been carried out by Das (1978),

Nath (1979), Bhagabati (1984, 1990), Kakati ((1985), Konwar (1986), Chattoraj and

Sahu (1983), Gopalkrishnan (1989), Devi (1988), Singh (1977), Mipun (1988), Patnaik

(1979), Goswami (1989) and many others. All these studies on various aspects of

agriculture and agroecosystems in different parts of the. country and abroad greatly help

in conceptualizing the issues from right perspectives and evolving suitable analytical

framework to understand and interpret the problems associated with the functioning and

performance of the agroecological systems.

34