Shiwcf

WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION,
EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY

ALLEVIATION IN PAKISTAN: EMPIRICAL
EVIDENCE FROM SOUTHERN PUNJAB
BY
FATIMA FAROOQ
Ph.D. Scholar
Roll No. 2
Session: 2012-2016
SUPERVISED BY:
PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD ZAHIR FARIDI
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO
SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS,
BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY, MULTAN
FOR PARTIAL REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGREE OF
“DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS”
School of Economics,
1
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
December, 2016
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE

MOST BENEFICENT AND
MERCIFUL
2
Dedicated to My
Lovely Parents and
Parents in-Law
3
DECLERATION
I solemnly declare that this research work has been written by me for the purpose of
submitting it to fulfill the requirement for the degree of “DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS”. All sources of information have been
acknowledged in the thesis.
FATIMA FAROOQ
Ph. D. Scholar,
School of Economics
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
4
CERTIFICATE
It is hereby confirmed that the thesis “Women work participation, Empowerment and
Poverty in Pakistan: Empirical Evidence from Southern Punjab” is based on the research
work undertaken by Ms. Fatima Farooq and it is also verified that the research work has
not been previously presented for the higher degree. Ms. Fatima Farooq has done this
research work under my supervision. She has fulfilled all the requirements and is
qualified to submit the accompanying thesis for the degree of “DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS.”
PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD ZAHIR FARIDI

Supervisor,
School of Economics
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All the praise and thanks to ALLAH ALMIGHTY, the Lord and Creator of this
universe whose powers and glory accomplish all things. He is also the most
compassionate and merciful. Peace and Blessing to HOLY PROPHET HAZRAT
MUHAMMAD (PBUH) who brought the message of Peace and Happiness to all
creatures. I feel great pleasure on the accomplishment of this thesis for the award of
Ph.D. degree in Economics, which is all due to my Allah and Rasool (PBUH).
It is a matter of great pleasure to express my cordial gratitude and thanks to
Dr. Muhammad Zahir Faridi, Professor of Economics who guided me during course
work as well as in thesis writing even giving extra time. His special help remained a
major source of encouragement for me to perform efficiently in difficult courses. His
generous cooperation, suggestions, constant encouragement and unsurpassable
supervision made this dissertation possible.
I am greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. Imran Sharif Chaudhry, Professor and
Director, School of Economics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, who
encouraged and guided me from the day first till completion of the thesis. He guided
me in all types of academic issues irrespective of his formal teaching domain.
I express my special gratitude to Prof. Dr. Shahnawaz Malik, Prof. Dr
Muhammad Hanif Akhtar, Dr. Muhammad Omer Chaudhry and Dr. Muhammad
Ramzan Sheikh for their moral and academic support during my research work.
I will pay my special thanks to my lovely friend Dr. Nabila Asghar for her
constant encouragement and sincere support for writing my PhD thesis.
I am also indebted to Dr Farrukh Bashir for his support in data entering, data
compiling and data analysis. His cooperation is appreciable and commendable. I am
also thankful to Noreen Safdar, Salyha Zulfiqar, Hina Ali, Raima Sajid, Ismat
Naseem, M. Rashid, M. Ayoub, M. Faheem, Sajid Ali and many more for their moral
support and cooperation during my research work.
Last but not least I am thankful to my family members who supported me
extraordinarily for my PhD research work. I also express my love for my little
daughter, Aaiza Imran who gave me the rationale of my life with my lovely husband,
Prof. Dr. Imran Sharif Chaudhry.
FATIMA FAROOQ
Ph. D. Scholar
6
School of Economics
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
DESCRIPTION
No. No.
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Statement of the Problem 1
1.2 Objectives of the Study 6
1.3 Materials and Methods 6
1.5 Organization of the Study 6
Chapter 2 PROFILE OF WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION,
8
EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY IN PAKISTAN
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Prismatic Assessment of Women Work Participation 8
2.2.1 Labor Force Participation Rates: Crude 10
2.2.2 Female Education and Development Nexus 12
2.2.3 Labor Force Participation Rates: Refined 12
2.2.4 Employment Scenario in Pakistan 14
2.2.5 Age Specific Participation Rates-By Sex for Pakistan 14
2.2.6 Employment Status by Sectors 16
2.2.7 Civilian Labour Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million) 16
2.2.8 Employed –Pakistan and Provinces (Million) 19
2.2.9 National Training Bureau (NTB) 21
2.3 Current Situation of Women Empowerment 21
2.4 Poverty Among the Women 24
2.4.1 An Appraisal of Women Poverty 25
2.4.2 Profile of Poverty in Pakistan 26
2.5 Conclusion 27
Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Woman Work Participation 30
3.2.1 Income-Leisure model 30
3.2.2 Collective Household Model Approach 32
3.2.3 Unitary Approach 33
3.3 Theories of Empowerment 35
3.3.1 Intra-Household Decision and Women’s Empowerment 35
3.3.2 Liberal feminism 36
3.3.3 Marxist feminism 38
3.3.4 Radical feminism 39
3.3.5 Socialist Feminism 39
3.4 Understanding of Poverty 40
3.4.1 Absolute poverty 41
3.4.2 Relative Poverty (Inequality) 41
3.4.3 Poverty and Welfare 43
3.4.3.1 The Welfarist Approach 44
3.4.3.2 Budget Standards Approach 44
7
3.4.3.3 Food Expenditure Approach 45
3.4.3.4 Nutritional Level Approach 47
3.4.3.5 Basic Needs Approach 48
3.4.3.6 Capabilities Approach 48
3.5 Concluding Remarks 49
Chapter 4 LITERATURE REVIEW 52
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Determinants of Female labor force participation and Empowerment 52
4.3 Women Work Participation and Empowerment 63
4.4 Women Empowerment, Poverty and Socioeconomic Status 71
4.5 Role of Women in Socio-Economic Development 75
4.6 Conclusion 78
Chapter 5: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, DATA SOURCES AND
79
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Profile of the Study Area 79
5.3 Data Sources and Sampling Design 81
5.4 Limitations of the Survey 82
Understanding the Determinants of Women Work participation,
5.5 82
Women Empowerment and Poverty
5.5.1 Women Work Participation 83
5.5.2 Women Empowerment 83
5.5.3 Poverty 85
5.5.3.1 FGT Poverty Measures 85
5.5.3.2 The Headcount Poverty Index 85
5.5.4 Age of Respondent 86
5.5.5 Education of Respondent, Father and Husband 86
5.5.6 Marital Status 87
5.5.7 Jobs of Fathers and Husbands 87
5.5.8 Household Size and Family Setup 87
5.5.9 Dependency Ratio and Number of Children 88
5.5.10 Residence 88
5.5.11 Distance of Workplace and Health Unit 89
5.5.12 Participation Ratio and No. of Earners 89
5.5.13 Sanitation and Safe Drinking Water 89
5.5.14 Employment Status (Self or Salaried Employed) 90
5.6 Operational model 90
5.6.1 Women Work Participation Models 90
5.6.2 Women Empowerment Models 91
5.6.3 Poverty Models 92
5.7 Methodological Issues 96
5.7.1 Elementary Data Analysis 96
5.7.2 Descriptive Analysis 96
5.7.3 Correlation Analysis 97
5.7.4 Multivariate Analysis 97
8
5.8 Conclusion 100
Chapter 6: WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION, EMPOWERMENT AND
POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN SOUTHERN PUNJAB: PRIMARY DATA 101
ANALYSIS
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 General Information 102
6.3 Respondent’s Own Information 104
6.4 Respondent’s Household Information 119
6.5 Women Empowerment in South Punjab 137
6.5.1 Economic Empowerment of Women 139
6.5.2 Social Empowerment of Women 143
6.5.3 Familial/ Interpersonal Women Empowerment 147
Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty Profile based on
6.6 152
National Poverty line
Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty Profile based on
6.7 154
International Poverty line
6.8 Conclusion 155
Chapter 7: WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT:
159
AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
7.2 Factors Affecting Women’s Work Participation 159
7.2.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women’s Work Participation 159
7.2.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women’s Work Participation 160
7.2.3 Results of Econometric Analysis of Women’s Work Participation 163
7.3 Factors Affecting Married Women’s Work Participation 167
Results of Descriptive Analysis of Married Women’s Work
7.3.1 167
Participation
Results of Correlation Analysis of Married Women’s Work
7.3.2 168
Participation
Results of Econometric Analysis of Married Women’s Work
7.3.3 171
Participation
7.4 Factors Affecting Women Empowerment 176
7.4.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women Empowerment 176
7.4.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Empowerment 178
7.4.3 Results of Econometric Analysis of Women Empowerment 184
Chapter 8: IMPACT OF WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION AND
EMPOWERMENT ON HOUSEHOLD POVERTY: AN ECONOMETRIC 192
ANALYSIS
8.2 Descriptive Analysis of Household Poverty Correlates 192
8.3 Association Analysis of Household Poverty Correlates 193
9
Impact of Women’s Socio-economic, Demographic and Work
8.4 Participation variables on Household Poverty: An Econometric 197
Analysis
Impact of Women Work Participation and Empowerment with
8.5 Respondents and Households’ Characteristics on Household 201
Poverty: An Econometric Analysis
Chapter 9: CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS 207
Policy Implications 214
REFERENCES 216
QUESTIONNAIRE 233
APPENDIX 236
10
LIST OF TABLES
Table DESCRIPTION Page

No. No.
2.1 Crude Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces 11
2.2 Refined Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces 13
2.3 Labor Force, Employed and Unemployed in Pakistan 14
2.4 Age Specific Activity (Participation) Rates - By Sex for Pakistan 15
(%)
2.5 Distribution of Employed Persons by Major Industry 16
2.6 Civilian Labour Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million) 18
2.7 Employed – Pakistan and Provinces (Million) 20
2.8 Corollary of Recent Laws and Acts for Protection of Women in 23
Pakistan
5.1 List of the Variables 93
6.1 Region wise distribution of respondents 103
6.2 Distribution of respondents by Area of Residence 103
6.3 Distribution of respondents by Age of Respondent 104
6.4 Distribution of respondents by Marital Status 105
6.5 Distribution of respondents by Number of Children 105
6.6 Distribution of respondents by number of children less than 15 years 106
of age
6.7 Distribution of respondents by number of children more than 15 107
years of age
6.8 Distribution of respondents by Education 108
6.9 Distribution of respondents by Husband’s education 109
6.10 Distribution of respondents by Father’s education 110
6.11 Distribution of respondents by access to doctor/ medicine 111
6.12 Distribution of respondents by number of visits to health centre in a 112
year
6.13 Distribution of respondents by any Health Issue 113
6.14 Distribution of respondents by distance of nearest health center from 114
home
6.15 Distribution of respondents by time to travel from home to health 115
center
6.16 Distribution of respondents by access to safe drinking water 115
6.17 Distribution of respondents by access to sanitation facility 116
6.18 Distribution of respondents by Distance from home to workplace 117
6.19 Distribution of respondents by Decision to do any paid or unpaid 118
work
6.20 Distribution of respondents by Family Setup 118
6.21 Distribution of respondents by Participation in Household decision 119
making
11
6.22 Distribution of respondents by Total Income of Household 121
6.23 Distribution of respondents by Per Capita Income 123
6.24 Distribution of respondents by Husband’s Job Status 124
6.25 Distribution of respondents by Father’s Job Status 124
6.26 Distribution of respondents by Number of Male Members in 125
household
6.27 Distribution of respondents by Number of Female Members in 126
Household
6.28 Distribution of respondents by Female to Male Ratio in Household 127
6.29 Distribution of respondents by Number of Working Members in 128
household
6.30 Distribution of respondents by Members of households older than 60 130
years of age
6.31 Distribution of respondents by Members of household younger than 131
18
6.32 Distribution of respondents by members of households between 18 133
and 60 years
6.33 Distribution of respondents by Total Household Size 134
6.34 Distribution of respondents by Participation ratio 135
6.35 Distribution of respondents by Dependency ratio 136
6.36 Distribution of Women Empowerment Index 137
6.37 Distribution of Decomposition of Women Empowerment Index by 138
Regions and area of residence
6.38 Distribution of respondents by control over the spending of her 140
personal income
6.39 Distribution of respondents by Independence in making expenditures 140
6.40 Distribution of respondents having own bank account 141
6.41 Distribution of respondents by ownership of any asset 141
6.42 Distribution of respondents by access to loan/ microfinance 142
6.43 Distribution of Women’s Economic Empowerment Index 143
6.44 Distribution of respondents by access to media/ internet 143
6.45 Distribution of respondents by permission to go out for shopping or 144
visit park
6.46 Distribution of respondents by permission to visit family members 145
or other relatives
6.47 Distribution of respondents by freedom to express her views in the 145
family
6.48 Distribution of respondents by Participation at community services 146
6.49 Distribution of Women’s Social Empowerment Index 147
6.50 Distribution of respondents by choice to make decision about family 148
size/ planning
6.51 Distribution of respondents by choice to make decision about child 149
12
health care
6.52 Distribution of respondents by choice to make decision about child’s 149
education
6.53 Distribution of respondents by choice to make decision about own 150
health care
6.54 Distribution of respondents by fear of violence from husband/ father 151
6.55 Distribution of Women’s Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment 152
Index
6.56 Distribution of Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of 153
Residence based on National Poverty Line
6.57 Distribution of Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of 155
Residence based on International Poverty Line
7.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women Work Participation 160
7.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Work Participation 162
Correlates
7.3 Logistic Regression results of the determinants of Women Work 166
Participation
7.4 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Married Women Work 168
Participation
7.5 Results of Correlation Analysis of Married Women Work 170
Participation
7.6 Logistic regression results of the determinants of Married Women 175
Work Participation
7.7 Descriptive Statistics of Women Empowerment Model 177
7.8 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Empowerment Correlates 183
7.9 OLS Regression results of the determinants of Women 189
Empowerment
8.1 Results of Descriptive Statistics of Household Poverty Correlates 193
8.2 Results of Correlation Matrix of Household Poverty Correlates 196
8.3 OLS Regression Results of Per Capita Income (Proxy of Household 200
Poverty)
8.4 Logistic Regression results of Household Poverty Determinants in 205
terms of Women Work Participation and Empowerment
13
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure DESCRIPTION Page

No. No.
2.1 Women Labor Force Participation Statistics for Pakistan 9
2.2 Employed population as share of total adult population by sex and 9
sector
2.3 Women labor force participation as % of female population 10
2.4 Women labor force participation as % of total employed labor 10
2.5 Education statistics for Pakistan 12
2.6 Components of Women Empowerment 22
2.7 Gender gap statistics for Pakistan 22
2.8 Population (%) Below Poverty Line of $ 2 per Day 25
2.9 Share of Women Population Suffering From Poverty 25
3.1 The Engel Curve 46
3.2 Inflection Points on the Engel Curve 46
Abstract
14
The study is aimed at investigating the nexus of women work participation,
women empowerment and poverty in Southern Punjab. For that purpose, primary data
is collected from three Divisions of Southern Punjab i.e. Multan, Bahawalpur and
Dera Ghazi Khan in 2015. A sample of 600 women respondents is assembled from
Southern Punjab in which data collected from 200 women respondents in each
Division using simple random and stratified random sampling.
Analysis is made at three stages i.e. preliminary analysis, descriptive analysis,

correlation analysis, and Multivariate analysis. Preliminary analysis includes
frequency distribution of respondents with respect to various characteristics. In
descriptive analysis, Mean and standard deviation of each variable are calculated. The
study uses ordinary least square method and logistic regression analysis for
econometric results. Ordinary least square method is applied on the model in which
dependent variable is quantitative while logistic regression method is utilized for the
model in which dependent variable is qualitative or dummy.
Analyzing poverty level in three divisions of Southern Punjab (Multan,

Bahawalpur and DG Khan), it is evaluated that in DG Khan Division 30 % of
respondents live below poverty line and DG Khan Division is the most poorest among
three districts on the basis of national poverty line (Note: National Poverty line: Rs.
3030.32 in 2013 and inflated for 2015 as estimated @ Rs. 3320.88 per month). If
poverty level is compared on the basis of international poverty line (Note:
International Poverty line: $1.90 or less a day in 2015 and estimated @ $1 = Rs.
102.1516 gives equal to Rs. 194.088 per day and Rs. 5822.64 per month in Pakistan)
in three districts, it is evaluated that in Bahawalpur Division 53% of respondents live
below poverty line and Bahawalpur Division is the most poorest among three
divisions (Multan, Bahawalpur and DG Khan) on the basis of international poverty
line.
The results of descriptive statistics summarize that average per capita income
in Southern Punjab is Rs. 10983.590 per month, 40 percent households live below the
poverty line on the average, average age of women is 35.987 years, average education
of women is 9.263 years, 79 percent women are married, 83.2 households are
provided good sanitation facility, the distance of workplace from home is 3.168 km,
average household size is 5.655 persons, father’s of 37.7 percent women are
employed, on the average 1.932 persons in each house are working, 39.7 percent
15
households are participating in economic activities, 49.7 percent women are living in
joint system, 59 percent women are participating in economic activities, the average
economic empowerment of women is 0.543 points, average familial/ interpersonal
empowerment of women is 0.558 points, average social empowerment of women is
0.619 points and 48.2 percent women are living in urban areas.
The results of correlation matrix portrays that values of correlation coefficient

in women’s work participation, married women’s work participation and women
empowerment models are significantly lower than 0.80 which concludes that these
models are free from this problem. The results of econometric analysis concludes age
of respondent, square of age, decision to work, marital status, distance of health unit,
workplace distance, father’s job, participation ratio, residence and family setup as the
significant factors affecting women’s work participation in Southern Punjab. Among
these factors, age of respondent, decision to work, workplace distance, father’s job,
participation ratio and family setup are increasing women’s work participation and
square of age, marital status, distance of health unit and residence are reducing
women’s work participation in economic activities.
Married women’s work participation are affected by age of respondent, square

of age, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of health unit, distance of
workplace, residence, family setup and husband’s job. In these factors age of
respondent, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of workplace and
family setup are concluded as motivating factors for married women’s work
participation while square of age, distance of health unit, residence and husband’s job
are confirmed as de-motivating factors for married women’s work participation in
economic activities. In women empowerment model, marital status, household
decision making, self employed, salaried employed, father’s education, safe drinking
water, control over personal income spending, having own bank account, access to
media/ internet, permission for shopping or to visit park and decision about own
health care are significantly increasing women empowerment while fear of violence
from husband/ father is reducing women empowerment in Southern Punjab.
In women economic empowerment model, married marital status, self

employed, salaried employed, sanitation facility, control over personal income
spending and having own bank account are significantly rising women economic
empowerment. In women social empowerment model, square of age, education of
16
respondent, household decision making, salaried employed, father’s education, access
to media/ internet and permission for shopping or to visit park are significantly raising
women social empowerment while age of respondent is decreasing women social
empowerment. In women familial/ interpersonal empowerment model, married
marital status, household decision making, self employed, salaried employed and
decision about own health care are positively associated with women familial/
interpersonal empowerment while household size and fear of violence from husband/
father are negatively correlated with women familial/ interpersonal empowerment in
Southern Punjab.
The econometric results demonstrate that square of age, education of

respondent, married marital status, women work participation, sanitation facility,
father’s job, no. of earners, participation ratio and urban residence of women are
significantly increasing per capita income while joint family setup, dependency ratio,
household size and age of respondent is significantly reducing per capita income of
households in Southern Punjab. On the other side, age of respondent and household
size appear to be significant causes of increasing poverty in Southern Punjab.
Moreover, square of age, education of respondent, married marital status, women
work participation, good sanitation facility, no. of earners, urban residence, women
economic empowerment, women social empowerment and women familial/
interpersonal empowerment are significantly turned out to reduce poverty from
Southern Punjab.
In the end, the efforts should be made through the grass root planning to
empower women and to participate more in the labor market and to reduce poverty by
offering employment opportunities. This can be done through job creation, micro and
small scale entrepreneurship and increased provision of educational and health
facilities and variety of related social and welfare services.
Keywords: Women Work Participation; Women Economic Empowerment; Women

Familial Empowerment; Women Social Empowerment; Poverty
Alleviation; Southern Punjab; Pakistan
17
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Women Work Participation, Women Empowerment and Poverty Alleviation are the
indispensable module of contemporary development. The women’s workforce
participation and empowerment are also considered the drivers of inclusive growth
among others and significant for sustainable development. Since one half of the
world’s population constitutes women and a fundamental moral justification for
empowering women by giving equal access to education, health and earning power
with spending autonomy. Nevertheless women’s empowerment requires employment,
financial, economic, political and social autonomy not only at home but also at
outside home.
Numeral recent studies indicate that augmented women’s labor force
participation has been an imperative factor of economic growth of many developed
countries. On the contrary, to restrict the women’s entry in the labor markets is pricey
because meager women work participation impedes economic growth (Teignier and
Cuberes, 2014). In many developing countries, a substantial investment in women’s
education have been ensured over the past few decades but they remained failed to
confiscate the hurdles in the way of women’s participation in labor force. Resultantly,
they could not procure the benefits derived from returns from half of the nations’
human capital.
In contrast, developed countries have witnessed the major gains in economic
development due to an anticyclone trend of female labor force participation in their
economies. Female labor force participation was just 4 percent in 1900 while it got
the momentum of 70 percent in 2000 in these countries. During the last two decades,
the same upward trend has been observed in Transition and Latin American countries.
The third party effects or externalities have been engendered due to the eminent and
18
significant women’s role in the labor market that has aided in elevating the socio-
economic status of the people.
There are various factors which increase the female labor force participation in
economic activities such as fertility and structural changes, technological
advancements, limiting gender inequality, (See for example, Greenwood et al., 2005;
Galor and Weil,1996; Fernandez et al., 2002). Although Pakistan has undergone high
growth rates regarding the female labor force participation in last few years but it is
still very low if compared with other South Asian economies. This gives us a rationale
to study the factors which affect female labor force participation because low
participation of women is a serious matter for economic development.
Mincer (1962) wrote a paper on married women labor force participation in a

case study of labor supply. After studying this paper, various researchers of last three
decades are attracted to explore factors for their economies. Household Production
Model and Female Time Allocation Models were elaborated by Becker (1965). On the
other side, Collective Household Model was explored by Chiappori (1992) to analyze
the participation of female laborers. The association between education and fertility
was also established with female labor force participation by the economists [(i.e.
Spierings et al. (2010) and Vander & VanDijk, (2002)].
Due to importance of women empowerment, this issue has been discussed in

various meetings, seminars, symposiums and workshops because it leads to human
development and development of the country. When countries make policies
regarding fertility, child welfare, economic growth, poverty reduction and infant
mortality, women empowerment is considered as key factor to formulate the
appropriate strategies by numerous international institutions including World Bank
and major UN agencies (Kabeer, 2001).
“According to Dyson and Moore (1983), women empowerment is the

capacity to obtain information and make decision about one’s private
concern and those of one’s intimates and Dixon-Mueller (1978) viewed
empowerment as degree of access to and control over material and
social resources within family. Batliwala (1995) and Malhotra et al.
(2002) considered empowerment as a process of gaining and
controlling of material and intellectual resources which will support
19
them to develop their self-sufficiency and enable them to achieve their
independent rights and thereby challenging the ideology of patriarchy
and speaking for the gender-based discrimination. These capabilities
facilitate them to organize, in order to acquire authority to make
decisions and choices, and eventually eliminating their own
subordination in all fields of life. The World Bank also defines
empowerment as the process of increasing capacity of individual or
groups to make choices and to transform these choices into desired
actions and outcomes” (World Health Organization, 2006).
Changing the balance of this work is a particularly complex undertaking

because in many societies these hierarchies are not only produced by men but also
reproduced by women (DeVault, 1994). For example, in many South Asian societies
age, marriage status, and socio-economic position of the family determine
responsibility and decision-making on different tasks (Sen and Sen, 1985). Pieces of
research from India and Nepal find women aged 15–29 doing care work mostly,
followed by those aged 60 and higher (Choe et al., 2005; Sen and Sen, 1985). Similar
findings from Mexico show that half of girls over 17 years of age perform more than
20 hours of care work compared to 10 per cent of boys of any age doing similar work
(Levison et al., 2001). Care work is thus reflection of status with young (especially
newly married) women often pressured by mother-in-laws and themselves to ‘prove
their worth’ by performing more arduous tasks (Chorghade et al., 2006).
Unless these gendered norms are changed in a way that accords all women
higher status, redistributive efforts are likely to fall on other female members therein
perpetuating the cycle of illiteracy and low participation in economic and political
spheres (Marphatia, 2003). Prevailing ideologies, norms and practices may
paradoxically increase perceptions of a woman’s own feminine worth but not
necessarily that of their daughters (Bourne and Walker, 1991) who may be expected to
take on more care work. For example, when women are over-burdened, especially in
the times of financial crises, illness or drought, these tasks are often shifted to girls,
who just like their mothers, experience similar challenges in attaining their rights (e.g.
to education) whilst balancing personal development with family-well-being
(Dorman, 2008; Levison and Moe, 1998; World Bank, 2011). Fulfilling this ‘mother
substitute’ role [Amin et al. (2006); Ilahi (2001); Jones et al. (2010); Lloyd and Blanc
20
(1996)] is also likely to influence family and self-perception about purpose and
capability [Admassie (2003); Vlassoff (1994)]. As a result, families and girls
themselves may not see the value of education if the expectation remains that they
will continue in their roles as caregivers and secondary breadwinners (Dodson and
Dickert, 2004).
Few definitions of women empowerment are given above which encapsulates

the concept of women’s decisions making about their material and intellectual
resources for the wellbeing of their own and associates. According to Roy and
Niranjan, 2004, the terms of women’s empowerment, women’s status, women’s
autonomy and gender equality are used alternatively in the literature. If we see total
number of women in the world so it is explored that half of the population of the
world is based on women but rest of 50 percent is men which is ultimately dependent
upon women directly or indirectly. Women significantly contribute in development of
the society, but women are not considered as equal as men they are less privileged by
civilized society even (Rahman and Naoroze, 2007). Normally, there are very limited
chances that women can have education, land, credit, skill, property and paid job in
their ownership.
Among two billion poor people of the world, two third belongs to women
(ESCAP, 2002). Even women are equally participating in economic activities but still
they are paid 60 percent less as compared to men (United Nations, 2007). In the
world, approximately one percent assets of the total are in the ownership of women
(Al Mughairy, 2004). It is also observed that male members of households are
provided better education and health facilities as compared to that of women. If we
count out of school children so most of them would be girls as compare to boys
(Turquet, et al. 2008). In reality, women comprise the two third of the total illiterate
people in the World (UNESCO, 2006). Apart from all these things, women have less
access to good education and health services they are total ignored in our societies.
Every year, it is observed that almost half million of the deaths in females are due to
the pregnancy complications or pregnancy related issues (World Health Organization,
2005). In every second, it is seen that a female expires as a result of pregnancy
complications or at childbirth (United Nations, 2007). On the other side, it is also
analyzed that HIV is becoming positive among women worldwide since 1990 (United
Nations, 2008).
21
If scenario of World is examined, there is 32 percent drop out ratio in Nepal
which is caused by poor academic performance as it may be linked with irregular
attendance. Female labor force participation is falling among working age population
15 plus from 52.2 percent to 51.4 percent (ILO, 2012). In last two decades, two
millions females are added in current labor force participation, but still it accounts for
39.8 percent of total labor force. Fortunately, participation rate gaps are becoming
narrow down among men and women as it is narrow down from 27.8 percent to 26
percent in 2012. Female enrollment rates are also improving now and more females
are getting good education in this decade. In the World, female labor force
participation has escalated in 2012 from 53.1 percent to 54.2 percent. On the other
side, a significant decline in gender gap may be analyzed as from 32.5 percent to 29.5
percent in 2012.
Female participation rates are ranging from 20 percent in Pakistan, 80 percent

in Nepal due to differences in social and economic factors. There are less social
constraints in Nepal as most of them work in agriculture sector. In Bangladesh, rapid
rise in women participation in economic activities may be associated with garments
industry, livestock and microcredit. Sri Lanka is also exhibiting improvement
regarding female labor force participation rates as it remains approximately 33
percent in current decade. If numbers are assigned to regions, South Asia is at second
lowest score according to Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI). In India and
Bangladesh, the gender gap is 68 and 70 percent respectively. In Pakistan and Bhutan,
the gender gap is 56 and 64 percent as a whole. The gender gap in education and
health exists almost in every country. Pakistan stands at 143th number being the
lowest-ranked country in the region and second-to-last ranked generally. Pakistan is
now experienced the low secondary education enrolment gender gap and high
women’s estimated earned income but this partly counterweighs due to changes in
female-to-male literacy ratios and wage equality.
The labor force participation rate of Pakistan has been at 10 th number in the
world. In current decade, the number of labor force has increased from 50 million to
59.7 million while the employed labor force has enlarged from 46.95 million to 56.0
million. It shows that the increase in labor force could not be absorbed in the various
sectors of the economy and resultantly unemployed labor force has also increased
from 3.10 million to 3.73 million during the same period.
22
1.2 Objectives of the Study
The above observations, roughly, provide an agenda for the present study. The general
objective of the study is to analyze the nexus of women work participation, women
empowerment and household poverty levels in the areas of Southern Punjab using
survey data.
The specific objectives of the study are:
i. To analyze the factors affecting women work participation in Southern Punjab

ii. To examine the determinants of married women work participation in
Southern Punjab
iii. To explore factors which affect women empowerment in Southern Punjab
iv. To study the impact of women’s socioeconomic, demographic and work
participation on Household Poverty in Southern Punjab
v. To investigate the impact of women work participation and women
empowerment on Household Poverty in Southern Punjab
1.3 Materials and Methods
To address the objectives of the study, primary source of data are collected through
questionnaire using simple random sampling and stratified sampling techniques. The
data from 600 women respondents in terms of working and non-working females have
been collected from three divisions of Southern Punjab i.e. Multan, Bahawalpur and
Dera Ghazi Khan in 2015. The elementary data analysis is carried out in terms of
respondents’ characteristics. The three women empowerment indices are also
constructed with household poverty estimates. The empirical estimation is carried out
by employing Ordinary Least Squares Method and Logistic Regression.
1.4 Organization of the Study
There are nine chapters in the study where first chapter is Introduction explaining
research problem, objectives and data and methods. Chapter two describes the profile
of women work participation, empowerment and poverty in Pakistan focusing some
socio economic factors.
23
Chapter three discusses theoretical framework that is based on Income-leisure
Model, Collective Household Model Approach, Unitary Approach, Intra Household
Decision and Women Empowerment, Marxist Feminism, Liberal Feminism Radical
Feminism, Socialist Feminism, Absolute Poverty, Relative Poverty, Poverty and
Welfare, Welfarist Approach, Budget Standards Approach, Food Expenditure
Approach, Nutritional Level Approach, Basic Needs Approach and Capabilities
Approach.
Chapter four presents previous literature relating to determinants of female

labor force participation and empowerment, Women Work Participation and
Empowerment, Women Empowerment, Poverty and Socioeconomic Status and Role
of Women in Socio-Economic Development.
Chapter five describes conceptual framework, data sources and

methodological issues in the sequence i.e. Profile of the Study Area, Data Sources and
Sampling Design, Limitations of the Survey, Understanding the Determinants of
Women Work participation, Women Empowerment and Poverty, Operational model
and Methodological Issues.
Chapter six elaborates preliminary data analysis of women work participation,

empowerment and poverty in Southern Punjab. Chapter seven gives an econometric
analysis of women work participation and empowerment having factors affecting
Women’s Work Participation, factors affecting Married Women’s Work Participation
and factors affecting Women Empowerment.
Chapter eight presents impact of Women Work Participation and
Empowerment on Household Poverty in Southern Punjab. Chapter nine concludes the
whole thesis and suggests some policy implications.
24
Chapter 2
PROFILE OF WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION,

EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY IN PAKISTAN
2.1 Introduction
This portion of the study gives the profile of women labor force participation,
empowerment and poverty in Pakistan. Many schemes have been launched by the
government to enhance the level of women participation rate, empowerment of
women and to reduce the poverty level in the country but these different schemes of
govt. could not get their desired objectives. An educated female is far more socially
efficient than non-educated one. The education of a female has positive influence on
the whole family. Education of mother is far more important than education of father.
With access to educational facilities, women in the rural areas of Pakistan are making
socio-economic impact. World Bank has estimated that the profitability of education,
according to estimates of private rate of return, is indisputable, universal, and global.
Similarly, women empowerment refers to the ability of women to transform economic
and social development when empowered to fully participate in the decisions that
affect their lives through leadership and the provision of enabling tools for women to
lead within their communities, religions and countries. The lives of Pakistani women
have changed during the past 30 years. They have gained strength as result of
evolution of society in the modern era. They are more empowered and emancipated
then they were ever before, although the desired state is yet to be achieved. More and
more women are entering the workforce today as compared to past. But still women
are facing many problems and discrimination and also harassment in society.
2.2 Prismatic Assessment of Women Work Participation
The women work participation is consistently decreasing with time due workplace
hurdles and so called societal norms. In the gender gap report by World Economic
Forum, Pakistan has been ranked 140th out of 145 countries with a score of 0.30 for
women work participation.
25
Figure 2.1: Women Labor Force Participation Statistics for Pakistan
Source: World Economic Forum Report, 2015

The same report also indicates female to male ratio of work force participation
as 0.3 which by all accounts is very low and shown major inequality. While looking at
the South Asia as a whole, female employed labor is around 23% of the total
population as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Employed population as share of total adult population by sex and
Sector
Source: World Bank
The women labor force participation as percentage of female population has

shown as decreasing trend from 2010 onwards as shown in Figure 2.3. Many reasons
can be cited for this decreasing trend but the major reason is the workplace
harassment and exploitation. In the man dominated organizations, women feel they
are insecure. The decreasing trend of women work force participation is associated to
corresponding increasing trend in the incidents of workforce harassment and abuse.
26
Figure 2.3: Women labor force participation as % of female population
Source: Labor Force Survey (2014-15)

The trend of women work force participation as percentage of total employed
labor is also not very encouraging. The trend is replica of women labor force
participation as % of female population and decreasing from 2010 onwards as shown
in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Women labor force participation as % of total employed labor
2.2.1 Labor Force Participation Rates: Crude
In 2013-14 the overall poverty level of male and female was 48.0% and 15.8%
respectively while total poverty level was 32.2% in Pakistan. Similarly the augmented
total and female were 36.5% and 24.4% respectively. Almost same facts and figures
remained same for the year 2014-15. In KPK the overall poverty level in percentage
was 40.5% and 9.8% for female and male respectively while the total poverty level
was 25.0% in the year 2013-14. The poverty situation for the year 2014-15 was
27
almost same except the minor changes in the augmented female poverty level which
was a bit more than the previous year. In Punjab, the poverty level was 50.3% and
20.9% for the male and female individuals respectively in 2013-14. Total poverty
level in Punjab was noted almost 35.7% for the year 2013-14. Augmented poverty
level for the year 2013-14 and 2014-15 was almost same with the minor change. The
poverty level for Punjab was almost same for the year 2014-15. In the province Sindh,
the poverty level of the male and female was also 48.8% and 9.9% respectively for
the year 2013-14 and the augmented poverty level of the male and female for the year
2013-14 was 36.2% and 21.9% respectively. For the year 2014-15 the male and the
female poverty level was remained also same with the bit changes. In Baluchistan, the
male and the female poverty level was 41.5% and 6.2% f respectively for the year
2013-14 and total poverty level was 25.5%. The augmented poverty level of male and
the female was 35.3% and 27.7% respectively. While for the year 2014-15 poverty
level was also remained same.
Table 2.1: Crude Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces
Province/ 2013-14 2014-15

Area Total Male Female Augmented Total Male Female Augmented
Total Female Total Female
Pakistan 32.3 48.0 15.8 36.5 24.4 32.3 48.1 15.8 36.0 23.4
Urban 29.4 49.7 7.7 30.2 9.4 29.0 49.4 7.5 29.8 9.2
Rural 33.8 47.2 20.0 39.8 32.2 34.0 47.4 20.2 39.3 30.9
KP 25.0 40.5 9.8 35.0 29.5 25.0 40.0 9.9 33.9 27.6
Urban 25.9 45.1 6.1 28.0 10.3 24.7 42.9 6.1 26.2 9.0
Rural 24.8 39.4 10.6 36.6 33.6 25.1 39.3 10.7 35.7 31.8
Punjab 35.7 50.3 20.9 37.3 24.3 35.4 50.2 20.5 37.0 23.7
Urban 30.8 50.6 10.1 31.2 10.9 30.4 50.4 9.7 30.9 10.7
Rural 38.7 50.1 26.3 40.7 30.9 37.9 50.0 25.8 40.1 30.1
Sindh 30.5 48.9 9.9 36.2 21.9 30.6 49.6 9.5 35.7 20.2
Urban 28.4 50.1 4.7 29.5 7.0 28.4 50.5 4.7 29.3 6.4
Rural 32.4 47.8 14.3 42.4 36.1 32.6 48.8 14.3 41.8 33.7
Baluchistan 25.3 41.7 5.4 33.2 22.9 27.6 41.8 11.3 33.3 23.4
Urban 24.7 42.2 3.0 27.3 8.8 23.9 39.7 5.1 27.1 12.1
Rural 25.5 41.5 6.2 35.3 27.7 29.0 42.5 13.5 35.5 27.4
Note: * Males Augmented Activity Rates vary insignificantly from The Standard Crude Rates Are Therefore Not Tabulated.
28
2.2.2 Female Education and Development Nexus
Educated female is far more socially efficient than non-educated one. The education
of a female has positive influence on the whole family. Education of mother is far
more important than education of father. With access to educational facilities, women
in the rural areas of Pakistan are making socio-economic impact. World Bank has
overviewed that the profitability of education, according to estimates of private rate of
return, is indisputable, globally and universally. On the global landscape, countries
with higher female education have higher GDPs than those with lower female
education statistics. Researchers have inferred that the more the female education, the
more the economic growth and development. The world economic forum report for
2015 on Pakistan indicated that Pakistan has to do a lot for female education
especially females in the rural areas. Currently Pakistan is ranked 135th out of 145
countries as shown in Figure 9. However, Pakistan is consistently improving with
time in the area of female education. From 2001 till 2015, the enrolment of female
students in primary and secondary has increased by 21% which is a very healthy sign.
Particularly encouraging factor is the increasing enrolment in tertiary education
sector.
Figure 2.5: Education Statistics for Pakistan
2.2.3 Labor Force Participation Rates: Refined
In 2013-14, the overall labor force participation rate of male and female was 68.1%
and 22.2% respectively while total labor force participation rate was 45.5% in
Pakistan. Similarly labor force participation rate total and female was 51.4% and
34.1% respectively. Almost same facts and Figures remained same for the year 2014-
29
15. In KPK the overall labor force participation rate in percentage was 14.0% and
60.1% for female and male respectively while the total labor force participation rate
was 36.5% in the year 2013-14. The labor force participation rate situation for the
year 2014-15 was almost same except the minor changes in the augmented female
labor force participation rate level which was a bit more than the previous year. In
Punjab the labor force participation rate level was 69.9% and 28.5% for the male and
female individuals respectively in 2013-14. Total labor force participation rate in
Punjab was noted almost 49.1% for the year 2013-14. Augmented labor force
participation rate for the year 2013-14 and 2014-15 was almost same with the minor
change. The labor force participation rate for Punjab was almost same for the year
2014-15. In the province Sindh the labor force participation rate of the male and
female was also 68.9% and 14.2% respectively for the year 2013-14 and the
augmented labor force participation rate of total and female for the year 2013-14 was
51.3% and 31.3% respectively. For the year 2014-15 the male and the female labor
force participation rate was remained also same with the bit changes. In Baluchistan
the male and the female labor force participation rate was 64.5% and 8.7%
respectively for the year 2013-14 and total labor force participation rate was 39.7%.
The augmented labor force participation rate of total and the female was 52.2% and
36.7% respectively. While for the year 2014-15 labor force participation rate was also
remained same.
Table 2.2: Refined Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces
Province/ 2013-14 2014-15

Area
Total Male Female Augmented Total Male Female Augmented
Total Female Total Female
Pakistan 45.5 68.1 22.2 51.4 34.1 45.2 67.8 22.0 50.5 32.6
Urban 39.0 66.0 10.2 40.1 12.6 38.7 65.7 10.0 39.7 12.2
Rural 49.2 69.4 28.9 57.9 46.2 49.0 69.0 28.8 56.7 44.1
KP 36.5 60.1 14.0 51.0 42.2 36.3 59.4 14.0 49.2 39.2
Urban 36.0 62.9 8.4 38.9 14.2 34.2 59.7 8.4 36.2 12.4
Rural 36.6 59.4 15.3 53.9 48.6 36.9 59.3 15.3 52.3 45.4
Punjab 49.1 69.9 28.5 51.4 33.0 48.5 69.4 27.8 50.7 32.1
Urban 40.4 66.6 13.2 40.9 14.3 40.2 66.7 12.8 40.8 14.1
Rural 53.9 71.8 36.6 57.2 43.0 52.9 70.9 35.5 56.0 41.5
Sindh 43.2 68.9 14.2 51.3 31.3 43.0 69.2 13.5 50.1 28.6
Urban 37.7 66.0 66.3 39.2 9.3 37.5 66.1 6.2 38.6 8.5
Rural 49.1 72.0 22.7 64.3 55.2 48.9 72.5 21.7 62.6 51.1
Baluchistan 39.7 64.5 8.7 52.2 36.7 43.9 65.1 18.3 52.8 38.0
Urban 36.9 62.1 4.6 40.7 13.4 36.6 60.3 7.9 41.6 18.9
Rural 40.8 65.5 10.1 56.5 45.2 46.7 66.9 22.3 57.1 45.2
Note: - * Males Augmented Activity Rates Vary Insignificantly From The Standard Crude Rates Are Therefore Not Tabulated.
30
2.2.4 Employment Scenario in Pakistan
In the world, Pakistan has is included in those countries which are the tenth largest
labor force country. The labor force survey 2013-14 describes that the total labor
force in the economy is 60.09 million. Out of this, almost 56.52 million people are
employed and 3.58 million people are unemployed. The sixth most populous country
in the world is Pakistan, is adding a large number of people to the labor force, with
population growth rate of around 1.92 percent per annum. The employment level in
youth has remained one of the major problems of the government. The government of
Pakistan has been sincerely committed to enhance the employment level in the
economy. For this purpose many projects and programmers for youth’s employment
has been introduced in the economy so that the employment level of the country could
be increased. As a result, the unemployment level has reduced from 6.24 percent in
2012-13 to 6.0 percent. The detail of unemployment and labor force status is
presented in the following Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Labor Force, Employed and Unemployed in Pakistan (Millions)
Years 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06 2007-08 2009-10 2011-12 2013-14

Labor Force 41.83 45.5 50.05 51.78 54.92 60.34 60.09
Employed 38.37 42.0 46.95 49.09 51.87 56.58 56.52
Unemployed 3.46 3.5 3.1 2.69 3.05 3.76 3.58
Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Labor Force Surveys (Various Issues).
Youth development program is by the government of Pakistan was the major

initiatives to create the employment opportunities among youth through different
methods of business operations. The main objective of all the programs was to
provide various opportunities to the youth including skill development facilities,
youth training, small business loans for entrepreneurial activities and micro interest
free loans.
2.2.5 Age Specific Participation Rates-By Sex for Pakistan
In 2013-14, the age specific participation rate of male and female was 12.6% and
8.4% respectively while age specific participation rate was 10.6% in Pakistan such
individuals who have the age in between 10-14 years. Similarly the individuals who
31
have the age in between the 15-19 years age specific participation rate of male and
female was 49.7% and 8.4% respectively while age specific participation rate was
35.3% in Pakistan for the year 2014-15. Almost same facts and Figures remained
same for the year 2014-15.for the year 2014-15 and the age group to 20-240 the
female participation rate was 25.7% and for male was 82.3% respectively. The female
participation rate was 27.8% for the year 2014-15 and the male participation rate was
98.1% for the same year for the age group who have the age in between 30-34 years.
Similarly the individuals who have the age in between the 40-44 years age,
specific participation rate of male and female was 98.4% and 29.9% respectively
while age specific participation rate was 64.4% in Pakistan for the year 2014-15. In
2014-15 the age specific participation rate of male and female was 97.8% and 31.9%
respectively while age specific participation rate was 65.9% in Pakistan such
individuals who have the age in between 45-49 years. In 2014-15 the age specific
participation rate of male and female was 96.6% and 29.2% respectively while age
specific participation rate was 65.3% in Pakistan such individuals who have the age in
between 50-54 years. In 2014-15 the age specific participation rate of male and
female was 93.8% and 27.3% respectively while age specific participation rate was
63.8% in Pakistan such individuals who have the age in between 55-59 years. In
2014-15 the age specific participation rate of male and female was 55.2% and 12%
respectively while age specific participation rate was 36.4% in Pakistan such
individuals who have the age higher than the 60 years.
Table 2.4: Age Specific Activity (Participation) Rates - By Sex for Pakistan (%)
2013-14 2014-15
Age Groups
Total Female Male Total Female Male
10-14 10.6 8.4 12.6 9.6 7.7 11.2
15-19 35.3 19.2 49.7 33.5 18.0 47.6
20-24 52.3 25.1 81.7 52.6 25.7 82.3
25-29 58.1 26.1 95.9 58.6 26.6 96.7
30-34 60.4 27.2 98.1 60.1 27.8 98.1
35-39 62.4 29.5 98.1 62.6 29.0 98.2
40-44 63.8 30.8 98.0 64.4 29.9 98.4
45-49 64.9 29.0 97.8 65.9 31.9 97.8
50-54 64.9 29.9 96.2 65.3 29.2 96.6
55-59 62.5 27.5 92.8 63.8 27.3 93.8
32
60+ 35.8 12.8 53.4 36.4 12.0 55.2
2.2.6 Employment Status by Sectors
The most significant sector of the economy is the agricultural sector and has been
remained major source of inputs for agro based industry. It gives employment
opportunities to 43.5 percent of the population of the economy. The facts and the
figures have been discussed in the Table 2.5 for the years 2012-13 and the year 2013-
14. The main reason of this change is due to labor is being replaced by machines and
technical transformation which has led to decrease in its employment. Similarly the
employment status for the manufacturing and for the other sectors is given in Table
2.5.
Table 2.5: Distribution of Employed Persons by Major Industry
Year Agriculture Mining & Construction Elasticity & Transport Trade Others
Manufacturing Gas
Distribution
2012-13 43.71 14.20 7.44 0.53 4.98 14.39 14.75
2013-14 43.48 14.16 7.33 0.48 5.44 14.58 14.53
Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
2.2.7 Civilian Labor Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)
In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation of male and female was 45.64 million
and 14.45 million respectively while overall civilian labor force participation in
million was 60.10 million in Pakistan. In 2014-15 the civilian labor force participation
of male and female was 56.38 million and 14.66 million respectively while overall
civilian labor force participation in million was 61.04 million in Pakistan. In 2013-14
the civilian labor force participation of male and female was 16.55 million and 2.41
million respectively in urban areas while overall civilian labor force participation in
million was 18.96 million in urban areas of Pakistan. In 2013-14 the civilian labor
force participation of male and female was 29.10 million and 12.04 million
respectively in rural areas while overall civilian labor force participation in million
was 41.14 million in rural areas of Pakistan. The facts and Figures for the year 2014-
15 are also given in the Table for rural, urban and for overall civilian labor force
participation in million of Pakistan. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation in
million of male and female was 5.19 million and 1.26 million respectively while
overall civilian labor force participation in million was 6.45 million in province KPK.
33
In 2014-15 the civilian labor force participation in million of male and female was
5.31 million and 1.29 million respectively while overall civilian labor force
participation in million was 6.60 million in KPK. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force
participation in million of male and female was 1.07 million and 0.14 million
respectively in urban areas while overall civilian labor force participation in million
was 1.21 million in urban areas of province KPK.
In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation in million of male and female
was 4.12 million and 1.12 million respectively in rural areas while overall civilian
labor force participation in million was 5.24 million in rural areas of province KPK.
The facts and Figures for the year 2014-15 are also given in the Table for rural, urban
and for overall civilian labor force participation in million of province KPK. In 2013-
14 the civilian labor force participation in million of male and female was 26.05
million and 10.75% million respectively while overall civilian labor force
participation in million was 36.80 million in province Punjab. In 2014-15 the civilian
labor force participation in million of male and female was 26.28 million and 10.64
million respectively while overall civilian labor force participation in million was
36.92 million in province Punjab. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation in
million of male and female was 9.01 million and 1.73 million respectively in urban
areas while overall civilian labor force participation in million was 10.74 million in
urban areas of the province Punjab. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation in
million of male and female was 17.04 million and 9.02 million respectively in rural
areas while overall civilian labor force participation in million was 26.06 million in
rural areas of the province Punjab. The facts and Figures for the year 2014-15 are also
given in the Table for rural, urban and for overall civilian labor force participation in
million of the province Punjab. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation in
million of male and female was 11.84 million and 2.15 million respectively while
overall civilian labor force participation in million was 13.99 million in province
Sindh. In 2014-15 the civilian labor force participation in million of male and female
was 12.19 million and 2.12 million respectively while overall civilian labor force
participation in million was 14.31 million in province Sindh. In 2013-14 the civilian
labor force participation in million of male and female was 5.80 million and 0.5
million was 6.30 million in urban areas of the province Sindh.
34
In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation of male and female was 6.03
million and 1.66 million respectively in rural areas while overall civilian labor force
participation in million was 7.69 million in rural areas of the province Sindh. The
facts and Figures for the year 2014-15 are also given in the Table for rural, urban and
for overall civilian labor force participation of the province Sindh. In 2013-14 the
civilian labor force participation of male and female was 2.57 million and 0.28
million respectively while overall civilian labor force participation in million was 2.85
million in province Baluchistan. In 2014-15 the civilian labor force participation of
male and female was 2.60 million and 0.61 million respectively while overall civilian
labor force participation in million was 3.21 million in province Baluchistan. In 2013-
14 the civilian labor force participation of male and female was 0.67 million and 0.05
million was 0.72 million in urban areas of the province Baluchistan. In 2013-14 the
civilian labor force participation of male and female was 1.90 million and 0.23
million respectively in rural areas while overall civilian labor force participation in
million was 2.13 million in rural areas of the province Baluchistan. The facts and
Figures for the year 2014-15 are also given in the Table for rural, urban and for
overall civilian labor force participation of the province Baluchistan.
Table 2.6: Civilian Labor Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)
Province/Area Labor Force

2013-14 2014-15
Pakistan 60.10 14.45 45.64 61.04 14.66 56.38
Urban 18.96 2.41 16.55 19.09 2.41 16.68
Rural 41.14 12.04 29.10 41.95 12.25 29.70
KP 6.45 1.26 5.19 6.60 1.29 5.31
Urban 1.21 0.14 1.07 1.20 0.15 1.05
Rural 5.24 1.12 4.12 5.4 1.15 4.26
Punjab 36.80 10.75 26.05 36.92 10.64 26.28
Urban 10.74 1.73 9.01 10.67 1.68 8.99
Rural 26.06 9.02 17.04 26.25 8.96 17.29
Sindh 13.99 2.15 11.84 14.31 2.12 12.19
Urban 6.30 0.5 5.80 6.48 0.51 5.97
Rural 7.69 1.66 6.03 7.83 1.61 6.22
Baluchistan 2.85 0.28 2.57 3.21 0.61 2.60
Urban 0.72 0.05 0.67 0.747 0.07 0.67
Rural 2.13 0.23 1.90 2.47 0.54 1.93
35
2.2.8 Employed –Pakistan and Provinces (Million)
In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female was 43.33 million and 13.19
million respectively while overall employed labor force in million was 56.52 million
in Pakistan. In 2014-15 the employed labor force of male and female was 44.07
million and 13.35 million respectively while overall employed labor force in million
was 57.42 million in Pakistan.
In 2013-14, the employed labor force of male and female was 15.50 million
and 1.94 million respectively in urban areas while employed labor force in million
rate was 17.44 million in urban areas of Pakistan. In 2013-14 the employed labor
force in million rate of male and female was 27.83 million and 11.25 million
respectively in rural areas while overall civilian labor force participation rate was
39.08 million in rural areas of Pakistan. The facts and Figures for the year 2014-15
are also given in the Table for rural, urban and for overall employed labor of Pakistan.
In 2013-14, the employed labor force of male and female was 4.85 million and 1.06
million respectively while overall employed labor force in million was 5.91 million
in province KPK. In 2014-15 the employed labor force of male and female was 5.00
was 6.09 million in KPK. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female
was 0.98 million and 0.09 million respectively in urban areas while overall employed
labor force in million was 1.07 million in urban areas of province KPK. In 2013-14
the employed labor force of male and female was 3.87 million and 0.97 million
respectively in rural areas while overall employed labor force in million was 4.84
million in rural areas of province KPK.
The facts and Figures for the year 2014-15 are also given in the Table for
rural, urban and for overall employed labor force of province KPK. In 2013-14 the
employed labor force of male and female was 24.59 million and 9.87 million
respectively while overall employed labor force in million was 34.46 million in
province Punjab. In 2014-15 the employed labor force of male and female was 24.79
was 34.60 million in province Punjab. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male
and female was 8.39 million and 1.14 million respectively in urban areas while
overall employed labor force in million was 9.80 million in urban areas of the
province Punjab. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female was 16.20
36
million and 8.46 million respectively in rural areas while overall employed labor force
in million was 24.66 million in rural areas of the province Punjab. The facts and
overall employed labor force of the province Punjab.
Table 2.7: Employed – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)
Employed
Province/Area 2013-14 2014-15
Pakistan 56.52 13.19 43.33 57.42 13.35 44.07
Urban 17.44 1.94 15.50 17.57 1.92 15.65
Rural 39.08 11.25 27.83 39.85 11.43 28.42
KP 5.91 1.06 4.85 6.09 1.09 5.00
Urban 1.07 `0.09 0.98 1.08 0.11 0.97
Rural 4.84 0.97 3.87 5.01 0.98 4.03
Punjab 34.46 9.87 24.59 34.60 9.81 24.79
Urban 9.80 1.41 8.39 9.78 1.39 8.39
Rural 24.66 8.46 16.20 24.82 8.42 16.40
Sindh 13.40 1.99 11.41 13.65 1.89 11.76
Urban 5.89 0.40 5.49 6.02 0.37 5.65
Rural 7.51 1.59 5.92 7.63 1.52 6.11
Baluchistan 2.74 0.26 2.48 3.08 0.56 2.52
Urban 0.68 0.04 0.64 0.69 0.05 0.64
Rural 2.06 0.22 1.84 2.39 0.51 1.88
In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female was 11.41 million
and 1.99 million respectively while overall employed labor force in million was 13.40
million in province Sindh. In 2014-15 the employed labor force of male and female
was 11.76 million and 1.89 million respectively while overall employed labor force in
million was 13.65 million in province Sindh. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of
male and female was 5.49 million and 0.40 million respectively in urban areas while
province Sindh. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female was 5.92
million and 1.59 million respectively in rural areas while overall employed labor force
in million was 7.51 million in rural areas of the province Sindh. The facts and Figures
for the year 2014-15 are also given in the Table for rural, urban and for overall
employed labor force of the province Sindh. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of
37
male and female was 2.48 million and 0.26 million respectively while overall
employed labor force in million was 2.74 million in province Baluchistan. In 2014-15
the employed labor force of male and female was 2.52 million and 0.56 million
respectively while overall employed labor force in million was 3.08 million in
province Baluchistan. In 2013-14 the civilian labor force participation rate of male
and female was 0.64 million and 0.04 million respectively in urban areas while
province Baluchistan. In 2013-14 the employed labor force of male and female was
1.84 million and 0.22 million respectively in rural areas while overall employed labor
force in million was 2.06 in rural areas of the province Baluchistan. The facts and
overall employed labor force of the province Baluchistan.
2.2.9 National Training Bureau (NTB)
The (NTB) national training bureau of Pakistan has introduced some important
policies to expand the TVET sector through public private partnership,
certification/informal training, expanding the base of trade testing.
2.3 Current Situation of Women Empowerment
The ability of women to transform social and economic development when they are
empowered to fully participate in the decisions that affect their lives by the provision
of enabling tools for women to lead within their communities and leadership is called
women empowerment. There are three components of women empowerment which
are in Figure 2.6.
With the passage of time and economic development women have attained
high level of liberty in the developed countries. Women in said countries are enjoying
almost equal rights in accordance to men. They have acquired such status due to high
literacy rate, better infrastructure, enlightenment and sincerity of the ruling class. The
recent gender gap report by world economic forum, 2015 indicated very grim picture
for developing countries especially Pakistan. The gender gap index for Pakistan was
0.559 and Pakistan was ranked 144th out of 145 countries. This is really awful
situation for Pakistan. Statistics of world economic forum are shown in Figure 2.7.
38
Figure 2.6: Components of Women Empowerment
Figure 2.7: Gender gap statistics for Pakistan
39
Inequality is high in tertiary education, sex ratio, healthy life expectancy,
secondary and primary enrollment. But inequality is low in female head of state,
women in ministerial positions, legislators etc. Denied opportunities to improve her
economic lot she has been the worst sufferer. Dependent on man for every bit of her
needs she virtually leads slave’s life. Feudalistic order has kept major part of nation
illiterate but women have been left far behind literacy, knowledge, awareness and
education. In some quarters even education is a factor that tends to indulge in sinful
activities. It has therefore preferred to keep them illiterate and pious. In social matters
man has successfully managed to keep her ignorant of her human rights. He has
introduced devilish customs that victimize woman to accord her the status of domestic
animals. The practice of vani, honor killing, marriage of daughters with the holy
Quran, commitment of gang rape under orders of Jirga are some of the examples of
man’s inhuman treatment of woman in some of tribal areas of Pakistan.
To correct the despicable scenario, the law men sitting in the assemblies have
off and on enacted various laws to wipe the rampant social vices and customary
practices that distort the fair image of women. A corollary of the same is shown in
Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Corollary of Recent Laws and Acts for Protection of Women in Pakistan
Years Legal framework Connotation
2015/16 Women protection Women can register legal complaint against the
bill harassment even by her husband.
2013 Establishment of Promoting social, social, economic, political and
women’ rights legal rights of women in Pakistan.
commission
2012 Domestic violence Act ensures the protection of women against
prevention and domestic violence
protection act
2011 Anti-women The aim of this bill is to reduce injustice against
practices (criminal women by discouraging several practices and
law amendment) act customs in vogue in the country which are not
only against human dignity, but also in contrast to
Islamic injunctions.
2010 Protection against An important legislation done to protect women
harassment of against harassment at workplaces. The objective
women at of this act was to create a safe working
workplace, act environment for women, which is free from
harassment, abuse and intimidation with a view to
40
fulfilling their right to work with dignity.
2008 Prevention of The bill includes protection in public places such
domestic violence as markets, public transport, streets or parks and
act more private places such as workplaces, private
gatherings and homes. Passed unanimously by the
national assembly, but, the bill lapsed after the
senate failed to pass it within three months period
required under the constitution.
2006 Protection of women To provide relief and protection against misuse
(criminal laws and abuse of law and to prevent their exploitation.
amendments) act This bill allowed rape to be prosecutable under
civil law.
But, it has remained a custom to put good laws on paper but a little effort in
history has been made to implement them. Apart from this empowering and
enlightening pro-women legislation, there has also been anti-women legislation in
Pakistan in the form of hudood ordinance 1979. It was a step to downgrade the status
of women in the name of Islam. The ordinance has been criticized as leading to
hundred incidents where a woman subjected to rape, or even gang rape, was
eventually accused of zina and imprisoned becoming a victim of extremely unjust
propaganda. This ordinance gave woman the symbol of dirt, filth and mainspring
under the sun has been heaped upon the poor hapless women. This was the abysmal
depth where woman lay almost half dead some decades ago. But the amendment in
bill in 2006 had removed the major road block that stood in the way of women’s
empowerment. Her rights received recognition and her status was restored as an
honorable member of society.
2.4 Poverty among the Women
The lives of Pakistani women have changed during the past 30 years. They have
gained strength as result of evolution of society in the modern era. They are more
empowered and emancipated then they were ever before, although the desired state is
yet to be achieved. More and more women are entering the workforce today as
compared to past. But still women are facing many problems and discrimination and
also harassment in society. This chapter elucidates different aspects of women
poverty, empowerment and labor force participation in the context of Pakistan.
41
2.4.1 An Appraisal of Women Poverty
There is a clear difference between the socio-economic status of women and men.
Poverty is difficult to quantify. According to the world development indicators 2015,
50% of Pakistan’s population lives on less than $2 per day per capita. In this 50%,
around 35% are women and 15% are men. Statistics are indicated in Figure 2.8. $2
per day per capita is the globally accepted minimum requirement to live comfortable
life and if it is less than $2 then the individual is poor. According to World Bank
statistics, total population of Pakistan is 188.9 million and poverty headcount ratio for
Pakistan 29.5 % of the total population. This means that 55.72 million people are
suffering from poverty. Around 60% of this (33 million) are women. According to
Asian development bank, out of this 33 million approximately 70% are rural women.
We can also note that 33 million women make 17.5% of the total population.
Figure 2.8: Population (%) Below Poverty Line of $ 2 per Day
Figure 2.9: Share of Women Population Suffering From Poverty
42
2.4.2 Profile of Poverty in Pakistan
Pakistan has determined the methodology of poverty estimation and has defined
poverty line in 2001 after employing the 1989 to 1999 consumption data. Many
developing countries of the world used the headcount ratio to measure the strength of
poverty. Similarly Pakistan household integrated economic survey data has been
employed for measuring the headcount poverty in Pakistan which have make on the
basis of food energy intake (FEI). Official poverty line announced by the planning
commission of Pakistan is Rs. 637.54 per person / month at the prices of 1998-1999
after making the threshold consuming level minimum 2350 calories per day. The
impact of the inflation rate has been adjusted in the poverty line for each successive
period. Consumption basket of 1998-99 used for this methodology and the lowest
sixty percent of population expenditure regressed on the minimum calories 2350
calories per day. Till 2007-08 normative procedure to poverty calculating has been
employed. Due to the domestic economic meltdown and global financial crisis the
officials of the government showed the difficulty for presenting the lowest seventeen
percent populations which remained lowers the poverty line. The facts and Figures
from government officials that the poor people have been remained in Pakistan about
12.4 percent is most skepticism. The mainstream narrative and the data of poverty
alleviation were extensively contested. This shows that the facts and Figures of the
poverty reduction in Pakistan are bogus and only inherently technical as well as
political. In the year 2012, the government has founded a technical committee which
only purpose was to review the officially methodology. After the several rounds of
committee’s deliberations and discussion highlighted the following drawbacks in the
officially methodology;
i. The consumption basket and the poverty line which was estimated in 2001 on
the data basis of 1999 have become old and outdated, and this poverty line not
properly reflected the income and the consumption pattern of the society.
ii. The methodology of the government officials does not completely show the
consumption pattern’s variation particularly in the non-food segments.
iii. The changes in the poverty line using the consumer price index generated the
urban biasness by the poverty line which more distorted the poverty situation.
43
This above discussion and the observation suggest that the definition of the
poverty line and mechanism should be changed. This change in the definition of the
poverty line will reflect the change in the consumption pattern and in the
socioeconomic variations that has been occurred from the last seven decades. These
decisions were about:
i. Choice of methodology
ii. Choice of calorie threshold
iii. Choice of reference group
The revised reference of the poverty line only covers the tenth to fortieth
percentile of the distribution per adult which shows that the top and the bottom
individuals in the household are excluded from the distribution. This does not
interpret that the ten percent of the lowest are fully excluded from the estimation of
poverty. The reference group selection has the first preference to make a higher
welfare standard for the estimation of poverty. For poverty estimation this represents
the benchmark. To maintain consistency of the normative standard the caloric
standard is kept constant at 2,350 calories per adult equivalent per day.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter highlights the different ways to empower the women in the society and
how they can improve their standard livings in the society where the economic and
cultural environments are not in their favor. This chapter also describes that how the
women can participate in the alleviation of poverty and how they can participate in
the labor market and can earn income from the participation. This above discussion
and the observation suggests that the definition of the poverty line and mechanism
should be changed. This change in the definition of the poverty line will reflect the
change in the consumption pattern and in the socioeconomic variations that has been
occurred from the last seven decades.
44
Chapter 3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Introduction
Since the previous two decades, it is being observed that women’s participation has
been increased vividly. Women have assumed an auxiliary part, in which they were
and still are seen as not exactly a man, this is one of the conceptions since early
history and old civilization of man. The raising children’s and duties surrounding the
household were to be considered a women’s role in society. Women want to stand on
their own feet today because women want to become self-maintaining people,
autonomous and free from different people, women want to gain equality in their
careers in the work force. But in number of countries there is double standard for
women empowerment and participation.
The prime focus of this study is woman labor force participation’s contribution
to empowerment and poverty in Pakistan. A major gain of economic development is
female labor force participation in the labor market. From 19th century, rate of
participation has increased and it has increased from four percent to seventy percent
in 2000’s. Not only developed but also developing nations focused on female labor
force participation. In many economies, there is sound rise in female labor force
participation from last two decades.
The socio-economic status is uplifting due to increased role of woman labor

force participation. Technological progressions, structural variations, declining
fertility and lessening gender inequality [Greenwood et al. (2002) Galor and Weil
(1996), Fernandez et al. (2002)] are major channelizing factors that enhance female
contribution in economic activities. Female participation role in Pakistan still has
facing lowest percentage as compared to South Asian and developed nations.
Therefore, there is serious need of in depth analysis of the part of women in labor
market as well as in economic development of Pakistan. Many studies have been done
on gender inequality by economists. Different studies probed and explored that rise in
gender equality with respect to education; there is an increase in economic growth,
45
human capital and reduction in fertility (Klasen, 1999; Dollar & Gatti, 1999 and
Klasen & LaManna, 2009).
There have been few studies on consequences of women participation in labor

force for development and growth till now. In ways similar to that of the inequality of
education, the lack of participation of women in the labor force prevents economic
growth (Klasen and Lamanna, 2009).
They also believed that between the regions of the world, gender gap in labor
force participation will assume a vital role in clarifying the differences in growth rates
as gender inequality in education is reduced over time. Young (1995) found that
women’s entry in the labor force can be brought through East Asian miracle. Esteve –
Volart (2004) supported the idea that economic development is slow due women’s
limited access to employment or specific types of employment. When we exclude
female workers from labor force or specific sectors, it doesn't permit the individual to
work better at work most appropriate for them. The capabilities approach explores
that economic capability is led by gender equality (Sen, 1999; Nussbaum, 2003).
This theory concentrates on capabilities or freedom of performing certain

actions i.e. as it helps women to increase their desired level of education by allowing
them capabilities of education. Freedom of women allows her to earn independently
equal to men that leads to large degree of empowerment and freedom. They can spend
their earning with their own choice. It will increase their utility level. And also women
have greater power of bargaining for the household units. In the last few years, a
prime focused of economists is the role of culture in economics.
Clark et al. (1991) described cultural conditions as “the shared ways of

thinking, believing, perceiving, and evaluating that define a group and that are
transmitted from one generation to another”. So it is cleared that culture differences
and religion have affected economic decisions and attitudes (Iannaccone, 1998 and
Guiso et al., 2003).
It is claimed that education and level of development increase modernization

by Secularization theorists. Nevertheless, Iannaccone (1998, 2003) explains that
empirical findings vary with respect to country. There is no clear outline that it
develops all the countries. There are a number of theories presented by the different
economists and sociologists for women development. Further discussion will
46
highlight how a blend of different theories explores new ideas and a detail theoretical
explanation of the woman work participation, empowerment and poverty. By
combining all aspects, we can get a better blend of all theories that helps to
understand woman labor force participation that can enhance the development of
Pakistan. Firstly, all the theories are explained separately:
3.2 Woman Work Participation
The main focus for conducting such type of study is to find the way of assigning the
front of female labor force participation by empowering women and it will help to
reduce poverty in Pakistan.
3.2.1 Income-Leisure model
The income-leisure model is the simplest explanation for labor force participation. As
explained by Psacharopoulos & Tzannatos (1989), decision of work depends on non-
labor (tastes and income) and the output from work (wage rate). It explains two
effects of higher wage rate: substitution effect and income effect. The opportunity cost
of non-working is more expensive rather than income effect that leads to allow the
workers more time off from work. “Extra income”, i.e. labor force becomes less
attractive when earnings of spouse are added up. Preferences of an individual’s are
tastes and when it originates to leisure or work, they enjoy it.
Gary Becker (1965) and few other researchers explored modest income-leisure
model with deliberate inclusion of production of household in the 19 th Century. In a
similar manner to that of firms, a new approach was observed for households. The
main focused was to produce consumption goods at household for the residents. The
utility level will be increased by consuming these goods. The income, leisure and
household production hinge on the utility of labor force members.
Specialization of labor increases efficiency. The total utility can be maximized

or achieved by dividing the different tasks between all members of household. This
division of labor may focus on maximizing their income and also focus on household
production. Similarity of household members in every way, and it will create
increasing returns for households by enhancing investment in human capital (Becker,
1985).
47
In literature all over the world, household division largely depends on gender
equality. Generally, role of women is considered for household production and on
other hand, the role of men focus is on earning income. For this division, the human
capital is more responsible that for certain labor intensive work, men is physically
stronger and good fitted.
However, where physical aspects are no longer important, as economic growth

improvements there is an upturn in jobs. There is number of exemplary jobs in
industrial sectors. On the basis of gender, there is no clear reason of labor division.
Secondly, an explanation about gender division on the basis of gender according to
every individual tastes. Few of these sensitivities may be inherent. Human always
prefer one thing over another because of their rational behavior. Different factors play
their role to develop taste and social factor is one of them. In their influential paper
Akerlof and Kranton (2000) explain social category can be identified and that
identification affects taste and behavior of every individual. It can be known with the
help of utility function. This model explores the idea that it will decrease utility if it
deviates from the activities suitable to one’s distinctiveness. Take an example of a
female belonging to a particular religion, and that particular religion doesn’t allow her
to participate in wage labor, and if she entered labor force because of the restrictions
the utility level of woman’s participation will be negative.
Akerlof and Kranton (2000) considered the second feature was the effect of
identity on others. If a woman takes great part in male dominant activities, it will
threaten men’s identity and its effect will lead to decrease the men’s utility and
increase their guilt. If wage labor is considered a male activity, there is a pressure on
women to keep them out from wage hours. This idea is very similar to Goldin (1994)
introduces that a husband who belongs to a social stigma and allows his wife to work.
The life partner will perceive her as sluggish or idol or not able to give facilities to his
family. So, income added by wife will be offset negatively that reduce and attacks on
the utility of man’s identity in the society.
Similarly as part of the same social category, two people can identify
themselves and if prescribed behavior of the members of this social category is
violated, and it is possible that the other may probe to despise and exclude the first
one and thus, it is possible that working women can face social pressure from their
male colleagues and also other men and women religion, if working women belong to
48
a religion whose supporters say females ought not participate in paid work. By
focusing on identity and Kranton Akerlof (2000) also highlight that tastes and
preferences can be changed in two ways. Firstly, individuals have a choice as the
groups to identify within to some extent because it is possible to change what is
identified with religion and have a change style or intensity of his religion.
Secondly, there is a changing identity notion and the required conduct of a

social class can alter after some time. Moreover, impact on the variation of identity is
advertising (Kranton Akerlof, 2000). Image of a perfect individual from a specific
social class can be indorsed by advertising. Let’s take an example of cigarette
commercial which demonstrate the perfect man and the components it ought to
contain and when the people see these ads, woman or a man ideal can be changed. A
choice of utility maximization is based on income, leisure, household identity and
production to enter the labor market. Because of increment in globalization, trade has
bearing on income and it is also a basis to an exchange of thoughts and it has spread
certain values through global political organizations. Certain ideas have been spread
worldwide through immigration, films, satellite TV and the Internet in the recent
decades and it has evolved in leading to deviations in the acceptance of the
participation of women workers.
3.2.2 Collective Household Model Approach
This model of labor supply was proposed on the root of “collective” that is sign of
household behaviour. The utility function of each member is different and Pareto-
efficient outcomes are used for decisions. Chiappori (1988) presented the collective
household model. This approach is study of men and women’s utility function and
behaves to enhance collective utility function. The Pareto efficient household
equilibrium is given as:
Uh , n = p n * U male,n + ( 1 + p n ) * Ufemale, n
It shows the well-being of individual where it can be interpreted as the

authority of the male and consequently (1+πn) also power of the female in the
household ‘n’ Chiappori (1988,1997), Apps & Rees (1997), Browning and Chiappori
(1998), (π is profit).
49
Bourguignon and Chiappori (1992), Chiappori (1992) and Woolley (1996)
examined the models using preferably attentive structure and derivatives conditions
that generate testable restrictions. In particular, to create Pareto results, the authors
showed the allocation of household resources, displayed in two stages:
In the first stage, According to agreement the household are allocated to every
individual (male and female) “sharing rule” the second step is allocation of resource
sharing to purchase the products for each individual and also provide public service to
each individual. The decision of each individual’s utility has importance in this
collective supply model and maximize household production.
3.2.3 Unitary Approach
In labor market a woman’s decision to contribute has theoretical foundation in the

labor supply curve. The woman carries out a sort of cost benefit analysis to prefer
work on leisure in labor market. Accordingly the earnings attract more and encourage
participating in the labor market and if the value of work participation is greater than
leisure at home, then females prefer to work. Their participation in the labor market is
more beneficial for them. According to this unitary approach (Thomas, 2001) the
assumption for household behavior is unchanged and it’s the source of income.
Therefore, the main focus of this explanation is to explore both collective model of
household behavior and unitary approach to determine participation of woman’s in
labor market.
In the unitary approach of labor supply, combination of hours of leisure and

income (or an aggregate consumption bundle) chosen by a person to maximize utility
reveals the basic assumption of the labor-leisure choice. More leisure means having
lesser work results in a smaller amount of income which trade-off between leisure and
labor. There is a corner solution of a particular problem in order to maximize utility
and as a result possible maximum number of leisure hour (i.e. work zero hours) are
chosen by a person.
When a person trades off between leisure and income, it boils down the
decision of a person to participate in the labor force but he or she make the decision
by analyzing the market wage rate that is going to be paid to him and evaluate the
relative comparison of the utility which a person can attain when consumed as leisure.
The mathematical form of labor force participation can be shown as follows:
50
Wi - MRSi,H=0
Where “Wi” is person “i” can earn in the market through market wage,
MRSi, H=0
Where i’s reservation wage of person (this is the utility which got at zero
hours of work), and LFP is a binary choice variable [the value binary variable is 1 if
the person is a labor force participant and it is zero if person is not in the labor
force)] linear function of observable characteristics and an unobservable random
component about a person can be represented by the difference between a person’s
market wage and reservation wage and an operational estimation framework of this
theoretical construction is being translated by assuming that
XW,i
Here, a particular wage a person can expect to earn in market is shown by “i”
(A vector of observable characteristics), X is observations, woman’s education level is
a standout amongst the most critical human capital qualities decisive to labor market
earnings.
The household is considered as a unit with its own utility capacity. In unitary models,
and it is accepted that in a multi-individual family, all family individuals have
indistinguishable inclinations.
On the basis of comparative advantages, the ideal time allocation arrangement

of people depends entirely not on who produces income or who gain by an adjustment
in time spending.
Thomas (1990), Browning and Chiappori (1998), Ward-Batts (2002) and

others criticize the unitary approach on the grounds that a household cannot be
viewed as a single unit. However, the decision to participate in the labor market is not
purely based on economic considerations. The collective household behavior has also
a role to play. Further, in societies like Pakistan, traditional and cultural factors also
play a dynamic role in the decision making of woman. Moreover, the opportunity cost
of leisure is greater than work for a woman who belongs to a poor household in which
she is bound to work to meet her day to day expenses like food and living. Therefore,
the labor-leisure choice does not always gives a corner solution for low or zero wages
except for some cases it can be true, for instance in some backward and conservative
51
regions of Pakistan women are not allowed to make any decision on her own. But, our
analysis is not focusing the married women only. However, husband`s decisions do
not entirely based on their own preferences in fact the family decisions and pressures
do play a major role in the final decision. Therefore, the collective household model
should help to explain the labor supply decision more precisely especially in case of
developing countries like Pakistan where the provision of services from government
is not there compared to the welfare states in the world.
3.3 Theories of Empowerment
3.3.1 Intra-Household Decision and Women’s Empowerment
For simplicity, it is assumed that the household has only two members (male and
female). Further, by considering the structure of the family with minimum women’s
empowerment, the man first makes his decision. Therefore, the woman considers the
income of the male and his working hours as exogenous and makes a decision in
regards to participating in the labor market. A woman maximizes her utility of leisure
time and consumption subject to the constraint that male disutility due to her decision
should be minimum. This type of model is considered as caring model. The disutility
of the male member due to her decision should not overshadow the utility to the male
of her income. Further, if the assumption of the caring model is relaxed and the
sharing model is introduced, which says that relative power of a woman is an
important factor and thus considers the bargaining power of woman as well as her
empowerment. Then, the woman’s decision depends on her relative position in the
household.
The analysis intends to evaluate the role of women’s empowerment in the

household in determining the decision to participate in the labor market. Women’s
empowerment has two main dimensions, namely empowerment within the household,
and empowerment in the society. Intra-household indicators include the women`s
assets (ownership of land, etc.), which is one of the variables of interest in the
analysis. The prevailing gender inequality in society is the dimension that is
independent of household empowerment and only exists due to socio-economic and
cultural constraints in the society. This type of gender inequality has been measured
by the gender wage gap.
52
Acharya and Bennett (1981) elaborated that women perform many roles, some
way or another it might misdirect to discuss “the status of women” and additionally
status is an element of the power appended to a given role. Mason (1986) investigated
that in various ways men and women are typically unequal which shows the marvel of
gender inequality is naturally mind boggling. Many studies have already illustrated
that women can be engaged just in one of the territory of life and not in the others
(Kishor 1995 and 2000b; Hashemi et al. 1996; Malhotra and Mather 1997; Beegle et
al. 1998). It might be possible or may not if women’s empowerment is promoted by
development intervention and along a particular dimension empowerment in different
ranges will be essentially followed and these phenomena should not be assumed.
In recent years, a few distinct endeavors have been made through which
women can be empowered by generating frameworks delineating the various
dimensions. Various authors developed the essential elements of the empowerment
frameworks. Different levels of specificity are employed in these frameworks. For
example, four broad dimensions of empowerment have been included in the CIDA
(1996) framework, while Kishor (2000a) framework includes specific (e.g., lifetime
exposure to employment) and broad (e.g., valuation of women, equality in marriage)
elements.
Women’s empowerment needs to happen along the dimensions (like political,

familial/interpersonal, economic, socio-cultural, legal, and psychological) is
suggested in frameworks as suggested by different authors. Women may be
empowered within each dimension, when there is a scope of sub-spaces inside which
as these dimensions are very broad in scope. Thus, for instance the “socio-cultural”
dimension covers a scope of strengthening sub-spaces, from marriage frameworks to
non-familial social emotionally supportive networks, to standards with respect to
females’ physical movability and systems accessible to women. In order to
operationalize these dimensions, moreover, one ought to consider indicators at
different levels of the family unit social collection and the group and additionally,
national, territorial and even worldwide levels. It has been suggested that within the
frameworks referenced above by some of these indicators, while others are a first
exertion on our part to “flesh out” this schematic for application being developed help
settings.
3.3.2 Liberal feminism

53
Feminist Politics and Human Nature was published by Alison Jaggar in 1983, she
presented four theories of feminism: Marxism, liberal feminism, radical feminism
and socialist feminism. In early 1960s, feminism was hot issue and her analysis
regarding feminism was not new. And on the other side, on liberalism most of the
work was done by John Locke, David Hume, Jeremy Benthan, and John Stuart. They
investigated that self-interest, rationality and free choice guide the human beings.
When lives of the individual are disturbed by the intervention of the state, there is
always stress from the individuals (Marshall, 2006)
There are two main categories of liberal: one of them is classical and other is
egalitarian and this phenomenon was developed by Sandel in 1984. Safety of
individuals’ civil right is the need of a perfect state and such act will be useful in
making an only society as stated by classical liberals. Liberal feminists accommodate
the weaker part of the society or the people who has lesser ability.
Egalitarian liberals illustrated that the gain in resources and rights are
determined by variation in the capability of the individuals. Advocate of the welfare
of women (Mill and Taylor, 1970) refers that freedom or autonomy of women
illustrate that working of women outside their home is considered as the weak
segment of society and moreover facilities, its return and their equal share in politics,
equality in work load can improve the status of women. The idea was supported by
Friedan (1981) that to develop more human social system and gender gap can be
reduced by continuous effort of the society. Planned action as suggested by Liberal
feminist should be developed to minimize the gender inequalities and action should be
taken like
i. Change in mobilization of political and legal channels.
ii. Messages should be monitored in the family.
iii. Education should be promoted.
iv. Responsibility should be equally shared.
v. Development of equal economic opportunity.
By providing equitable and just environment to women, these changes will

socialize the people and breakdown the rigidly compartmentalized sex role. Optimum
level of gender arrangement are made for liberal feminists by the provision of life
54
style according to his or her status which is acceptable by the society and acceptable
for the women (Ritzer, 2001).However, these structural change to a great extent are
not favoured by liberal feminists. Furthermore, state intervention is prerequisite for
some of liberal women's activists that think single lady can't roll out improvement.
3.3.3 Marxist feminism
In the book of “Origin of family, private property and state” by Engel & Marx
emphasized the association between material state in the family and power structure.
Engel described in the words “in primitive society animals are owned, controlled and
used by men and mostly animals are used as means of production. Men started to
cumulate it, which get more production than their need,”
Before the evolution of capitalism, inheritance was not considered an

important issue (Engels, 1970). On the other side, capitalism focus on the importance
of men which they achieve by producing to higher scale that make the division of
labor and as a result, on the means production men get the control and it compels the
women for housekeeping. As a result of it, women are subordinated by the men, as
men get control over the production site and it results them to become a business man.
The family becomes an institution when men inherit his wealth to children and it
gives power to women. When system is transformed from matrilineal to patrilineal,
the women’s and institution of family exploitation is initiated and it results as an
association of subordinate and super ordinate between male and females
(Vogel,1983). According to Marx and Engels, social, political, economic and personal
action can be attained by the women if property rights were acquired from the men.
The wage rate at which women works not only creative but also productive was
suggested by Marxist feminist and it reduce the inequality of women’s income from
household work. Women’s work can be explored through Marx’s theory of alienation
(Tong, 1989:44).
Alienation among women and their work is generally created by the work of
the women which is done by her for others. And as a result, relation of men and the
women become more powerful. There is no provision of the relief to women and it
creates oppression for women (Foreman, 1977) and this kind of oppression for
women generates link between capitalist and Marxist which has less credibility due to
some reasons like women betterment is not guaranteed by capitalist because women’s
55
oppression is lesser influential and women belongings to socialist societies are still
facing oppression.
3.3.4 Radical feminism
As compared to other types of oppression, it is very important to deal with the women
oppression (Jaggar and Rothenberg, 1984:186). Subgroup members make the society
and it is based on the social relation and natural cause like caste, sex, race, age, gender
etc. Some person in the society has authority over the others and within each division;
their subordinates are oppressed by dominants (Lerner, 1986). Radical feminist argue
that patriarchal structure is a structure in which women are oppressed and social
inequality is created and as a result it promote violence against women.
To restructure the family system and to improve the women’s status, it is

suggested in order to defeat patriarchy, and in women’s thinking there should be
fundamental changes to realize their own position, prominence and status which
support patriarchy (Ritzer, 2001:463). It is also stressed by Radical feminists that in
order to defend their cause, biological structure of women for their oppressions is
blamed by some radical feminists and other suggest but opposed by many feminists
that females’ solidarity with no separation of class and rank for the progression of
common participation and comprehension among them and for biological upheaval in
which females can move their incidence of reproduction to men and take dynamic
part in useful setup is still researchable for the researchers. According to them, there is
nothing to exploit if the women are withdraw from biological motherhood (Al Hibri,
1984:26). There should be an enabling environment for the women empowerment
through which women can develop supportive environment and own culture
(Mackinnon et al., 1986).
3.3.5 Socialist Feminism
In domestic and public sphere of life, position of the women is observed by Socialist
feminist. Creation of household work, human being, emotions and attainment of
knowledge, sexuality etc. was focused by them and , to bring profit for some and
exploitation for others, there is a system behind of all these conditions. Socialist
56
women’s activists attempt to consider them to be two unique elements while in
contrast, Marxists link gender operation with class operation. The women lower status
as elaborated by the liberal feminists is due to discrimination against women and
exclusion of women from the production sector was explored by Marxist feminists.
In a society belonging to patriarchal structure causes of women oppression were
found by the radical feminists. Jaggar (1983) linked Marxist theory of alienation with
socialist feminists. Theory of Alienation in capitalism reveals that “Women are
alienated from the product on which they work in similar fashion as laborers or
employees are alienated from the product which they produce or create.”
The products of women which they are producing are long hours of home
work, and offer sex service, keeping themselves fit and Women’s work like adorning
themselves and but not only this, other utilize or enjoy these products and women are
alienated from the product they produce and this alienation is done through that
identity of women is lost due to a huge burden of responsibility like other workers
who work around the clock. Alienation amongst co-workers is created by capitalism
for increasing competition to generate more incomes. In order to catch the attention
of men attempt to look appealing so as to catch the consideration of men and creation
of alienation among them try to push back one another and this competition is also
created (Jaggar, 1983).
Women are estranged in decision like family size decision; decision how to up
bring children and decision about how to educate children (Jaggar, 1983). To think
about themselves, awareness and to improve their knowledge, there leave little time
for women after domestic burden, and other routine activities. Thus, to express their
point of view, they have less confidence in proper sense outside and within their
houses, and abilities and intelligence alienate them. Though eradication of women’s
oppression is favoured by contemporary feminists, it is not agreed by them, that from
the society, how women’s subjugation can be diminished.
Rather than creating conflict and enhancing competition, Unlike their radical
counterparts they encourage cooperation, without any large scale structural change as
socialist feminists are also in favour of social change, and this was illustrated by
liberal feminist and socialist feminists.
3.4 Understanding of Poverty
57
It is not easy to describe the concept of poverty in perspective of the way that no
definition is available all around satisfactory. A comprehension of poverty requires a
valuation for the interrelationship between them every one of the issues of definition,
estimation, determinants and arrangement are bound up together. The greater part of
the researchers and observers need recognition on poverty. In the 1960s and 1970s,
Townsend, in his study of poverty, viewed the report with a definition of poverty that
that definition was critical to his way to deal with the review and the discoveries it
uncovered, and which has been generally utilized by others since:
“Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in

poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet,
participate in the activities and have the living conditions and
amenities which are customary……..in the societies to which they
belong (Townsend,1979)”
No universally acceptable definition is available, since the concept of poverty

is not so easy to define, however therefore poverty can be define in following general
terms: (i) absolute poverty and (ii) inequality or relative poverty
3.4.1 Absolute poverty
Absolute poverty discusses to the position of a household or an individual with

respect to a set of basic needs consistent with the outlay patterns of the poor and
minimum cost of food. The poor may be define as “All those who are unable to
satisfy these needs”.
The definition of absolute poverty is in this manner connected with endeavors

to characterize subsistence. This nation of absolute or subsistence poverty has often
been associated with the early work of Booth (1889), Rowntree (1901, 1941),
Townsend (1979) and Sen (1984, 1999) although Spicker (1990) and Veit-Wilson
(1986) respectively argue on the work of Booth and Rowntree that these are distorted
or mixed up judgments and that by and by both utilized more unpredictable, relative
definitions in their studies.
3.4.2 Relative Poverty (Inequality)
58
The position of an individual or a household with respect to the average income and
or spending can be referred as Relative poverty and moreover Relative poverty in the
words of Peter Townsend:
“The poor are poor because their resources over time fall seriously
short of resources commanded by the average individual or family in
the community in which they live [Townsend (1962), P. 224]”.
The above mentioned statement explains that relative poverty is concerned

with the relative position of income groups to one another. In a later writing,
Townsend remarks,
“The poverty must be regarded as a general form of relative

deprivation, which is the effect of mal-distribution of resources
[Townsend (1971), P. 2].”
Glabraith further strengthened the view that poverty is a relative phenomenon,

who argues,
“People are poverty stricken when their income even if adequate for
survival falls radically behind that of the community [Galbraith
(1977), P. 252].”
Sen contrasted Absolute poverty with relative poverty or inequality and rightly
remarked as,
“To try to analyze poverty ‘as an issue of inequality’ or the other way
round would do little justice to either. Inequality and poverty are not,
of course, unrelated. But neither concept subsumes the other. A
transfer of income from a person in the top income group to one in the
middle-income range must ceteris paribus reduce inequality; but it
may leave the perception of poverty quite unaffected. Similarly, a
general decline in income that keeps the chosen measure of inequality
unchanged may, in fact, lead to sharp increase in starvation,
malnutrition and obvious hardship; it will then be fantastic to claim
that poverty is unchanged [Sen (1981), P. 15].”
In the book, ‘poverty and famines’ Sen explained the term ‘relative
deprivation’ in the following words,
59
“The concept of ‘relative deprivation’ has been fruitfully used in the
analysis of poverty, especially in the sociological literature….‘In an
objective sense to describe situations where people possess less of
some desired attribute, be it income, favourable employment
conditions or power, than do others’ [Sen (1981), P. 15-16].”
Relative definition of poverty is associated in most notably with the work of

Townsend (1954, 1979) and Smith and Townsend (1965), they claimed that:
“Although state benefits had provided enough to prevent subsistence

poverty for most, in terms of their position relative to the average
standard of living in society the poorest people were no better off in
the 1950s and 1960s then they had been in the 1940s.”
Smith and Marx ideologically diagnosed and supported it. According to

Smith:
“By necessaries, I understand not only the commodities which are

indispensably necessary for the support of life but whatever the custom
of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the
lowest order, to be without. A linen shirt, for example, is strictly
speaking not a necessity of life…But in the present time…a creditable
day laborer would be ashamed to appear in public without a linen
shirt [Smith, (1776), P. 691].”
Similarly according to Marx
“Our desires and pleasures spring form society; we measure them,

therefore, by society…they are of a relative nature’ [Marx (1952), P.
33].”
3.4.3 Poverty and Welfare
Poverty is not a simple phenomenon that we can Figure out how to characterize by
embracing the right approach. There are contested definitions of poverty and there are
complex arguments of poverty that both have similarity and dissimilarity. As some
argue that poverty is viewed as a major or little, as a developing issue or a declining
issue, and it might be viewed as an individual or a social, as a nation or a provincial
and as urban or a rustic issue. It must understand of the researchers that how these
60
different images and insights commonality how they interdependent with each other.
Some researchers are together on the definition of poverty as follows:
“As poverty is a multifaceted concept and determinants of poverty are

dimensions, money metrics characteristics, opportunities and
socioeconomic characteristics. Due to multifaceted nature, the
definition of poverty varies from one country to another.”
Lipton and Ravallion (1995) explained that:
“Poverty exists when one or more persons fall short of a level of

economic welfare deemed to constitute a reasonable minimum, either
in some absolute sense or by the standards of a specific society”.
It is more necessary to determine and the welfare aspect in the definition of

poverty and regarding welfare and level of welfare, many researchers have presented
their investigation in the literature.
3.4.3.1 The Welfarist Approach
In Classical Microeconomics, the welfarist approach is unequivocally tied down, and

in representing the conduct and the prosperity of people in the dialect of market
analysts, "welfare" or "utilities" are by and large key. Individual can be best judges of
life and activities so they are rational and can maximize their utility and happiness,
this is in accordance to the view of Classical Micro Economist. Individual utility
become maximum under the particular assumptions and constraints and if some
additional assumption to maximize utility are added, it leads an outcome known as
Pareto-efficient and it can be explained as
“No one’s utility could be further improved by government

intervention without decreasing someone else’s utility.”
According to Ravallion (1993)
“Including poverty comparisons, the welfarists approach bases

comparisons of well-being solely on individual utilities based on social
preferences. Observable but Imperfect proxies for utilities, like income
or consumption are used for welfarist comparisons of poverty”.
3.4.3.2 Budget Standards Approach
61
Poverty on the basis of budget standard approach can be defined as:
“It determine a list of necessities of minimum needs and quantify them,

the absence of which can then be used as a poverty line below which,
presumably, people should not be permitted to fall”.
According to Bradshaw et al. (1987)
“Budgets can also represent socially determined needs and they are
thus absolutists in structure. Budget standards definitions are usually
based on the nation of a basket of goods.”
Weakly diet was built on the guidance of nutritionists, Rowntree (1901, 1941)
spearheaded the thought in his studies of poverty in New York (Rowntree and Lavers,
1951). In terms of minimum needs, Charles Booth (1889) explained the poverty as cut
off point. Therefore into the choice of poverty threshold, a value judgment 1necessary
enters. Rowntree (1901) defined poverty as “Families as being in ‘primary poverty’ if
their ‘total earnings are insufficient to obtain the minimum necessities for the
maintenance of merely physical efficiency”. If person is not able to meet the
minimum needs, the person is considered as poor. According to Franklin (1967),
minimum needs include (a) physical needs for working efficiency and survival which
are essential (b) conventional and social2 needs.
3.4.3.3 Food Expenditure Approach
In the last two decades, food expenditure approach has gained wide popularity as it is
used as an indicator of poverty and welfare; the researches on nutritional deprivation
and hunger have the common findings that “A household would typically give priority
to food in its consumption allocation”. Economic solvency and opulence it is better
guide to a household’s for his overall expenditure on food rather than more variable
indicators.
Comparison of expenditure pattern of families at different income levels was

compared by Engel and her findings reveal that by lower-income families, greater
proportion of their income is spent on necessities. More non-necessities were
purchased if income is increased as the proportion of income spent on necessities. It
refers to ‘Engel curve’ (Figure 3.1)
1
For details, see Sen (1981) P. 17-19.’
2
For more details, see Timmer et al. (1983), Nicholson (1987), Anand and Harris (1990), among other
62
Engel curves represents more complex changes in patterns of expenditure
which are more of an ‘S’ shape, but not usually a simple curve (Figure 3.2). At the
inflection points, the ‘turn over point’ is accelerated or slows down by MPC of a
particular type of good.
Figure 3.1: The Engel Curve

on
Percentage
necessities
spent
Incom
0
e
When determining expenditure-the poverty level, the level at which choice
replaces, need is represented at the turnover point. According to Bradshaw et al.
(1987) that a point for most household can possibly be driven based on the household
expenditure on food, clothing and fuel.
Figure 3.2: Inflection Points on the Engel Curve

Percentage spent
on necessaries
Inflection Points
Points
From the deprivation indicator approach, the conceptIncome

of Engle curve and
concept of poverty 0presented by Townsend and the indicator is similar in conception
and operation to derive poverty threshold of household.
63
According to Anand and Harris (1990), the way of food expenditure is
measured by indicator of the general living standard of a household measure and it
can be used in an innovative model. Four possible indicators of living standard were
considered by them which are as follows.
i. Income per capita
ii. Food expenditure per capita.
iii. Total expenditure per capita
iv. Share of food in total expenditure
And moreover it was suggested that best guidance to the household’s

economic opulence is food expenditure per capita and proportionate share of food in
total expenditure.
3.4.3.4 Nutritional Level Approach
Booth (1889) in the latter half of 19 th century demonstrated that calories and proteins
are in nutritional norm’s which are related with poverty and for human food is the
most basic needs and Rowntree’s followed the Booth’s work [Rowntree (1901)].
According to Rowntree’s
“If total earnings were insufficient to obtain the minimum necessities

then that family is considered to be poor and necessities were
calculated by estimating the nutritional needs of families of different
items of food valued in money terms and value was then taken as the
poverty line for the maintenance of mere physical efficiency.”
The difference in primary and secondary poverty was investigated by

Rowntree (1901). Her findings are as follows.
“Primary poverty referred to those who did not have access to the
resources to meet their subsistence needs and where as secondary
poverty to those who seemingly did have the resources but were still
unable to utilize these to raise themselves above the subsistence level”.
Adaptative adjustments influencing the relation between food intakes and

achieved nutritional levels have been criticised by critics and importance of
interpersonal variation as well as and Sukhatme (1978,1982) explained it individuals
64
not be nutritionally deprived significantly as many of those identified as falling below
the calorie norms may. The thesis of nutritional adaptation (Dasgupta and Ray, 1990)
was not favoured by Biological evidences and the implications of undernourishment
effect on working capacity, unemployment and it helps in continuing poverty. Many
economists and researchers are using this approach frequently in Pakistan and it is
quite useful in spite of definitional problems.
3.4.3.5 Basic Needs Approach
Lack of ‘basic minimum needs’ (BMN) was termed as poverty defined by ILO in
1976. According to ILO, for minimum living, every employed person must earn
adequate income and defined basic needs by including items of consumption regarded
as “private basic needs” and services regarded as “public basic needs” i.e. items of
consumption i.e. food, clothing, housing and services i.e. water, sanitation,
transportation, health, and education. Malik (1992) investigated that poverty line is
constituted by the cost of the bundle of the basic needs, and poor may considered as
the persons with incomes inadequate to meet the cost this bundle .Basic needs may be
define as “the physical inputs that are usually required for individuals to achieve some
functioning’s”. In other words,
“Basic needs may be interpreted in terms of minimum specifies

quantities of such things as food, shelter, water and sanitation that
are necessary to prevent ill health, undernourishment and the like
[Streeten et al. (1981)]”.
Non-welfarist approach is known as “Basic need approach” and it is also not
free from limitations.
3.4.3.6 Capabilities Approach
Amartya Sen has written extensively on economics and on the other filed to achieve
basic positive freedom, talked about Sen’s notion of ‘capabilities’ [Sen (1979, 1981,
1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1992, and 1999)]. This idea has been managed in
detail in his Gerry lecture ‘poor relatively speaking’ [Sen (1982)], Hennipman lectures
on ‘commodities and capabilities’ [Sen (1987)] and Tanner lectures entitled ‘standard
of living’ [Sen (1987)]. The capability approach is a Non-welfarist approach and in
Sen’s words (1997):
65
“The capability to function represents the various combinations of
functioning (beings and doings) that the person can achieve.
Capability is, thus, a set of vectors of functioning reflecting the
person’s freedom to lead one type of life or another. (P. 40)”.
Capability approach may be define as “it is the ability of an individual to

function well in public eye; it is not the working really accomplished by the individual
and to accomplish "fundamental" working, however to live well, it is the wellspring
of opportunity, and is in this manner adequate in the ability approach for one not to be
poor or denied”. Individuals and households lacking capabilities is also characterizes
as poor and individuals who are not able to attain certain “functioning” beings and
doings [Sen (1999)]”. Sen (1999) clarified it as:
“Freedom as expressed in basic capabilities provides the ability to

achieve valuable functioning bundles any one of which can be attained
(sufficient level of nutrition enabling a life free from hunger)”.
Rawls (1971) investigated that Rawlsian framework may be viewed as

modified form of the capabilities approach and Rawls focuses his distributional rules
and ‘capabilities’ being substituted for the ‘primary goods’ and substitute for
traditional utility, mediated mediates between object and desire. This approach is
viewed as non-welfarist approach. In this study, capability approach is interconnected
with women empowerment and through capability approach women become
empowered.
3.5 Concluding Remarks
The main objective of this chapter was to review the theories relating with women
work participation, women empowerment and poverty in Pakistan, however there is
an enormous literature on the subject.
Income-Leisure model of Woman Work Participation illustrate that a choice of

utility maximization is based on income, leisure, household identity and production to
enter the labor market. Due to increase in globalization, trade has an impact on
income and it also source to an exchange of ideas and it has spread certain values
through global political organizations. Certain ideas have been spread worldwide
through immigration, films, satellite TV and the Internet in the recent decades and it
has evolved in leading to changes in the acceptance of the participation of women
66
workers. Collective household approach reveals that in a household, the decision of
each individual’s utility have importance in this collective supply model and
maximize household production as the household are allocated to every individual
(male and female) “sharing rule” and allocation of resource sharing to purchase the
products for each individual and also provide public service to each individual.
Therefore, the collective household model should help to explain the labor supply
decision more precisely especially in case of developing countries like Pakistan where
the provision of services from government is not there compared to the welfare states
in the world.
Women’s empowerment refers to abilities or the process of capacity building of

the women to make choices (Kabeer, 2001) and choices can be accomplished by
resources, agency, awareness rising, and social inclusion. The most frequently
dimensions of the women empowerment are women control and mobility over
economic resources, women’s participation in decision making at household level.
The women empowerment is influenced by many socio cultural factors ( which has
been identify from literature review) like type of family (nuclear or joint), household
head (either male or female ). The current study has been conducted on the basis of
feminist theories. According to liberal feminist, for reducing gender gap development
of political and legitimate channels, era of equivalent financial open doors for ladies,
training and mindfulness are fundamental.
According to Marx’s and Engels, women can be empowered if property rights

are taken from men and are shifted to the women but the critics of this theory argue
that in socialist societies women are still being oppressed. In the view of Radical
feminist, Patriarchy creates social inequality and endorses violence against females
and fundamental changes in women thinking and collective action to defend their
cause are suggested and it creates link between Marx’s theories of alienation with
women’s work. Rather than creating conflict, cooperation between super ordinate and
subordinate should be encouraged. The feminist theories will help to develop a
tentative conceptual frame work for the present study
In this current chapter, poverty measure developed by Sen (1976) has been
discussed and welfarist approach of poverty has been briefly discussed .Welfare” or
“utilities” are generally keys in accounting for the behavior and the well being of
individuals in the language of economists. According to Ravallion (1993) “Including
67
poverty comparisons, the welfarists approach bases comparisons of well-being solely
on individual utilities based on social preferences. Observable but Imperfect proxies
for utilities, like income or consumption are used for welfarist comparisons of
poverty.” Moreover capability approach of poverty has been briefly discussed and this
theory correlates with the theory women empowerment because women are
empowered when they are provided with the opportunities according to their
capabilities.
68
Chapter 4
LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1 Introduction
Literature review gives guidance and knowledge to researchers about their research
topic. It tells about the previous published and unpublished knowledge of the scholars
and researchers on related topic (Sekaran, 1992:37). The present review clearly
defines about the determinants and various other specific aspects of female labor
participation and female empowerment indicated in previous studies. Determinants of
Female labor force participation and Empowerment are summarized in Section 4.2,
Women Work Participation and Empowerment are given in Section 4.3, Women
Empowerment, Poverty and Socioeconomic Status are reviewed in Section 4.4, Role
of Women in Socio-Economic Development are condensed in Section 4.5 and lastly
concluding remarks are provided in Section 4.6.
4.2 Determinants of Female labor force participation and

Empowerment
Many researchers have measured the women empowerment and labor force
participation keeping in view different regions and nature of study. The main focus of
this section is to ponder on views of different researchers and social scientists who
presented their studies about the participation of females in labor force and their
empowerment. There are a number of socio-economic and demographic determinants
that have affect the female labor force participation and empowerment. Reviews
regarding these determinants are presented in this section.
Hancock (1986) found the relationship between Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) and food stamp program on one side and participation in
labor force on the other side. The study compared the labor participation rate of
Mexican women who were fully eligible for this program with those women who
were less eligible. Marital status of women, legal residence and income of husband in
America was used to estimate the eligibility criteria. Education effects, age, English
69
fluency, the number and ages of children and other household adults were controlled
in the procedures of logistic regression. The results of multivariate analysis showed
that AFDC and food stamps program both inhabited the participation in labor force
for unmarried women. While there were no evidence that AFDC and food stamp
programs influenced the labor force participation of married women. It was also
found that the welfare benefits related to unmarried women were more competitive
with earnings due to the childcare cost. The data indicated that the subsidized or free
childcare could increase the participation rate of women and reduce the AFDC
enrollment.
A regression model by Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos (1987) investigated the

role of religion in female work participation and found that religion defines a more
than third of difference in work participation in ninety economies of the world. It was
found that the religion lower the female labor force participation by more than half in
countries with the Muslim population, in the Hindu countries by forty percent and in
catholic countries by thirty percent. The women labor force participation in the North
Africa and West Asia is at less than thirty percent and due to influence of religion, it
was lowest in the world (ILO, 2009).
Involvement of women in paid jobs can be effective in only that way if they
have fully control over the money which they have earned. It is considered an
addition in their responsibilities without any significant response. In this regard
Samarasinghe (1993) also correlated the female independence with the empowerment
of female. However, for the sake of empowerment of female, both access to financial
resources and control on their earnings were considered necessary conditions. In some
regions, the women gave their income to their husbands or fathers. This act of women
of giving their earnings to male family members did not give a guarantee of
empowering the women despite their physical participation in paid job.
Lawrence (1999) explored the status and economic position of women in

different economies of the world. The study used different indicators to show the
differences in the women status relative to male status in seven sample countries. The
results of his analysis indicated that the women status was lower in India, Pakistan
and Bangladesh than in the other East and South Asian countries and some other
countries of the world. Status of women was perpetuated from one generation to the
other generation through the behavior of health seeking for girls, low investment for
70
education of girls, low quality food given to girls, preference of boys for the sex of
next child and high female infant mortality. The measures which had been defined
above gave prediction that the discrimination against female was deep rooted in
traditional and cultural values in these economies.
Sathar and Jejeebhoy (2001) had scrutinized the impact of religion and region
on independence and autonomy of women in both Pakistan and India. That was a part
of a large sample study of five countries of Asia (Malaysia, Philippines, Pakistan,
India, and Thailand) with collaboration of the Rockefeller Foundation (Pakistan) and
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (India). The women life was discussed in three
aspects; two from India and one from Pakistan and all these were culturally distinct
sites of South Asia. In this study, the situation of women was examined in five aspects
of socio-cultural with four determinants of independence.
Gallaway and Bernasek (2002) made an attempt to find the determinants of

participation in labor force of urban married men and women of Indonesia. By using
the data taken from Indonesian family life survey (IFLS) for 1993 and applying
multinomial logistic approach, it was found that factors affecting the men’s and
women decision to work were completely different. According to the study, the
factors like existence of children and toddlers in household significantly affected the
women’s decision to work but do not influence the men’s decision. Similarly, there
were some other distinction factors that affect the women’s decision to work in formal
sector or informal sector. Finally, it was concluded that childcare and education were
important factors that determine the women’s decision to work or not and choice of
employment sector.
Jaumotte (2003) employed econometric techniques using a panel data of

seventeen OECD countries over the period of 1985 to 1999 to explore the
determinants of women workforce participation. Findings of their observations
suggested that the neutral tax treatment effect was positive for second earners on
female participation. Unlike subsidies related to child care, female participation
reduced due to two effects i.e. the income effect and their lump-sum character. And
finally it was concluded that the education of female, cultural attitudes and general
market labor conditions remained major determinants of female labor participation.
71
Mehendra (2004) analyzed child labor rates and female work participation by
using the data about occupation from the NFHS and compares the data with the
Census of 2001 and data from NSS. It was attempted to identify the main
determinants of both child labor and female work participation. It was pointed out that
with the increase in large family size the ability of women to participate in work
reduced. The size of household was not found to be the determinant of child
participation in the workforce. The time use surveys showed that women work
participation in extended SNA and SNA was near to fifty percent. Distribution of
female workers in industry indicated that the women’s participation share of
agriculture was less for NFHS as compared to the census.
Basleven and Onaran (2004) had conducted the data from official household
labor force survey to trace out the impact of growth strategy of export-oriented on
female labor force participation and employment in urban Turkey. Both the demand
side and supply side effects were included of export orientation. It was concluded that
employment and female labor force participation was positively and significantly
affected by long term economic growth at province level. The effects of export
orientation were not uncovered to be significant in case of unmarried females.
The study of Kishore et al. (2004) estimated the women status of

empowerment as a whole and for the each state of India independently with the help
of NFHS-25 sources of data. The married women in the age group 15-49 were
included in the study from these states. The study divided the indicators of women
empowerment in three sub-divisions: (a) the empowerment evidence of women which
was assessed through the attainment of education (b) the indicators related to
empowerment which measured the female access towards education and exposure
about the role of media and (c) empowerment setting indicators which emphasized on
the circumstances of the lives of the women and indicates all the opportunities
available to them. According to the level of women empowerment, Tamil Nadu had a
rank of eleventh among twenty six states.
Ruwanpura (2004) analyzed the themes about the women’s employment

quality in the African and South Asian regions theoretically. The study tried to redress
following problems: What are the main determinants between the links of
employment quality and gender? Which economic and institutional factors are
responsible of the women labor force participation, and what is its link with the
72
employment opportunities and quality of work available? The study discovered that in
the region under consideration the examination of informal activity had a paramount
importance. It was suggested that by solving above issues will automatically set the
investigation stage and measures to curtail the employment of low quality, formation
of unions in labor and other consequences from consumer groups.
A survey was conducted by Sridevi (2005) on college level education in

district Chennai of India to find the relationship between education and women
empowerment. In this study, education was taken as a dummy variable giving the
value ‘1’ if the female teacher has a qualification of M.Ed., M.Phil. or PhD and
assigning the value of ‘0’ if the female teacher has not obtained these levels of
education. The hypothesis was that the higher level of education of teachers led them
to higher level of employment. Multiple regression techniques were applied and it
was found that all the results had strengthen the hypothesis that higher education level
leads to the higher employment level and salary to female teachers.
Heaton et al. (2005) tried to find the association between female education and
access to paid jobs in Latin American countries of Bolivia, Nicaragua and Peru. In
their study, it was observed that the relationship between female autonomy and
education was weak in Nicaragua and Peru and such relationship was strong in
Bolivia. However, the study suggested the promotion of female education with the
socio-economic development and that education also enhanced the opportunities for
females which led them towards empowerment. The study also indicated that there
were very close link among empowerment of female, job and education in most of the
regions in above three countries.
Boca and Locatelli (2006) uncovered the relationship between work status and
motherhood in some countries of Europe and provided several interpretations of the
differences prevail in these countries. Their results interpreted that in most analysis
the social policies took account of several variables like time allocation of household,
religion and culture and background of the family. These variables had an important
role to point out different levels of incompatibility between children and employment
across different countries or regions. They suggested that incompatibilities between
careers and motherhood should have found reconciliation in different kind of policies
which reduce the opportunity cost of having children and enhance flexibility of
employment.
73
Euwals et al. (2007) unearthed the relationship between education and female
labor force participation in Ghana. They applied a binary model based on the age for
the generations which were born between the years of 1925 and 1986 using the data
from the Labor Force Survey of 1992-2004. The results indicated that growth in
education levels of female was responsible for the growth in labor participation rate of
female during the years of 1992 to 2004. Using multinomial Logit models and Probit
models, they finally found that education of female as indicating by the school level
had a significant impact on the enhancement of female labor force participation rate in
rural Ghana.
Niethammer et al. (2007) pointed out that deficiency in capital is one of the
major hurdles in the empowerment and development of women of a country. It was
observed that programs related to microfinance facilitate the activities of income
generation and increase savings of the poor people and improved the conventional
returns. Most of the females observed an increase in their salary as a source for
enhancing their position in their houses. Women were supposed to get a well status by
the freedom of mobility, equal decision making power with men and having their own
resources or income. If entrepreneurs were women then in small and medium
industries (SMEs) sector provide better job to women workers. It was also observed
that microfinance sector of Pakistan had not been able to enhance the scales in
providing loans to women as efficiently as in other developed countries of the world.
Lawanson (2008) told that the women population in any country composes of
more or less than fifty percent of a population of country but in most countries of the
world women contribute very less amount than their male counterparts towards the
production value measured quantitatively as labor force participation and qualitatively
in attainment of level of education and job skills. He stated that less utilization of
female labor force has self-explanatory presumptions for economic growth and
welfare. He noted several factors are responsible for this both economic and non-
economic. He concluded that women participation in labor force appears to build
upon ore on social environment in the case of men.
Pastore and Verashchagina (2008) investigated the determinants of female

labor force participation for Belarus. He took the data for the year 1996 to 2001 using
the Belarusian Household Survey. The selectivity of wage equation was estimated to
count the expected wage offer for the female workers. The later was included at the
74
second stage as a explanatory variable in the equation of structural labor supply for
female estimated by Probit. Lot of measures for the care of children and elder people
were used as a proxy for the opportunity cost of working which effect female
participation in work but cannot generate the mechanism of sample selection. The
estimated elasticity for female participation was found low at about 0.45 in 1996 and
0.42 in the year 2001. Moreover the data also allows poverty trap mechanisms while
in low income households have a lower women participation rate than average values.
At the meanwhile, the female labor supply elasticity with respect to their own wage
was found very high for the low-paid women.
Ackah et al. (2009) investigated the determinants of women labor force

participation at two points in time 1991 and 2006 in Ghana with the justification that
women labor force participation enhance their economic position and also increase
the overall economic position of a country. They utilized the data from Ghana Living
Standard Survey for the year 1991-92 and 2005-06. The Ordinary Least Squares
estimates suggested that both women fertility and educational attainment determine
the labor force participation of women in Ghana. The study also observed that women
with primary school or higher level education were more active than those women
who had no education. This pattern was only found among the women who participate
in paid work. It was also found that high fertility of women was acted as a constraint
on those females who participated in wage employment. The presence of children in
home was significantly reduced the rate of female labor force participation controlling
for education, religion, age, ethnicity and marital status.
Chaudhry and Nosheen (2009) estimated the determinants of women

empowerment os primary data from Southern Punjab region by the help of regression
analysis. In their analysis they used cumulative index to measure the empowerment of
the women using four different types of indices i.e., decision making of family,
personal autonomy, political economy and domestic economic decision. The empirical
analysis of the data indicates some diverse and new results from 3 different regions;
rural region, urban region and tribal region. The result showed that empowerment of
women is influenced by access to media, education, socio-cultural norms of the
community, household participation rate and job of women.
Aminu (2010) investigated the determinants of earning wage employment and

women work participation in Nigeria. Mincerian human capital models and
75
Multinomial Logit models were used for female and male employees for the four
segments of wage employment during the study. The results of estimated multinomial
Logit model showed that the probability of employed workers participation was
affected by the levels of education, residing in urban areas, and possession of assets
like home and residing in urban areas. The probability of public sector employment
increases with the higher level of education.
It was found that the main determinants of hourly wage are age level,
education level and residence location of the employees. It was also found that the
economic returns to education and age were different for female and male employees
for the four segments considered for the study. He found that the mean value of hourly
wage is more in ministries of government while it was lower in the private setup.
Gender wage gaps were also lower in government ministries while these were higher
in private organizations.
Bbaale (2010) found the relationship between education of female and female
labor force participation by using demographic and health survey for Uganda. The
author also assessed the effect of education on the fertility rate of women. The results
confirmed the hypothesis that education of female especially of secondary and post
secondary level had decreased the fertility rate and increased their earnings and
participation in work. It was also found that due to universal knowledge about the
methods of family planning in Uganda and use of contraceptives the number of newly
born child had been reduced. Half of the women were using these methods at the time
of survey. It was suggested that to reduce the fertility rate in women, educate should
be increased in women.
Chaudhry and Jabeen (2010) pointed out the factors affecting labor force
participation of post-graduate females in Pakistan. Data were collected through
primary source. Using Logit model for estimation, the results of the study revealed
that female labor force participation is not only affected by their own education and
personal choice but also from education, profession and attitude toward women work
participation of their husband’s, father’s and other family members. They also focused
on the role of government to develop policies for enhancement of female labor force
participation of educated women in Pakistan.
76
Brown (2011) explained that empowerment of women was a subjective and
multi-dimensional aspect that was correlated to the inner feelings and were always
changing and influenced by several experiences and cultural circumstances. The
author delivered that the institutions of microfinance were protecting the borrowers
from financial obligations, expanding incomes and encouraging savings as letting the
borrowers to approach the resources that was necessary for the survival and raise the
digit of skilled and cultured people.
Noreen (2011) measured the empowerment of women in Pakistan with the

help of five different indicators which were related to child health, decision to utilize
loan, selection of life partner and purchase of necessities of basic life to measure the
empowerment of women. It was found that microfinance had played a significant role
in women empowerment but less than the expectations. Furthermore, the study
showed that the females who were using microfinance loans exhibited better results as
compared to their male counterparts. At the end, the study suggested that the
institutions of microfinance should enhance their support to issue the loans.
Ejaz (2011) analyzed the determinants related to female labor force

participation in urban and rural areas of Pakistan. Potential explanatory variables
determining female labor force participation (FLFP) were based on household
characteristics, own characteristics of female and female empowerment indicators.
Some variables led to biased results due to reverse causality i.e, ownership of home
appliances, co-residence and fertility. Then the study used potential instruments which
included the gender of the firstborn child, the average number of home appliances in
the locality, proximity to a clinic, whether or not the first two children were of the
same sex, housing type and contraceptive use.
The study used probit model to estimate the variables while the Instrumental
Variable IV approach was used to handle the problem of endogeneity. At the first
stage by using the IV approach, the results of the study showed the estimates of
endogenous covariates separately. In the second stage, the IV vector was used to
estimate the effect of independent variables on the dependent variable i.e., female
labor force participation. The analysis showed the significant and inverse relationship
between female labor force participation, gender-wage gap and fertility and
significant and direct relationship between female labor force participation and co-
residence and ownership of appliances.
77
Hussain et al. (2012) in their article focused on the determinants related to
female labor force participation in paid jobs. They have used the primary source of
data by interviewing 200 respondents from three districts of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa
Pakistan. By using Binary logistic model, their analysis showed that education of
respondent, family type, age, number of dependents in family, number of literate
females in family had positive and significant impact on decision of female to enter
the labor market. While number of children, marital status, husband employment,
household assets and parent level of education had negative impact on women work
participation. This study also suggested that level of female education and level of
skills should be enhanced to encourage female labor force participation in paid jobs.
Bibi and Afzal (2012) explored different factors which affect the decision of
married women to engage in activities related to labor force. It was observed that
number of offspring, education of respondent, family size, number of dependents in
home, income of husband, positive attitude of husband and other family members
related to the job of women, monthly expenditures of the family and job satisfaction
had a positive impact on the work force participation of the married women. While
living with husband, age of the respondent, satisfaction of housewives with their
current life, strong association with spouse before marriage and restrictions from
family regarding job had a negative impact on the decisions of married women to
become the part of labor force. It was also observed that the rate of inflation was also
affecting the decision of married women about the participation in labor force.
Chen (2013) found the factors that influenced the women labor force
participation rate in rural and urban areas using the China Health and Nutrition
Survey (CHNS) database of employment for the year 1990 to 2006 for different
families as well as individuals. The results of probit regression suggested that all
factors which were associated with family level were more effective than the factors
associated with individual level and there existed a large difference between rural and
urban areas. The empirical results explored that work of husband had a significant
effect on participation of women in work while family scale or childcare had not
significant impact on women work participation. In urban areas, childcare and
husband work were significant but family scale was not significant. In rural areas,
when husband participation in labor market increased, the chances or probability of
his wife participation in work also increased. For the women from urban areas, the
78
individual factors were more important than those women who belonged to rural
areas, while family factors were more significant and important for those women who
belonged to rural areas. Thus, it was discovered that the policies related to labor
market were the main cause of structural differences between rural and urban areas for
women.
Goksel (2013) investigated the impact of conservatism in decision of

female labor force participation in Turkey. Unlike in many other countries, the women
labor force participation rate had been declining over last fifty years in Turkey. In
addition to many other variables found in previous literature, this study had found a
new variable that influence the female labor force participation in Turkey that was
conservatism and the role of social norms. There were three indices which could
influence the women work force participation i.e. social norms, religion and
conservatism. The results of the study were according to the previous literature and
revealed that education level and urbanization had a significant role in the women
work participation rate. The most important aspect of this study was that it identified
the impact of religion and social norms on urban and rural areas of Turkey. While
these factors had negative impact on employment of women in urban areas and it had
no significant impact in rural areas. The difference between the impact of
conservatism on women work participation between the rural and urban family was
the difference of 0.05 percentage points which were equal to the impact of two and
half years of education.
Besamusca et al. (2015) in their study focused on the impacts of families,

economic conditions, education and gender ideologies on the participation of female
in labor force of different age groups in 117 countries. For estimation, cross sectional
time series data had been taken from ILO estimates and EAPEP as well as from
selected labor force and national household survey. The estimation had been done by
using two-level hierarchical model. The results of the estimation showed that FLFP
was positively associated with high level of female enrollment, gender parity,
existence of maternity leave, high wage replacement, non-discriminatory legislation
and women’s right. It had negative association with high levels of economic
development and care burden for young dependants. They also concluded the negative
effect of religion in general and Islam in particular. The overall trend of FLFP in all
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117 countries specifically developing countries were increasing as the women got
matures and then started decreasing until retirement.
Bushra and Wajiha (2015) explored the determinants of women empowerment

in Pakistan. Two hundred educated females of the age group of 17-27 years were
selected to collect survey based data from two colleges of the city of Lahore. The
Logit regression model was used to analyze the impact of education, poverty,
economic participation, cultural and social issues and economic opportunities on
women’s empowerment. The results of the study showed that empowerment of
women increased with the increase in education, economic participation, economic
opportunities of having bank accounts and credit and the norms and values related to
culture and society. As far as poverty was concerned, this study showed positive and
significant association between poverty and women’s empowerment.
4.3 Women Work Participation and Empowerment
A lot of research works have been carried out on the relationship between women
workforce participation and empowerment in all over the world. For putting this
research in some informative framework, some of the research and literature of
foreign and local studies had been reviewed. This is very useful and supportive and
will lead to a new way to identify the relationship between women workforce
participation and empowerment more accurately.
Bell (1974) explored the reasons why participation rates of white and black
women are different from each other. The study had taken the sample size of 8,148
husbands and wives for the age group of 18-65 years in the 100 largest metropolitan
areas of United States. The author contracted the data from 1967 Survey of Economic
Opportunity (SEO) and concluded that 61.4 % of black wives and 46.7 percent of
white wives participated in work. According to this study, the reason for low
participation of white wives was the presence of strong sexiest barriers to the
occupational placement of women.
The relationship between occupational choice and participation decision by

women has been studied by Dalton and Makpeace (1993) for a large sample of 1980
female graduates. They investigated how female labor force participation was
associated with occupational decision and how decision to choose occupation was
affected by the earning differential between teaching and other graduate occupations.
80
By using the bivariate Probit model, they concluded that decision to choose
occupation was correlated with participation decision and it was also affected by
earning differential of teaching and non-teaching. Females with teaching profession
were more likely to work then the other occupation. Finally they suggested that in
order to improve female labor force participation the earnings of teachers must be
increased.
Kozal and Alderman (1990) reported the factors that played important role in
decision of labor supply and work participation in the urban areas of Pakistan. OLS
regression and probit Model was used for estimation. The empirical results of study
showed higher the level of expected earnings, wages and level of education higher
will be the labor force participation.
Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) estimated the socio-economic status of the women
in developing countries. Earning differentials between male and female were also
estimated in their study. They estimated from the analysis the position and economic
status of women need to be strong through the opportunities of paid employment,
education and other opportunities related to self-development in order to enhance the
participation of women in socioeconomic development of a country. It was also found
that due to the provisions of such opportunities the fertility of women had declined.
Haq (1997) measured the women empowerment and gender development for
South Asian countries. The author used Gender Development Index (GDI) and
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) and found that the value of Gender
Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) for these
countries was 0.41 percent and 0.23 percent respectively. The value of Gender
Development Index (G.D.I) for Pakistan was 0.384 percent that was lower than India
(0.410) percent, Sri Lanka (0.699) percent and Maldives (0.599) percent and higher
than Nepal (0.308) percent and Bangladesh (0.336) percent. The value of Gender
Development Index (G.D.I) was found lowest among five countries which indicated
that there was lack of opportunities for females as compare to men.
Cerrutti et al. (2000) explored the relationship between labor supply and
female labor force participation in Buenos Aires. They found that female labor force
participation had remarkably increased in the urban areas of Buenos Aires in recent
years. This increase in labor force participation was a result neither the improved
81
conditions of supply of labor nor due to the diversification of occupational
opportunities for women. Using panel and cross sectional data, it was observed that
growth in female labor force participation rate was due to the stability of employment
associated with the policies of structural adjustment since the year of 1991. The
results also indicated that the conditions under which women were involved in labor
force participation are dynamic and not stable. More than 25 percent of women and
more than 5o percent of those who were in labor force were ready to end up their
labor force status. Large instability in labor force participation characterized women
with the very low level of education. They told that more number of women had
decided for participation in work for reduction in household economic uncertainty.
Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002) linked the issue of female decision to work with
their empowerment. Cross sectional data had been taken from Pakistan integrated
household survey (1998-99) for the sample of women aged 15-49. The estimation was
made through two regression models the Probit model (to estimate the female
participation in economic activities) and Multinomial Logit model (to estimate the
women empowerment).The results of Probit model showed that women’s age,
education, marital status, illiterate household heads, female household heads, and
family size was significantly and positively associated with women participation in
economic activities. Similarly the results of Logit model showed that education, older
household heads, female household heads were positively and marriage, illiterate
household head and female from rural areas were negatively associated with
employment decision taken by women themselves.
Salay (2003) presented a profile of women participation in labor force among

slum dwellers in the city of Dhaka (Bangladesh) by using survey data and
ethnographic. The study found that almost 50 percent of adult women were
participating in labor force and work outside the home. Socioeconomic status, life
cycle factors and location of residence all were associated with both the type of
employment and work force participation. Contributions of women in household
livelihoods in the form of paid employment were found to be multifaceted and
significant. The analysis indicated the heterogeneity prevailing among the work
participation of poor women were due to the in formalization of the most employment
options for women.
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In a micro analysis of NFH Survey conducted in 1999, Roy and Niranjan
(2004) found that the women who were involved in gainful economic activity have a
greater autonomy. They observed that the powerlessness of women was due to the
economic dependence of women on their family members or husbands. It was
assumed that the women who were economically productive could strengthen their
family position in different aspects of their family life. So, economic planners should
construct such kinds of strategies which could enhance the position of women by
providing them supportive environment.
Morrison and Lamana (2006) explored the relationship between work

participation of women and other activities. They pointed out that in Kyrgyz republic
take care of children and housekeeping activities limited 24.8 percent of women from
working for pay. On the other side, only 1.5 percent of men were refraining from
working paid job due to the above reasons. They showed that in developed countries,
the women append only forty eight hours per year in gathering wood for fire, and
spend 164 hours and 273 hours per year in fetching water in Madagascar and Benin
respectively. This situation indicated that women of developing countries had a less
time for market work due to domestic activities which was high due to the absence of
readily available utilities.
Yakovleva (2007) critically evaluated the increased participation of females in

the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector; specially focus on the illegal
segment evidence from the North District in the Eastern Region of the Ghana. It was
discovered that the fifty percent employed persons who belonged to this sector were
women. The study investigated the role of women engaged in ASM activity and their
impacts on the rural development. The main purpose of the study was to estimate the
causes of women participation in ASM activities and the impact of these activities on
women’s health, family status and income. The analysis of data suggested that there
were a need for various policies to address the employment of women in artisanal and
small-scale mining (ASM) sector and employment in rural sector of the economy. It
also suggested some other viable opportunities of employment for women who were
residing in rural areas.
Shimizutani (2008) had taken advantage for the long-term public care
insurance scheme in the year 2000 as a unique experiment. Long-term care and
socialization effects of participation of women were evaluated. Estimation of
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difference-in-differences suggested that the scheme had no significant impact on labor
participation of women in the year 2000 and positive and large effect in the year 2002.
The probability of long-term care scheme estimated that women caregivers, on
average, had showed hours per day worked and number of working days by 10-20
percentage points. The study also left some research areas for further research in
future. First, the large shift during the year 2001 and 2002 was puzzling. Second, the
positive effects of long-term insurance policy on labor supply of female workers did
not imply that a new scheme had devoted a net increase in aggregate output.
Haque et al. (2011) attempted to distinguish and measure empowerment of

women and autonomy in Bangladesh from each other by building the indices in three
aspects; household decision making, economic decision making and physical
movement. By using data from Bangladesh Household Survey (BDHS), it was
observed that there existed a mid-level empowerment but women autonomy was
observed very low. The autonomy level of women was observed to decrease with the
increase in the level of education while it was also observed that education had
increased the empowerment of women but not smoothly. It was uncovered that
current ages of women, education, religion, residence place and media exposure etc.
were the main factors that were affecting the empowerment of women and their level
of autonomy. It was concluded that the women empowerment level in household
decision making and economic decision making was satisfactory but the women
empowerment in physical movement was unearthed very low. Women’s autonomy
with respect of all above aspects in Bangladesh was very low with compare to other
developing countries.
Mahmud et al. (2011) made an attempt to measure the empowerment of rural

women in Bangladesh. The survey based data were used for the sample of 3500
respondents from 128 villages. By applying linear regression, it was concluded that
woman’s years of schooling significantly determine the self esteem and freedom of
mobility. Household wealth was positively associated with the control of sources
(woman empowerment) but it had negative and significant association with woman
total decision making. At the end, they also suggested that availability of microcredit
and subsidization of girls schooling might be helpful to increase women’s
empowerment in Bangladesh.
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Bosch et al. (2012) investigated the effects of financial incentives on labor
supply of female. The study focused on Netherland which had average level of female
labor force participation but had a highest level of part time job for female within the
OECD. It was suggested that women should choose their working hours more
carefully. Exogenous variation was exploited from a substantial tax reform in the year
2001. The most important reason of tax reform was to induce the female worker to
enhance the supply of labor. The tax reform means to reduce the rates of marginal tax
and change the status of allowance to tax credit. In the empirical analysis, three
different databases were combined to analyze a large data set for the period of tax
reform.
The results showed wage elasticity as a negative and insignificant indicating

that income effect dominated on substitution effect. This situation was due to the
positive attitude of female for the part-time work in Netherland. It was also analyzed
that tax reforms had a positive and significant impact on labor force participation of
female and significant selection effects were found. Some simulations were also
formulated which showed that tax reforms had enhanced weekly average working
hours by 0.37 which is about 2 percent of weekly average working hours of
population.
Ndanga et al. (2013) determined economic viable opportunities for female

work participation by using value chain method for aquaculture value chains in the
economy of Kenya. The main opportunities for women were as a fish farmers and fish
marketers, especially in the province of western part in Kenya. They explored that fish
marketing was more viable than fish marketing in cost benefit ratio of over 1.00 while
this ratio for fish farmers was less than 0.5. It was also observed that the western
region had more fish production compared to central part of the province and Rift
Valley and provided better opportunities for female participation in fish production
activities. Women were working as paid workers in fish farms because that Region
had a largest employment impact in the form of growth in fish farming activities. It
was also observed that fish marketing sector had fewer barriers to enter the short run
and if we combine it with fish farming then benefits from it can be enhanced in the
long run for females although there was high initial cost outlays. Fish farming was
also beneficial for local community and it enhanced the development of region.
85
Faridi and Rashid (2014) attempted to analyze the factors that played
important role in determining participation of educated female labor force. Their
study was based on field survey for the district of Multan. They showed that variables
like educated father or husband, ownership of assets, being educated married women,
income, location, distance from headquarter, number of children, number of
dependent and number of hours spent for household activities negatively affected the
FLFP. While age, residence in urban area, completed years of education and
experience positively affected FLFP.
Gillani et al. (2014) undertook a study with the purpose of finding out the
relationship between casual employment, gender and informal sector. The study was
based on primary source of data collected from Southern Punjab. The sample size of
651 workers including both male and female was drawn from different households
through a field survey. A Logit model was used to analyze the data. The results
showed that education, age, sex, marital status, household size and family background
are main determinants of casual employment. Education, age and sex were negatively
related while marital status, household size and family background was positively
related to casual employment. Finally, the authors suggested that educational and
employment opportunities should be increased for both men and women in urban
informal sector.
Upadhahy et al. (2014) examined the impact of women’s empowerment on

fertility using literature review studies associated with fertility related topics.
Maximum studies were selected from South Asia and household decision making was
used as a dummy variable for measuring empowerment. The overall results found
from different studies showed that lower fertility, long intervals in birth and
unintended pregnancy was associated with high level of women empowerment. Some
studies showed different results due to variability in measurement of empowerment.
Lee et al. (2014) probed the problem of childcare scarcity, work-family

conflict and low fertility rates faced by the female labor force in Japan. It was
observed that the fertility rate of Japan had been decreasing since the era of 1970s and
it had fell below the replacement level of 1.3 in the year 2003. Since 1990s, the
government of Japan had imposed pro-natal policies like childcare centre expansion
and childcare market deregulation in the famous Angel Plan and New Angel Plan and
in the cases of childbirth grant. But it was reality that these kinds of policies also
86
failed to raise the childbirth. Due to increasing participation rate of women in
workforce, the childcare centre had insufficient space to accommodate the new
children. So the failure of childcare centers to mitigate the issue had discouraged the
modern women from having child.
The purpose of the study was to analyze the association between labor force
participation of female, childcare availability and fertility rate in Japan for the year
1971 to 2009. A bound test approach to cointegration was established for existence of
long-run association between female labor force, childcare availability and fertility
rate. Applying the method of Granger causality, the results indicated that in absence of
granger causality running from childcare availability to total fertility among women
of the age group of 30-39. It was observed that in long run, having more children did
not discourage the women to participation in labor force. It was found that there was
no evidence that working women had preferred fewer children. This study highlighted
the significance of system of childcare in Japan and supporting the employment of
female.
Mehmmod et al. (2015) undertook a study with the purpose of finding out the
economic and social factors affecting the female labor force participation (FLFP) in
the Muslim countries. Data had been extracted from World Development Indicator
(WDI) of 41 Muslim countries from the year of 2003 to 2013. Generalized Method of
Moments (GMM) was used to find out the results. Findings of this study showed that
education increased women work participation rate and empowerment which in turn
generated the negative relationship between the number of children and female
participation rate. Moreover, increase in GDP, increase in per capita income and
inflation was positively linked with FLFP. The most important finding of this study
was that females from Muslim countries were also taking an active part in economic
affairs of their countries which resulted in expansion of economic growth.
Hassan et al. (2015) highlighted the practices of gender discrimination and

examined the gendered perspective of informal sector of Pakistan faced by women
workers in home based jobs. They focused on the ideology related to gender which
was prevailing in the society and some other disparities which women had to be faced
due to being women. For collecting primary data from four different sectors, they
used mixed mode of methodology. The respondents were women who worked in
home based jobs and were selected for sample through purposive sampling process.
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The findings of primary research revealed that there were worst conditions of gender
discrimination as behavioral problem (67 percent), restricted mobility (73 percent) and
exploitation (93.3 percent) due to socio-cultural build-up of the economy. They
presented a comprehensive Table related to life cycle risks for the women who
worked home based jobs to identify the perceptions related to gender discrimination.
Finally, it was concluded that while formulating policies and interventions, gender
norms and gender dimensions must not be ignored in order to social welfare of the
society.
4.4 Women Empowerment, Poverty and Socioeconomic Status
The concept of women empowerment with the relationship of poverty alleviation of

women in the political and socioeconomic conditions in Pakistan looked complex.
There had been increasing emphasis on the impact of poverty and socioeconomic
status on empowerment of women since the last many years. A lot of rationales and
approaches had been discussed in literature about this issue.
Beston and Gaag (1984) in their study exhibited that how distribution of total
household income influenced by the earnings of working married women. Data were
based on Current Population Survey for the years from 1968 to 1980. By using the
measure of inequality, they found that increase in married women participation rate
significantly reduced the income inequality.
Chinen (1884) explored the relationship between gender, ethnicity and social
status in Hawaii using the data from Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) 1975.
For indicator of social status, family income was used and variations among ethnic
groups on this variable were examined. Employment status of wives was studied
because participation rate of females was very high in that state and effects the
variation in family income levels. It was discovered that income levels of wives were
varied among different ethnic groups at different levels of income. It was also
uncovered that civilian versus military status creates complicating effect on many
critical variables especially on Caucasian ethnic group. It was concluded that analysis
of ethnic stratification would be beneficial for at least two important variables;
economic configuration of communities (influences of external forces like
transnational capital and military in Hawaii) and the work of wives (both unpaid and
paid).
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Felty (1991) explained the extent of general factors which were used in
counting the differences in poverty for female headed households. The study used the
data of twenty eight variables models using the data of 1960 census data which helped
in explaining the variation in the poverty in general for female headed households.
For analysis, standard regression was applied for all states of the USA. The model that
revealed the differences between female headed families and general families had not
defined the differences among different communities in term of poverty for
households. Due to presence of black population and due to high dependency of
youth, poverty rates among female headed households and households in general were
increased. So, the factors which were associated with the poverty of minority were
also linked with migration patterns, joblessness and social transformation of the
society.
Sathar and Lolyd (1993) noticed a discriminating attitude of parents in favor

of their male children and against their female children in case of their primary
education. Education of parents, poverty level and income of household appeared to
be most significant factor in this gender biasness in terms of primary level of
education. Due to low level of enrollment of female children at primary level and the
extremely low level of enrolment at professional level was also reflected at
professional level in male children. Due to the shortage of vocational and technical
institutions, especially in remote urban and rural areas, the majority of women
preferred to adopt education as a profession or to stay home.
Rafiq (1996) observed that in rural regions of Pakistan various schools of girls
are under-utilized due to different economic and social reasons as; higher incidence of
poverty level, lack of female teachers, bad or no facility of transport and long distance
between school and home. Girl’s drop-out ratio was more specially at primary level in
rural areas. It was also investigated in the analysis that shortage of schools of primary
education had negative effect on the education of girls and this was the main reason
for the large gender gap not only in the enrollment at school level but also in the
cognitive development of children in rural regions. The study had particularly
analyzed the education problems of Pakistani rural areas.
Azid et al. (2001) explored the women labor supply in cottage industry by
using the primary data. It was probed that the poverty was the main reason and
determinant which enforced women to become the part of the labor of cottage
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industry. It was emphasized that poverty was statistically significant and proved the
efforts of females to pull their homes out of the poverty. Number of women spent on
work and age of the worker gave significant and positive relationship. In their study,
hours of female work according to their income level and it was observed that labor
supply of female decreased with the number of adults of five years of the age in the
household. The final effect of female education on their supply of labor is found to be
indeterminate due to constant wages, increase in the level of education of women and
allocation of time in market production.
Premchander (2003) in his study dealt with the importance of women’s micro-
enterprise for poverty reduction in India. The main focus of study was on the
functioning of financial institutions like NGO’s and MFIs that provided the facility of
saving, credit and insurance to poor people especially poor females because females
could play an important role alleviating poverty. It was suggested that NGO’s should
work as facilitators to MFIs in order to alleviate poverty and empower women in
India.
Chaudhry et al. (2006) undertook a study with the purpose of finding out the
determinants of rural poverty in Pakistan. The research covered the time spam from
1963 to 1999. OLS regression analysis had been applied to estimate the macro
determinants of rural poverty. The findings revealed that inflation, unemployment and
economic growth played an important role to alleviate poverty. At the end, they also
made some suggestions to eliminate rural poverty by increasing investment
opportunities, entrepreneurship and job creation.
Bastos et al. (2009) made an effort to provide better understanding of poverty

based on gender-sensitive conceptualization among women in Portugal. The data used
in this paper had been taken from European Community Household Panel (ECHP) for
the time period of 1995 to 2001. This data base covered all the socio demographic,
socio professional and social indicators of poverty among women. The static and
dynamic analysis revealed the fact that female experienced more poverty with high
rates of intensity and severity as compare to men. The results demonstrated that
poverty was strongly associated to specific events in women’s life such as alone
motherhood, divorce, widowhood and old age especially low participation in labor
market, old isolated women and lone mothers were found to be most vulnerable to
poverty.
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Chaudhry and Rahman (2009) investigated the impact of gender inequality in
education on rural poverty in Pakistan using Logit regression analysis on primary data
sets. It is concluded that gender inequality in education had adverse impacts on rural
poverty. The empirical findings suggested that female-male enrolment ratio, female-
male literacy ratio, Female-male ratio of total years of schooling, female- male ratio
of earners and education of household head had significant negative impact on rural
poverty. The results indicated that household size and female-male ratio (members)
had strong positive association with the probability of poverty. The inverse relation
between variables of gender inequality in education and rural poverty suggested that
education provided more employment opportunities and rejects poverty in developing
countries like Pakistan. It was concluded that the incidence of poverty was higher in
households with lesser number of enrolled or literate females, low educational
qualification of females, greater number of females, low or no female participation in
earning activity, illiterate household head and large household size. Poverty was also
influenced by physical asset and landholding. The findings of the study suggested the
importance of a set of policies helpful for poverty alleviation and sustainable
development.
Alam (2011) focused on gender discrimination and its impact on development

and poverty alleviation. There were selected 50 (25 male and 25 female) respondents
in Hazar Khuani Peshawar on purposive sampling basis from the targeted
respondents. Questionnaire was used for educated respondents and interview schedule
for uneducated respondents as the tool of data collection. The study indicated that
disparity existed in targeted area, which on many grounds affected poverty alleviation
and development. The study also indicated that women had no or low share in
income/earnings of the family, that there was no equal status of women, female were
not allowed to work out side home, women were more vulnerable to poverty, women
share more burden of productive and household work, if household and productive
burden share equally it could help in poverty alleviation, household poverty could be
reduced when both male and female members earn. Male members were the decision
makers in their houses, there was no equal opportunity in higher education for
women, women were facing difficulties in labor market, quality education can help in
poverty alleviation.
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Gounder and Xing (2012) found out the economic (Income) and social
(schooling, age, gender, children, ethnicity, young parents and disability, rural and
urban areas) influence of health and education on poverty reduction in Fiji. Research
was based on household income and expenditure survey for the year of 2012-13. They
concluded that education affected positively and significantly monetary earnings as
well as non-monetary basic needs of an individual. It also positively influenced health
activities which in turn reduced poverty as a whole.
Trommlerova et al. (2015) by using household level data from Gambia and
advanced econometric techniques tried to find out the factors that empower individual
at both communal and individual level. They explored that age, gender, marital status,
nationality was the important variables that determined the empowerment at
individual and community level which was essential to escape poverty. The study also
concluded that individual empowerment was strongly associated with younger people,
foreigners and people with good health. Lastly they focused on the need of political
representation at both individual and communal level to enhance empowerment and
alleviate poverty.
Shaheen et al. (2015) also examined the positive association of FLFP with age,
number of completed years of education, marital status, number of children above the
age of 10 years, number of dependants on female and negative association of FLFP
with children below 10 years of age, ownership of assets, major disease and family
size. They recommended the need for huge investment for the provision of facilities
relating to education and health.
4.5 Role of Women in Socio-Economic Development
Different studies have demonstrated the idea that gender inequality is major hurdle in
the way of development. In view of gender equality studies, many changes have been
suggested in policies at national, international and local levels to enhance and ensure
more gender equality. Women are being strengthened and empowered by women
organizations in under-developed countries to play major roles in the development
process of country. Here the review of some studies is given to show the role of
women in socio-economic development.
Evans and Saraiva (1993) made an effort to check the impact of

socioeconomic development such as education, marital status, age and rural or urban
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residence on women’s labor force participation in Brazil. The data were taken from
(PNAD) Brazilian Census Bureau. By applying logistic approach, they concluded that
highly educated, single and young women had participated more in labor force then
less educated, married and old women. Talking about ruler/urban residence there was
not any large gap between participation ratio but the women from rural residence
seemed to be more interested in work at all level of development.
Ashraf and Ashraf (1993) estimated the gender wage gap in developing
countries. They focused on finding out the male-female wage differentials and
concluded that in order to increase the female participation in socio-economic
development there is need to strengthen the status and position of women by
increasing opportunities for education paid employment and self-development. They
also revealed that these provisions of opportunities would lead to an ultimate decline
in fertility.
Hakim (1994) analyzed the differences in the use of contraceptives by the

socio-economic and demographic status of the women. The analysis showed that use
of contraceptive methods increased with the increase in number of living children and
age, while the main socioeconomic factor which affected the use of contraceptive was
the education of the women. The current status about the contraceptive use in women
indicated that those women who were working as professional employees were using
more contraceptives than those women who were performing duties at home. This
study exhibited the real situation of the economy about the use of contraceptive in
women.
The impact of microfinance on women empowerment was analyzed by Khan

and Noreen (2012). Their analysis was based on the data taken from District
Bahawalpur. The results of the study showed that socio-economic factors like
education, age, education of husband , father inherited assets, marital status, amount
of microfinance and number of children alive influenced the empowerment specially
microfinance explored positive effect on women empowerment and empowering
women helped to reduce poverty. They also emphasized on strengthening the
institutions of microfinance in order to enhance the women empowerment.
Ali and Haq (2006) by using Pakistan Socioeconomic Survey investigated that
whether the autonomy of women was source of happiness or not for the women of
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Pakistan. Six new cultural demographic and socioeconomic variables were
introduced as the indicator of autonomy and checked their level of significance by
checking level of happiness according to three categories i.e. Not happy, very happy
and quit happy. Multivariate analysis showed that all above six indicators were not a
source of happiness in the life of women of Pakistan due to cultural, social and
religious level of background. It was also examined that gender based inequality in
primary education had reduced the economic growth of a country.
Faridi et al. (2009) in their study focused on the demographic and socio-
economic determinants of women labor force participation in Pakistan. Cross-
sectional data were collected through field survey from the District of Bahawalpur. By
using logistic regression model, they probed that the women work participation
significantly increased with the increase in educational level and decreased presence
of children with the smaller age group. They suggested that female education
opportunities should be increased in order to increase the women participation in
labor supply market.
Thresiamma (2011) discussed about the freedom of mobility of women in

Oman and used empowerment index, women empowerment index and household
decision index. The results of women empowerment index explored that women of
Oman were empowered but her domestic interest had affected her empowerment. In
fact the social power of women played an important role in maintaining the
inequalities between women and men. The findings suggested that women in Oman
were better in economic decision, household decision than social empowerment. This
was a sign that women of Oman were aware of the variables which can lead them
towards empowerment of women. The agencies of government and non-government
type could play a role to enhance the capabilities of women. To strengthen the role of
women, they should be encouraged for participation in lectures and seminars and
encouragement to do employment.
Rochel et al. (2012) examined factors that were affecting the participation in
social and voluntary work among Chinese in the UK. 211 participants of British
Chinese origin were recruited by Chinese Health and Community centers in UK had
completed a quantitative type questionnaire. In questionnaire, there were total 38
items consisted of four different domains i.e. functioning in social activities,
volunteerism, health and functioning and demographics. Findings revealed that
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female workers had a more experience of voluntary work than male workers while
those female workers who had education of bachelor level or above were more
involved in the voluntary work. It was also founded that recent local events in UK
such as war of UK against Iraq, terrorist bombing on London transport in 2005, death
of Princess Diana had also experienced an impact on voluntary work. Self-focused
motivations, social participation and participation in social events and organizations
because of one of the social status had also impact on voluntary work.
Ganle et al. (2015) explored the relationship between female access to

microcredit and socio-economic women empowerment in rural Ghana. This study was
based on longitudinal qualitative research. In their study, they examined that women
with full control of microcredit are better off and hence leads to reduce poverty.
Whereas the other women with little control over the use of loans or cannot repay the
loan are worse off rather than better off. Both the studies concluded that women’s
access to microcredit enhance their empowerment which had potential to reduce
poverty.
4.6 Conclusion
From above discussion, it was concluded that different economists measured the
empowerment of women by considering different aspects of empowerment like
participation of women in household decision making, their control on household
assets and economic resources and their freedom of mobility. The review of
international and national studies identifies many socio-cultural factors that affect the
empowerment of women directly or indirectly at household level. The previous
studies can be used as a helpful device to conduct the present research work. In
Pakistan, previous studies discussed the empowerment of women in general, however,
in this point of view; the present study is different, as it attempts to analyze first the
determinants of women work participation, women empowerment and secondly it
examines the impact of women work participation and women empowerment on
poverty of women in Southern Punjab.
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Chapter 5
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, DATA SOURCES AND

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
5.1 Introduction
Women work participation, women empowerment and poverty are imperative issues
which have significant role in economic development of the economy. Considering
this issues, many economists have analyzed its causes and suggested useful policies.
In this study, cross sectional data are utilized which are collected using field survey
from three divisions of the Southern Punjab i.e. Multan, Bahawalpur and Dera Ghazi
Khan. The measurement of variables in primary data is very crucial procedure as it is
involving some qualitative as well as quantitative variables. On the other side,
estimation using primary data is another very important part of the study.
The rest of the chapter is structured as: Profile of the study area is provided in
Section 5.2, data sources and sampling design is explained in Section 5.3, limitations
of the study are reported in Section 5.4. The determinants of women work
participation, women empowerment and poverty are described in Section 5.5,
operational model is specified in Section 5.6 while methodological issues are
presented in Section 5.7 and lastly concluding remarks are given in Section 5.8.
5.2 Profile of the Study Area
The economy of Pakistan is based on agriculture sector but the share of agriculture in
GDP is falling gradually. Two-third of population of Pakistan belongs to rural areas
approximately. There are almost 51 percent women in the population of Pakistan.
There are five provinces of Pakistan i.e. Punjab, Baluchistan, Sindh, Gilgit–Baltistan
and Khyber Pakhtunkhaw. Punjab province is further divided into Southern Punjab
and Northern Punjab. The study considers only Southern Punjab. There are four
divisions of Southern Punjab namely Multan, Sahiwal, DG Khan and Bahawalpur.
Almost, 70 percent of the area of Southern Punjab is rural areas and 30 percent is
urban area. For data collection, the study considers Multan, D.G Khan and
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Bahawalpur divisions randomly. In China-Pakistan Economic Corridor plan, the
Southern Punjab is considered the most important region of Pakistan.
Bahawalpur had been independent state since 1956 having three districts
Bahawalnagar, Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalpur. On the map, it looks like to be
placed in the middle of Pakistan at eastern border. Area wise, it is the largest division
of Punjab having covered area almost 25000 square kilometers. The Satluj River
passes through this area. This area is comprised of plain as well as desert area. The
name of desert is Cholistan. Normally, the weather of Bahawalpur remains hot and
dry in summer but cold and dry in the winter. People of this area are cultured and
simple. Usual dress of the male people is Shalwar Kameez and women’s dress is
Ghagra and Chunni. The people of this area are working in their fields or having
government jobs in education and health department. Some people are also engaged
in their private small and medium scales businesses. There are more than 800 primary
schools for males and up to 800 primary schools for females. There are almost 200
middle schools for males and females in this area. More than 10 colleges are available
for higher secondary education for both males and females. There is one government
university in Bahawalpur for both males and females while only one Government
University is established for females especially. There is facility of 3 medical colleges
in this area provided by the Government.
One of the oldest cities of Asian Sub-continent is known Multan which is

ruled and conquered by Muhammab Bin Qasim. It is third largest division of the
Southern Punjab having 3721 square kilometre covered area almost which is
comprised of rural as well as urban areas. Multan consists of 6 towns namely Shah
Rukn-e-Alam, Shersha Town, Bosan Town, Mumtazabad Town, Shujabad Town and
Jalalpur Pirwala Town. There are four tehsil head quarters i.e. Multan city, Multan
Saddar, Shujabad and Jalalpur Pirwala. It is hot in summer and cold in winter. There
are more than six public sector universities in Multan and more than 8 private sector
universities for both males and females. It is almost 215 meters above from sea level
having Chenab as Main River which passes through Multan. The crops of Multan are
Wheat, Cotton and Sugar Care and fruits are Mangoes, Citrus and Guava. The
vegetables are Potatoes, Onions and Cauliflowers produced in Multan. There are
many historical places in Multan i.e. Mausoleum Bahauddin Zakariya, Shah Rukn-e-
Alam, Shams-ud-din and Multan Fort. There are many Tombs as well as like Shrines
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Jamal ud din, Syed Shah Yousaf Gardez, Bahauddin Zakariya, Bibi Pak Daman, Shah
Rukn-e-Alam, Syed Shams-ud-din Shah Shams Sabzwari, Hameed-ud-din hakim,
Qatab-al-qutaab, Mjo dariya, Syed Pir Sakhi Shah Hassan Parwana, Qazi Qutab-ud-
din Kashani, Syed Hasan Khanjzee, Abu Hassan Hafiz Jamal-ud-din Musa Pak
Shaheed, Hazrat Shah Kamal Qadari, Hafiz M. Jamal Chisti Nazami, Pir Chup Wardi
Waly, Mollana Hamid Ali Khan Naqshbandi, Allama Syed Ahmad Saeed Kazmi,
Hazrat Khawaja Awais Khagga, Pir Syed Wali M. Shah (Chadar wali sarkar) and
Hazrat Gul Shah.
Second largest division of the Southern Punjab is Dera Ghazi Khan which is
situated in the centre of Pakistan at the junction of all four provinces of Pakistan
having Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajanpur, Muzaffargarh and Layyah as districts head
quarters. The covered area of Dera Ghazi Khan is 11294 square kilometers. This
region is ruled by Mughals which was conquered in 1476 near the Indus River. Dera
Ghazi Khan has almost dry and rainfall climate and it is cold in winter but very hot in
summer. The mountains Koh Suleman passes through this city which produces wind
from north to south. This area is full of natural resources like Iron, Gypsum, Marble,
Limestone, Cement, precious stones, uranium, coal, petroleum and gas reserves.
There are many historical tombs in D.G Khan namely Hazarat Sultan Sakhi Sarwar,
Hazrat Muhammad Suleman Taunsvi, Hazrat Ali Ahmad Qadri and Ghazi Khan.
Taunsa Barrage, Ghazi Ghat and Fort Munro are famous tourist spots in this area.
There are four public sector universities in Dera Ghazi Khan Division and more than
five private sector universities in this area for both males and females. Major crops
are wheat, rice, oil seeds and cotton, fruits are citrus, mango, guava and vegetables are
potato, turnip, garlic, cauliflower, pears and onions.
5.3 Data Sources and Sampling Design
In the primary research, there is very significant role of data as all findings are based
on it. If data are collected through utilizing proper sampling technique so results may
be interesting as closer to reality. Apart from secondary and tertiary, this study utilizes
largely primary source of data from three divisions of the Southern Punjab i.e.
Multan, Bahawalpur and Dera Ghazi Khan in 2015.
For data collection, simple random and stratified random sampling techniques
are employed. The data are collected through simple questionnaire from urban and
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rural areas of the Southern Punjab but respondents are only female by sex. From
Multan Division, data are collected from urban and rural areas of Multan district. In
Bahawalpur division, four tehsils are surveyed for data collection like Bahawalnagar,
Chisitian, Fortabas and Haroonabad. Data are also gathered from rural and urban
areas of D.G Khan like Jampur, Kotadu, Kotchita, Rajanpur and Tunsa Sharif. Almost
600 women respondents are interviewed from rural and urban areas their distribution
is provided in chapter 6 in detail.
In questionnaire, there were various types of questions like multiple choice

and open ended questions. These questions were related to age, education, marital
status, empowerment, women work participation, family setup, household size,
father’s education, husband’s education etc. The questions were qualitative which are
formed into quantitative by assigning value ‘1’ or ‘0’. To be more convenient for
respondent, the questions were asked in Urdu, Punjabi and Saraiki languages.
5.4 Limitations of the Survey
Having various advantages of primary data, there are some limitations associated with
data collection. These limitations may be due to choice of sampling procedure or
sampling error or sample may be reflecting true population because of large
population. A difference is also found in estimated parameter and actual parameter.
Apart from many limitations, it has been focused to decrease sampling error and tried
to collect true response of respondents. Personal questions are avoided to ask from the
respondents to elude any biased response. By increasing the size of sample, sampling
errors are also minimized.
5.5 Understanding the Determinants of Women Work

Participation, Women Empowerment and Poverty
The study relating to relationship between women work participation, women

empowerment and poverty may be analyzed at microeconomic and macroeconomic
levels but this study focuses on microeconomic aspect of these variables. For
estimation of the relationships, firstly the determinants of women work participation
and women empowerment are examined. Secondly, the influences of women work
participation and women empowerment are observed on poverty in the Southern
Punjab. Various socioeconomic and demographic factors are included in the study like
age of respondent, education of respondent, dependency ratio, father’s job, workplace
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distance, participation ratio, residence, family setup, decision to work, distance of
health unit, marital status, married women work participation, husband’s education,
husband’s job, number of earners, no. of children, sanitation, safe drinking water,
household decision making, control over personal income spending, bank account,
economic women empowerment, women empowerment, decision about own health
care, fear of violence, father’s education, household size, familial/ interpersonal
women empowerment, access to media/ internet, permission for shopping or to visit
park, salaried employed, self employed, social women empowerment, per capita
income, area and poverty.
5.5.1 Women Work Participation
Women work participation is taken as dependent variable in the current analysis. It is

taken as dummy variable in which if woman is participating in economic activity so
value ‘1’ is assigned to respondent and ‘0’ otherwise. It is also taken as independent
variables in poverty models. It is expected to reduce poverty (Alam, 2011) and
increase per capita income of households in the Southern Punjab.
5.5.2 Women Empowerment
Women empowerment is also taken as another dependent variable which is an index

calculated by considering various economic, social and interpersonal or familial
factors affecting empowerment of women in the Southern Punjab. There are three
forms of women empowerment i.e. economic women empowerment (ECONOMIC),
social women empowerment (SOCIAL) and familial/interpersonal women
empowerment (PERSONAL). The formula to calculate women empowerment index
(EMPOWER) is given as below:
Five economic indicators or factors are considered to make the economic

women empowerment index (EMPOWER). The five economic indicators are (i)
control of woman over the spending of her personal income (E1) (ii) woman’s
independence in making expenditure (E2) (iii) woman’s own bank account (E3) (iv)
woman’s ownership of any type of asset (E4) and (v) woman’s access to loan or
microfinance (E5). The responses to these factors are asked in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ form
which is helpful in making dummy variable for each factor. All factors of Economic
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women employment are given equal weights due to having most important factors.
The responses against these factors are used to make economic women empowerment
index by using following formula:
Social women empowerment (SOCIAL) is formed by using five social

indicators or factors which are (i) woman’s access to Media or Internet (S1) (ii)
permission to go out for shopping or to visit park (S2) (iii) permission to visit family
members or other relatives (S3) (iv) freedom to express her views in the family (S4)
and (v) woman’s participation in community services (S5). The responses to these
factors are asked in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ form which is helpful in making dummy variable for
each factor. All factors of Social women employment are given equal weights due to
having most important factors. The responses against these factors are used to make
social women empowerment index by using following formula:
Five familial or interpersonal indicators or factors are included in the study to

form familial or interpersonal women empowerment index (PERSONAL). These
factors are (i) woman’s choice to make decision about family size/planning (F1) (ii)
woman’s choice to make decision about child health care (F2) (iii) choice to make
decision about child’s education (F3) (iv) woman’s choice to make decision about
own health care (F4) and (v) woman’s fear of violence from husband/ father or any
other family member (F5). The responses to these factors are asked in ‘yes’ or ‘no’
form which is helpful in making dummy variable for each factor. All factors of
Familial women employment are given equal weights due to having most important
factors.The responses against these factors are used to make familial/ interpersonal
women empowerment index by using following formula:
Women empowerment is also taken as independent variable in poverty and per

capita income models. Women empowerment is hypothesized as increasing per capita
income and reducing poverty level of households in the Southern Punjab (Makombe
et al.,1999).
101
5.5.3 Poverty
Poverty may be defined as the inability to attain a minimum standard of living (World
Bank, 1990). It is taken as dependent variable in the study. There are various measures
of poverty which are discussed below:
5.5.3.1 FGT Poverty Measures
FGT is termed as Foster, Greer and Thorbecke. This term became popular during last
three decades which was intensively utilized in various theoretical and empirical
studies of poverty. Most of the studies were observed utilizing FGT indices for
measurement and sensitivity analysis. Foster described measure of poverty (P) as
given below:
In more generalized form:
Where, q is number of persons divided by households below the poverty line,

n is total number of persons divided by households, H is headcount ratio, g poverty
gap of person which is calculated by taking difference of defined poverty line ( ) and
income of poor (yi), Z is the poverty line.
5.5.3.2 The Headcount Poverty Index
Headcount Poverty index shows the proportion of the population having per capita
income below poverty line (National and International) to total population. By
modifying the above equation, the new equation is:
It may be re-written as:
102
Poverty line is calculated using National and International per capita income
in dollars in this study. The respondent is considered as poor if it is having per capita
income per day less than $1.90 in Pakistan. If respondent having per capita income
less than $1.90 is given value as ‘1’ and if respondent is having per capita income
more than $1.90 per day it is given value as ‘0’.
5.5.4 Age of Respondent
Age of the respondent is very essential variable in determining women work

participation, women empowerment and poverty status. It is generally assumed that
women may easily take part in economic activity as their age increase because it
affects their experience and managerial skills as well (Goksel, 2013; Naqvi and
Shahnaz,2002; Faridi and Rashid,2014). But they may not be able to take part in
economic activity in their old age. On the other side, they may reduce their poverty
level by taking part in economic activity in their young age but in their old age their
participation will fall and poverty will increase. In the present study, age of
respondent is continuous variable. It is expected to increase women work participation
and married women work participation. The expected relationship between age and
women empowerment is negative. Age is also hypothesized as reduce poverty of
households as well (Chaudhry et al.,2009).
5.5.5 Education of Respondent, Father and Husband
Education of women is considered as the most important factor affecting women work
participation, women empowerment and poverty. Education is treated as investment in
human beings that gives reward later in human life (Becker, 1964). Due to education,
there is enhancement in productivity and skills of the society. It directly or indirectly
affects social welfare, income and wages. In this study, education of respondent,
father and husband are calculated in completed years of education. Education of
respondent and father’s education are expected to be positively related with women
work participation (Goksel, 2013; Faridi et al.,2009; Naqvi and Shahnaz, 2002, Ackah
et al.,2009); Evans and Saraiva,1993; Faridi and Rashid,2014) and women
empowerment (Haque et al., 2011; Bushra and Wajiha, 2015) while education of
respondent is hypothesized as inversely affecting poverty status of households (Felty,
1991; Alam, 2011; and Chaudhry et al., 2009). Husbands’ education is assumed to
reduce women work participation as married women have generally less permission
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for job if their husbands are educated enough and if they are earning well by their
business or job.
5.5.6 Marital Status
The other important variable which affects women work participation, empowerment
and poverty is marital status of woman. The value ‘1’ is assigned to the married
woman respondents and for unmarried respondents it is assigned value ‘0’. Marital
status is supposed to increase women work participation (Hancock, 1986; Faridi et al.,
2009; Ackah et al., 2009; Faridi and Rashid,2014) and empowerment in the Southern
Punjab as after marriage, women have complete control on their homes in various
matters, they can decide about the expenditures on food and health; they have
permission to go for shopping. In this way, married women are relatively more
empowered as compared to unmarried. On the other side, marital status is assumed to
reduce poverty level of households because married women can take place in
economic activities so raise their per capita income.
5.5.7 Jobs of Fathers and Husbands
The participation of father and husband in economic activities significantly influence

women work participation, empowerment and poverty level as well. Economically
active father’s participation in labor market would increase women’s participation in
economic activities and empowerment as well. The reason may be that fathers put
special attention on education and job of their daughters and they prefer their even
married daughters to have good jobs and education to survive morally, economically
and socially and to have improved social status in the society. Improved
socioeconomic status would ultimately empower the women economically. Husband’s
job is supposed to reduce women work participation in the Southern Punjab (Faridi
and Rashid, 2014) because the job of women is considered negatively in backward
areas.
5.5.8 Household Size and Family Setup
Household size and joint family setup are supposed to reduce women empowerment
in the Southern Punjab because due to many household members available in house,
there is more probability that matters would be sorted out and handled by elder male
members of households (Faridi et al., 2009). Joint family setup is supposed to increase
women work participation in the Southern Punjab (Naqvi and Shahnaz, 2002; Faridi
104
and Rashid, 2014). Household size is taken in numbers while dummy variable is
utilized to measure family setup. If woman lives in joint family system, it is given as
value ‘1’ and ‘0' otherwise. On the other side, household size and joint family setup
are expected to reduce per capita income or increase poverty of households. Large
household size and joint family system increase number of dependents which
decrease per capita income or increase poverty status of households (Chaudhry et al.,
2009).
5.5.9 Dependency Ratio and Number of Children
Dependency ratio and number of children have considerable effect on women work
participation and poverty in the Southern Punjab. Number of children variable is
taken in numbers while dependency ratio is calculated using following formula:
Dependency ratio is assumed to increase women work participation while

number of children is proposed to reduce women work participation in economic
activities. More number of dependents in home motivates married women to involve
in economic activities to maintain their family status. On the other side, more number
of children decreases activities of married women at home because women have to
take care of their children and also of husband so participation in economic activities
will fall (Mahendra, 2004; Faridi et al., 2009; Naqvi and Shahnaz, 2002). In this
situation, it would not be comfortable for married women to go outside for the
purpose of doing job. Dependency ratio is also hypothesized as reducing per capita
income or increasing poverty level of households (Felty, 1991).
5.5.10 Residence
To capture the impact of locality or residence, the study considers dummy variable.
The woman living in urban areas is given value ‘1’ and woman living in rural areas is
given value ‘0’. In present study, urban residence is expected to be negative with
women work participation in the Southern Punjab. Moreover, urban residence is
supposed to increase per capita income of households or reduce poverty level. Women
from rural areas are much involved in economic activities. Although they have a few
employment activities in such areas but most of them are working with their fathers or
husbands in the fields in the season of wheat or cotton especially. This is the reason of
105
comparatively less participation in urban areas. On the other side, income and wages
are much higher in urban areas as compared to rural areas which ultimately raise per
capita income.
5.5.11 Distance of Workplace and Health Unit
Distance of home from workplace and health unit have considerable effect on women
work participation, women empowerment and poverty in the Southern Punjab. It is
taken in kilometers. Distance of Health unit is assumed to be negative with women
work participation because nearer health unit may easily be visited by married women
so that any issue of health may easily be resolved and women can easily take part in
economic activities. Distance of workplace from home is supposed to be positive for
women work participation and per capita income because women have to travel long
to get highly paid jobs. In other words, longer workplace distances may increase per
capita income of households and participation.
5.5.12 Participation Ratio and Number of Earners
Considering participation ratio and number of earners, it is supposed that both the
variables increase women work participation, empowerment and per capita income in
the Southern Punjab. Number of earners is also proposed to reduce poverty level of
households (Chaudhry et al., 2009). If more household members are participating in
economic activities so they would prefer their women to be on job for improvement of
socioeconomic status of households. If women participate in labor market, they would
be more empowered economically, socially and interpersonally. Participation ratio is
calculated by using following formula:
5.5.13 Sanitation and Safe Drinking Water
To capture the effect of health on women empowerment, sanitation facility and access
to safe drinking water are taken. If sanitation and safe drinking water facilities are
provided to women so value is given as ‘1’ and if these facilities are not provided so
‘0’ value is assigned to that respondent under these variables. Sanitation and Safe
drinking water facilities are supposed to increase women empowerment in the
Southern Punjab.
106
5.5.14 Employment Status (Self or Salaried Employed)
Employment status of women also determines the level of empowerment among the
households. If women are unemployed so they may not interfere in family or
household related matters means having no empowerment but if women are working
in any organization or having some earning opportunities at their home so they may
be more empowered as compared to unemployed. Self or Salaried Employment status
are supposed to increase women empowerment in the Southern Punjab.
5.6 Operational model
This section specifies various models as per objectives of the study. In this section,
various models of women work participation, women empowerment and poverty are
specified.
5.6.1 Women Work Participation Models
First objective of the study is to identify determinants of women work participation in

the Southern Punjab and for this following model is specified in functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR,WPAID ,1 MS, H ,4 DIST ,

2
WWPART = f  

 FJOB, PART , AREA, FAMILY , DEPD 
The above functional form is given in econometric form as:
 0 + 1 AGE +  2 AGE 2 + 3EDUR +  4WPAID1 +

 
WWPART =  5MS +  6 H 4 +  7 DIST + 8FJOB +  9 PART + 
10 AREA + 11 FAMILY + 12 DEPD + i 
 
107
The determinants of married women work participation are analyzed in the
Southern Punjab as it is second objective of the study and its operational model is
specified as below in functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR,WPAID ,1 H ,4 DIST, FJOB, PART ,

2
MWWPART = f  

 AREA , FAMILY , DEPD, HEDUR , HJOB, CHILD 
0 + 1 AGE +  2 AGE 2 + 3EDUR + 4WPAID 1 + 5 H 4 +

 
MWWPART = 6 DIST + 7 FJOB + 8 PART + 9 AREA + 10FAMILY + 
11DEPD + 12 HEDUR + 13HJOB + 14CHILD + i 
 
5.6.2 Women Empowerment Models
The study examines the correlates of women empowerment in the Southern Punjab
and operational models are written below in functional form:
 AGE, AGE 2 , EDUR, MS, DECISION, SEMP,

 
EMPOWER = f  SALARY , HHSZ, FAMILY ,WORK, FEDUR, 
 SANI,WATER, E1, E2, S1, S 2, F 4, F 5 
 
108
 0 +  1 AGE +  2 AGE 2 +  3 EDUR +  4 MS +  5 DECISION + 
 
  6 SEMP +  7 SALARY +  8 HHSZ +  9 FAMILY +  10WORK +
EMPOWER =
 11 FEDUR +  12 SANI +  13WATER +  14 E1 +  15 E3 +  16 S1 + 
 
 17 S 2 +  18 F 4 +  19 F 5 + wi 
The study examines the correlates of economic women empowerment in the
Southern Punjab and operational models are written below in functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR, MS, SEMP, SALARY ,

2
ECONOMIC = f  

 PART , FJOB, SANI, E1, E3 
0 + 1 AGE + 2 AGE 2 + 3EDUR + 4 MS + 

 
ECONOMIC = 5SEMP + 6 SALARY + 7 PART + 8 FJOB +
9SANI + 10 E1 + 11 E3 + i 
 
The study examines the correlates of social women empowerment in the
Southern Punjab and operational models are written below in functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR, MS, DECISION, SEMP, SALARY, 

2
SOCIAL = f  

 HHSZ, FAMILY ,WORK, FEDUR, SANI,WATER, S ,1 S2
109
0 + 1 AGE + 2 AGE 2 + 3EDUR + 4 MS + 5 DECISION + 

 
SOCIAL = 6 SEMP + 7 SALARY + 8 HHSZ + 9 FAMILY + 10WORK +
11FEDUR + 12 SANI + 13WATER + 14S1 + 15S 2 + i 
 
The study examines the correlates of familial/ interpersonal women
empowerment in the Southern Punjab and operational models are written below in
functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR, MS, DECISION, SEMP, SALARY , 

2
PERSONAL = f  

 HHSZ , FAMILY , WORK , FEDUR , SANI , WATER , F ,4 F 5 
 0 + 1 AGE +  2 AGE 2 +  3 EDUR +  4 MS +  5 DECISION + 

 
PERSONAL =  6 SEMP +  7 SALARY +  8 HHSZ +  9 FAMILY + 10WORK +
11FEDUR + 12SANI + 13WATER + 14F 4 + 15F 5 + i 
 
5.6.3 Poverty Models
The study is aimed at estimating the impression of women’s socio-economic,

demographic and work participation variables on household poverty. For poverty, the
study considers per capita income variable and operational model is provided below
in functional form:
110
 AGE, AGE , EDUR, MS, DECISION, SANI, DIST, 
2
PCI = f  

 HHSZ , FJOB, WORK , PART , DEPD, FAMILY , AREA 
 0 + 1 AGE +  2 AGE 2 +  3 EDUR +  4 MS +  5 DECISION +

 
PCI =  6 SANI +  7 DIST +  8 HHSZ +  9 FJOB + 10WORK + 
11 PART + 12 DEPD + 13 FAMILY + 14 AREA +  i 
 
To examine the effect of women work participation and women empowerment
with respondents and household’s characteristics on household poverty, the following
operational model is specified as below in functional form:
 AGE, AGE , EDUR, MS,WWPART , SANI , FJOB,WORK ,

2
POVERTY = f  

 HHSZ, AREA, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, PERSONAL 
0 + 1 AGE + 2 AGE 2 + 3 EDUR + 4 MS + 5WWPART +

 
POVERTY = 6 SANI + 7 FJOB + 8WORK + 9 HHSZ + 10 AREA + 
11 ECONOMIC + 12 SOCIAL + 13 PERSONAL + i 
 
111
The study uses some continuous and some dichotomous variables. The list of
the variables is provided in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: List of the Variables
Variables Description of Variables

Dependent Variable
=1 if woman participates in economic activities
Women Work
WWPART =0 if woman does not participate in economic
Participation
activates.
=1 if married woman participates in economic
Married
activities
MWWPART Women Work
=0 if married woman does not participate in
Participation
economic activates.
Women It is an index calculated by considering women’s
EMPOWER
Empowerment economic, social and familial empowerment
Per Capita It is ratio of total income to total household size of
PCI
Income respondent
=1 if woman is poor having per capita income less
than $1.90 per day
POVERTY Poverty Status
=0 if woman is not poor having per capita income
less than $1.90 per day
Explanatory or Independent Variables
Age of
AGE It is age of respondents in completed years.
Respondent
Education of
EDUR It is education of respondents in completed years.
Respondent
=1 if woman is married
MS Marital Status
=0 if woman is unmarried
=1 if woman belongs to urban area
AREA Residence
=0 if woman belongs to rural area
No. of
CHILD It is number of children living in a household.
Children
=1 if woman lives in joint family system
FAMILY Family Setup
=0 if woman lives in nuclear family system
Household’s It is total number of household members living in a
HHSZ
Size household.
Dependency It is ratio of household members less than 18 years
DEPD
Ratio and above 60 to total household size
=1 if husband is employed
HJOB Husband’s Job
=0 if husband is unemployed
=1 if father is participating in economic activities
FJOB Father’s Job =0 if father is not participating in economic
activities
Number of
WORK It is number of working people in a household.
earners
Participation It is ratio of number of working people in
PART
Ratio household to total household size
WPAID1 Decision to =1 if woman can take decision to do paid or unpaid
112
job
Work =0 if woman cannot take decision to do paid or
unpaid job
Workplace It is distance of house from workplace in
DIST
Distance kilometres.
Distance of It is distance of home from nearest health unit in
H4
Health Unit kilometers.
Father’s
FEDUR It is education of father in completed years.
Education
Husband’s
HEDUR It is education of husband in completed years.
Education
Sanitation =1 if household is provided sanitation facility
SANI
Facility =0 if household is not provided sanitation facility
=1 if household has access to safe drinking water
Safe Drinking
WATER =0 if household has no access to safe drinking
Water
water
=1 if woman has right to take part in household
Household
decision making
DECISION Decision
=0 if woman has no right to take part in household
Making
decision making
Salaried =1 if woman is salaried employed
SALARY
Employed =0 if woman is not salaried employed
Self =1 if woman is self employed
SEMP
Employed =0 if woman is not self employed
Economic
It is women’s empowerment based on economic
ECONOMIC Women’s
indicators.
Empowerment
Control over =1 if woman has control over personal income
personal spending
E1
Income =0 if woman has no control over personal income
Spending spending.
=1 if woman is independent in making expenditure
Independence
E2 =0 if woman is not independent in making
in expenditure
expenditure
=1 if woman has its own bank account
E3 Bank Account
=0 if woman has not its own bank account
Ownership of =1 if woman has ownership of any type of asset
E4
Asset =0 if woman has no ownership of any type of asset
Access to =1 if woman has access to loan or microcredit
E5
Loan/ Credit =0 if woman has no access to loan or microcredit
Social
It is women’s empowerment considering some
SOCIAL Women’s
social variables.
Empowerment
Access to
=1 if woman has access to media/ internet
S1 Media/
=0 if woman has no access to media/ internet
Internet
S2 Permission for =1 if woman has permission for shopping or to
Shopping or visit park
to visit park =0 if woman has no permission for shopping or to
113
visit park
Permission to =1 if woman has permission to visit family
visit family members and other relatives
S3
members or =0 if woman has no permission to visit family
relatives members and other relatives
=1 if woman has freedom to express her views in
Freedom to family
S4
express views =0 if woman has no freedom to express her views
in family
Participation =1 if woman participates to community services
S5 in Community =0 if woman does not participate to community
services services
Familial/
Interpersonal It is women’s empowerment based on familial or
PERSONAL
Women’s interpersonal indicators.
Empowerment
=1 if woman has choice to decide about family
Decision
size/planning
F1 about Family
=0 if woman has no choice to decide about family
planning
size/planning
=1 if woman has choice to decide about child’s
Decision
health care
F2 about child’s
=0 if woman has no choice to decide about child’s
health care
health care
=1 if woman has choice to decide about child’s
Decision
education
F3 about child’s
=0 if woman has no choice to decide about child’s
education
education
=1 if woman has right to decide about own health
Decision
care
F4 about own
=0 if woman has no right to decide about own
Health care
health care
Fear of =1 if woman has a fear of violence from husband/
Violence from father
F5
Husband/ =0 if woman has no fear of violence from husband/
Father father
5.7 Methodological Issues
After collection of data, it is necessary to choose an appropriate technique for analysis

and concluding results. The analyses of women work participation, women
empowerment and poverty would be conducted on several steps i.e. tabulated or
elementary data analysis, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and econometric or
multivariate analysis. The details are provided in this section.
5.7.1 Elementary Data Analysis
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The data are collected through field survey which is conducted by the researcher in
2015-16. To explain and interpret the data at initial stage, the study utilizes descriptive
statistics and elementary data analysis. The elementary data analysis involves
tabulated analysis of the raw data obtained from the survey. It provides frequencies
and the percentages against each factor included in the study discussed in chapter 6.
5.7.2 Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive analysis given overviews of the variables included in the study. It reports
Mean, Median, Maximum, Minimum, Standard Deviation, Skewness, Kurtosis and
Jarque Bera of each variable. The mean value shows the average value of each
variables which is calculated by using following formula:
Where X is values of variable and N is number of observations. Standard

Deviation gives the deviation from the mean values or if shows that how much values
of data set differ from the mean values. Its formula is given below:
Where X is each value in the data set, is mean of all values in the data set
and N is number of observations in the data set.
5.7.3 Correlation Analysis
Interdependence among a set of variables is analyzed using Correlation Analysis. It

shows that how the variables are related to each other. The formula to calculate
correlation is given below:
5.7.4 Multivariate Analysis
After analyzing the overview of variables using descriptive analysis and correlation
analysis, it is necessary to have multivariate analysis using more than two variables in
115
the model to examine the determinants of women work participation, women
empowerment and poverty in the Southern Punjab. Having quantitative dependent
variable in the model, multiple regression analysis is useful but if dependent variable
is qualitative so logistic or Probit regression analysis is the most suitable technique for
multivariate analysis. Let’s suppose a general function:
Yi = f(X1,X2…….. ,Xn) (5.1)
Where, Yi is dependent variable. Y is equal to ‘1’ if there is presence of

performing any activity, if activity is not performed so Y is equal to ‘0’. X 1,
X2………. Xn represent different socio-economic and demographic variables. The
equation (5.1) is used to construct the following model:
Yi =  + 1 X1i + 2 X2i + 3 X 3i+……. +K Xj + ui (5.2)
Where Xj is a set of jth independent variables where j = 1,2,….k.
The independent variables may be age, education household size, family

setup, marital status, region of residence, number of dependents, father’s and
husband’s education status, and number of children etc. The following two approach
may be used if dependent variable is dichotomous or dummy.
a. The Logit-model
b. The Probit-model
Logit and Probit models are non linear probability models which are relatively
more suitable in this situation. In this study, Logit model may be used for the analysis.
The determinants of women work participation would be examined using logistic
regression model. On the other side, the impact of women work participation and
women empowerment may be analyzed on poverty (dummy dependent variable)
using logistic regression model. Let the response variable Y * be defined by the
regression relationship in scalar forms:
Y* =1 + 2 X2i +3 X3i +……………… + k Xki +єi (5.3)
Alternatively, it can be written in matrix forms as:
Y * =  X i/  +  i (5.4)
Where X i/ = [1, Xi2, Xi3, ………….,Xik] and  = [1, 2………………… k] and  i is
normally distributed with zero mean If
116
*
Y i =  X i/  +  i  0
The individual would obtain employment, where as if

*
Y i =  X i/  +  i  0
The individual would be unemployed. In equation (5.4) Yi is not directly observed, as

it is a latent variable. What is observed is dummy variable Y defined as
*
Yi = 1, if Y i <0; Yi=0 Otherwise (5.5)
From the expressions (5.4) and (5.5), we can derive the following expression
which is used to find the probability of employment.
Prob (Yi=1) = Prob (  i   X i  ) = Pi

/
= 1- F (   X i  )
/
(5.6)
Where F is the cumulative distribution function for  i . If the distribution of  i is

symmetric, we can write as:
Prob (Yi = 0  , X i ) = F   X i  ) = 1-Pi

/ /
(5.7)
The observed values of Yi are realizations of a binomial process with

probabilities given in equation (5.7), which varies with Xi. Thus the likelihood
function can be written as follows:
 ( )  (
L =  1  F   X i/   F   X i/
Yi =1 Yi =0
)
(5.8a)
Alternatively
L =  Pi  (1  Pi )
Yi =1 Yi =0
(5.8b)
However, we can write equation (5.8) as:
117
Yi =1

L =  F (  X i/  )  1  F (   X  )
1Yi
i
/ Yi
(5.8c)
The functional form imposed on F in equation (5.8)3depends on the

assumptions made about  i in equation (5.4)4. The cumulative normal and logistic
distributions are very close to each other. Thus, using one or other will basically lead
to the same result (Maddla, 1983). Moreover, following Amemiya (1981), it is
possible to derive; they would be estimates of a Probit model once we have derived
parameters from the Logit model. Thus, we have used Logit model in the present
study. Logit model assumes a logistic cumulative distribution of  i in F (in equations
[5.8a] and [5.8c]. the relevant logistic expressions are:
e i
X /
1  F (  X  ) = /
e i
i /

(5.9a)
e  i
 X /
F (  X  ) =
1
/
  X i/ 
= (5.9b)
1 + e i
i X /
1+ e
As before, Xi shows the characteristics of the workers and i the coefficients

for the respective variables in the Logit regression once the equation (5.8) is estimated
with maximum likelihood (ML) technique, equation (5.9a) basically provides us the
probability of being employed [Pr (Yi=1)] and equation (5.9b) gives us the probability
of being unemployed [pr (Yi=0)]5.
5.8 Conclusion
This chapter presents conceptual framework, data sources and methodological issues
in detail. For data collection, three divisions of Southern Punjab are selected i.e.
Multan, Bahawalpur and Dera Ghazi Khan. Primary source of data is largely
employed in the present study and techniques to collect data are simple random
sampling and stratified random sampling techniques. Simple questions were asked to
3
The log Likelihood function for expression/equation (5.8a) and (5.8c) can be written as:
 ( ) ( )
n
ln( ) = log L(  ) =  y i log 1  F   X i/  + (1  y i ) log F   X i/ 
i =0
4
This basically forms the distinction between Logit and Probit (normit) models
5
The basic derivation of Logit model is heavily drawn from Maddla (1989) and this model with special
reference to employment determination analysis is an effort by the author.
118
women of these areas living in urban as well as rural areas of the Southern Punjab.
There were few personal questions regarding their family. Quantifiable method is
chosen for each variable means responses are converted into dummy variable form
and in numbers. For ease of data collection, questions were asked in local languages
i.e. Urdu, Punjab or Saraiki.
Having various limitations, the study formulates different models for women
work participation, women empowerment and poverty of households and each
variable is defined comprehensively with their appropriate measurement and expected
relationships in this chapter. Analysis is made at various stages i.e. preliminary
analysis, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, and Multivariate analysis. Two
econometric techniques are utilized in this study. Ordinary Least Square method is
utilized where dependent variable is quantitative i.e. women empowerment, economic
women empowerment, social women empowerment, familial/interpersonal women
empowerment and per capita income. Logistic regression is applied having qualitative
dependent variable. The qualitative dependent variables are women work participation
and poverty.
119
Chapter 6
WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION, EMPOWERMENT

AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN SOUTHERN
PUNJAB: PRIMARY DATA ANALYSIS
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents about distribution of respondents. Apart from Introduction in

first section, this chapter is divided into General Information of respondents,
Respondent’s Own Information, Respondents’ Households Information Women
Empowerment in the South Punjab, Social Empowerment of Women, Familial/
Interpersonal Women Empowerment, Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty
Profile based on National Poverty line, Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty
Profile based on International Poverty line. Furthermore it is divided into following
sub-sections as Region wise distribution of respondents, Distribution of respondents
by Area of Residence, Distribution of respondents by Age of Respondent, Distribution
of respondents by Marital Status, Distribution of respondents by Number of Children,
Distribution of respondents by number of children less than 15 years of age,
Distribution of respondents by number of children more than 15 years of age,
Distribution of respondents by Education, Distribution of respondents by Husband’s
education, Distribution of respondents by Father’s education, Distribution of
respondents by access to doctor/ medicine, Distribution of respondents by number of
visits to health center in a year, Distribution of respondents by time to travel from
home to health center, Distribution of respondents by time to travel from home to
health center, Distribution of respondents by access to safe drinking water,
Distribution of respondents by access to sanitation facility, Distribution of
respondents by Distance from home to workplace, Distribution of respondents by
Decision to do any paid or unpaid work, Distribution of respondents by Family Setup,
Distribution of respondents by Participation in Household decision making,
Distribution of respondents by Total Income of Household, Distribution of
respondents by Per Capita Income, Distribution of respondents by Husband’s Job
Status, Distribution of respondents by Father’s Job Status, Distribution of respondents
120
by Number of Male Members in household, Distribution of respondents by Number
of Female Members in Household, Distribution of respondents by Female to Male
Ratio in Household, Distribution of respondents by Number of Working Members in
household, Distribution of respondents by Members of households older than 60 years
of age, Distribution of respondents by Members of household younger than 18,
Distribution of respondents by members of households between 18 and 60 years,
Distribution of respondents by Total Household Size, Distribution of respondents by
Participation ratio, Distribution of respondents by Dependency ratio, Distribution of
Women Empowerment Index, Distribution of Decomposition of Women
Empowerment Index by Regions and area of residence, Distribution of respondents by
control over the spending of her personal income, Distribution of respondents by
Independence in making expenditures, Distribution of respondents having own bank
account, Distribution of respondents by ownership of any asset, Distribution of
respondents by access to loan/microfinance, Distribution of Women’s Economic
Empowerment Index, Distribution of respondents by access to media/ internet,
Distribution of respondents by permission to go out for shopping or visit park,
Distribution of respondents by permission to visit family members or other relatives,
Distribution of respondents by freedom to express her views in the family,
Distribution of respondents by Participation at community services, Distribution of
Women’s Social Empowerment Index, Distribution of respondents by choice to make
decision about family size/ planning, Distribution of respondents by choice to make
decision about child health care, Distribution of respondents by choice to make
decision about child’s education, Distribution of respondents by choice to make
decision about own health care, Distribution of respondents by fear of violence from
husband/ father, Distribution of Women’s Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment
Index, Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty Profile based on National
Poverty line, Distribution of Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of
Residence based on National Poverty Line, Distribution of Area wise Household
Poverty Profile based on International Poverty line, Distribution of Household
Poverty profile by Region and Area of Residence based on International Poverty Line
6.2 General Information
General information of the household includes area of residency and region of

household. Table 6.1 presents the region of residence of respondents. In which first
121
column provides details about possible region of respondent’s i.e. Bahawalpur, Dera
Ghazi (D. G.) Khan and Multan. Second column is about working status of
respondents showing with their percentage. Third column shows the status of the non-
working respondents. Valid percentages are provided in forth column. The table
shows total sample 600 respondents has been taken from population and 200
respondents are taken from each of the three districts and out of 600 samples, 354 are
working and 246 are non-working women. Out of the three districts, 126 are working
women in Multan which is 35.59 % of the total sample. Out of the three districts, 89
are non-working women in D.G. Khan which is 36.2 % of the total sample.
Table 6.1: Region wise Distribution of Respondents
District Working Non-Working Total

117 83 200
Bahawalpur
(33.05) (33.7) (33.3)
111 89 200
DG Khan
(31.35) (36.2) (33.3)
126 74 200
Multan
(35.59) (30.1) (33.3)
Total 354 246 600
Source: Calculated from the Survey data, 2015
Table 6.2 shows the area of residency of the respondents i.e. women. In the
first column residency of women is taken (it may be urban or rural). In the second
column working status of women is interpreted and in the third column non-working
women data are interpreted. In the fourth column total of the sample is taken along
with their percentages the sample of 600 is taken from population and out of 600. 311
women belong to rural area and 289 reside in the urban areas of all the three districts.
Out of 311 women of rural areas, 54.6 % are working and remaining is non-working
and in urban areas out of 289, 56.5 % are non-working and remaining is working.
Table 6.2: Distribution of Respondents by Area of Residence
Residence Working Non-Working Total

204 107 311
Rural
(54.6) (43.5) (51.8)
150 139 289
Urban
(42.4) (56.5) (48.2)
Total 354 246 600
122
6.3 Respondent’s Own Information
This section of the analysis deduces the respondents own personal information. The
pieces of information are about the age, marital status, number of children, education
status of respondents, health and sanitation situation of respondent.
Table 6.3 shows the age of women of 600 samples. The first column shows the
age of the respondent. The second column shows the working status and third column
shows the non-working status of women. Out of 600 samples, 354 are working
women and 246 are non-working women. And in sample most of the respondents
(33.7% of total sample) are in age bracket of 31 to 40 years. On the other side, the
women about 35.9 % in sample are in the age bracket of 21-30 years are mostly
working. And women about 4.1 % in the age greater than 60 years are non-working.
Table 6.3: Distribution of Respondents by Age of Respondent
Age Working Non-Working Total

16 13 29
(Less than 21)
(4.5) (5.3) (4.8)
127 59 186
(21 - 30)
(35.9) (24.0) (31.0)
113 90 202
(31 - 40)
(31.9) (36.6) (33.7)
85 62 147
(41 - 50)
(24) (25.2) (24.5)
11 12 26
(51 - 60)
(3.1) (4.9) (4.3)
2 10 10
(Greater than 60)
(0.6) (4.1) (1.7)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.4 reports the Marital Status of the respondents. The first column shows
the gender, the second column exhibits the working status and third column points out
the non-working status of the women in the fourth column total of working and non-
working women is taken along with their percentages. The sample of 600 women is
taken from three districts and 59 % are working and rests of them are non-working.
The 474 women are married which is 79 % of the sample and only 21 % are single.
Married working women are 262 which is 74% of the total sample and 212 are non-
working women. Out of the total working women 74 % women are married and only
123
26 % women are single. And out of 246 non-working women 86.2% of women are
married and 13.8% women are single.
Table 6.4: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status
Marital Status Working Non-Working Total

262 212 474
Married
(74.0) (86.2) (79.0)
92 34 126
Single
(26.0) (13.8) (21.0)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.5 illustrates the number of children of the respondents. The first
column shows the number of children’s of respondents ranges from zero to 11. The
second and third column describes the working and non-working status of the
respondents respectively. The forth column describes the percentages of the data
collected from the respondents against each category of the number of children. Out
of the total sample of the 600 women, 354 women are working and rests of them are
non-working. Out of the 600 respondents, 25 % women have no children which is the
highest percentage in the given sample and followed by 16% have three children and
least no of children are possessed by women which have 9 children. The total working
women in the sample are 354. Out of 354 working women, the most of the women
about 30.5 % of the sample possess zero children and 0.6% of women hold 9 children
which is the lowest % age in the sample of working women. Out of 246 non-working
women, the most of the women about 19.9 % of the sample keep three children and
1.6% of women possess 10 children which is the lowest % age in the sample of non-
working women.
Table 6.5: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Children
Children Working Non-Working Total

108 42 150
Zero
(30.5) (17.1) (25.0)
42 19 61
1.00
(11.9) (7.7) (10.2)
50 30 80
2.00
(14.1) (12.2) (13.3)
47 49 96
3.00
(13.3) (19.9) (16.0)
36 45 81
4.00
(10.2) (18.3) (13.5)
124
20 19 39
5.00
(5.6) (7.7) (6.5)
22 13 35
6.00
(6.2) (5.3) (5.8)
15 18 33
7.00
(4.2) (7.3) (5.5)
6 7 13
8.00
(1.7) (2.8) (2.2)
2 2
9.00 ---
(0.6) (0.3)
3 4 7
10.00
(0.8) (1.6) (1.2)
3 3
11.00 ---
(0.8) (0.5)
Total 354 246 600
Distribution of respondents by number of children less than 15 years of age is
illustrated in Table 6.6. The table explains the respondents having children less than
15 years of age. The first column explains the number of children who have age less
than 15 years. The second and third column explains the working and non-working
status of the respondents. The forth column shows the % ages of the total sample. .
Out of the total sample of the 600 women, 354 women’s are working and 246 of them
are non-working. Out of the working women, 51.7% of the working women have zero
children whose ages are less than 15 years and 18.6% of the working women have one
child whose ages are less than 15 years. The least value is 0.3% which shows that
only 0.3% of the working women have 8 children whose ages are less than 15 years.
Moreover in the sample of non-working women, 113 non-working women have zero
children whose ages are less than 15 years and 45 non-working women have one child
whose ages are less than 15 years. The least value is 0.8% which shows that only 0.8
% of the non-working women have 7 children whose ages are less than 15 years.
Table 6.6: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Children less than 15 years

of Age
Children < 15 Working Non-Working Total

183 113 296
Zero
(51.7) (45.9) (49.3)
66 45 111
1.00
(18.6) (18.3) (18.5)
50 43 93
2.00
(14.1) (17.5) (15.5)
125
31 27 58
3.00
(8.8) (11.0) (9.7)
13 7 20
4.00
(3.7) (2.8) (3.3)
2 6 8
5.00
(0.6) (2.4) (1.3)
5 3 8
6.00
(1.4) (1.2) (1.3)
3 2 5
7.00
(0.8) (0.8) (0.8)
1 1
8.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.7 explains the number of children of respondents with more than 15
years of age. The first column in the table shows the number of children of
respondents with more than 15 years. The second and third column explain the
working and non-working status of the respondents. The forth column exhibits the %
ages of the total sample. Out of the total sample of the 600 women, 59% women are
working and 39 % of them are non-working. Out of the working women, 56.5 % of
the working women have zero children whose ages are more than 15 years and 10.5 %
of the working women have three children whose ages are more than 15 years. The
least value is 0% which shows that only 0 % of the working women have 10 children
whose ages are more than 15 years. Moreover in the sample of non-working women,
50.3 % of non-working women have zero children whose ages are more than 15 years
and 11.8 % of non-working women have three children whose ages are more than 15
years. The least value is .2% which shows that only 0.2 % of the non-working women
have 10 children whose ages are more than 15 years.
Table 6.7: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Children More than 15

Years of Age
Children > 15 Working Non-Working Total

200 102 302
Zero
(56.5) (41.5) (50.3)
30 22 52
1.00
(8.5) (8.9) (8.7)
23 27 50
2.00
(6.5) (11.0) (8.3)
37 34 71
3.00
(10.5) (13.8) (11.8)
126
28 23 51
4.00
(7.9) (9.3) (8.5)
15 15 30
5.00
(4.2) (6.1) (5.0)
9 11 20
6.00
(2.5) (4.5) (3.3)
10 8 18
7.00
(2.8) (3.3) (3.0)
2 3 5
8.00
(0.6) (1.2) (0.8)
1 1
10.00 ----
(0.4) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
The education of the respondents is illustrated in Table 6.8. The first column
explains about the education level of the respondents from illiterate to Ph.D. The
second column shows the working status of the women and the third column displays
the non-working status of the women. The fourth column shows the % ages of the
respondents’ response. Out of the total sample of the 600 women, 59% women’s are
working and rest of them is non-working. In the given sample, 24.5 % (maximum
value in the given sample) of the respondents are illiterate, 23.5 % are masters and
0.2 % (Minimum value in the given sample) are Ph.D. out of sample of 354 working
women,31.6 % (maximum value in the given sample) are masters, 22.6 % are
illiterate, and only 0.3 % (minimum value in the given sample) are Ph.D. On the other
side, when we analyze data of non-working women, it is analyzed that 27.2 % are
illiterate, 17.2 % are matriculated, and none of them (minimum value in the given
sample) has Ph.D.
Table 6.8: Distribution of Respondents by Education
Education Working Non-Working Total

80 67 147
Illiterate
(22.6) (27.2) (24.5)
24 35 59
Primary
(6.8) (14.2) (9.8)
24 19 43
Middle
(6.8) (7.7) (7.2)
31 42 73
Matriculation
(8.8) (17.1) (12.2)
21 21 42
Intermediate
(5.9) (8.5) (7.0)
127
45 26 71
Graduation
(12.7) (10.6) (11.8)
112 29 141
Masters
(31.6) (11.8) (23.5)
16 7 23
M. Phil
(4.5) (2.8) (3.8)
1 1
PhD ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
The education of the respondents’ husband is illustrated in Table 6.8. The first
column explains the education level of the respondent’s husband from illiterate to
Ph.D. The second column shows the working status of the women and the third
column exhibits the non-working status of the women. The forth column displays the
% ages of the respondents’ response. Out of the total sample of the 600 women, 59%
women are working and rest of them is non-working. In the given sample, 226
(maximum value in the given sample) of the respondents’ husband are illiterate, 64
are masters, 78 are matriculate, 81 are graduate, 43 are primary passed, 37 are middle
passed, 58 are intermediate, 11 are M.Phil and 2 (Minimum value in the given
sample) are PhD. Out of sample of 354 working women, 154 (maximum value in the
given sample) of the respondents’ husband are illiterate, 33 are graduate, 39 are
matriculate, 24 are primary and 19 are middle, 36 are intermediate, 9 are M.Phil and
only 2 (minimum value in the given sample) are PhD. On the other side, when we
analyze data of non-working women, it is analyzed that 226 of the respondents’
husband are illiterate, 39 are matriculated, 19 are Primary educated, 26 are masters,
48 are graduated, 37 are middle passed, and none of them (minimum value in the
given sample) has PhD.
Table 6.9: Distribution of Respondents by Husband’s Education
Husband’s Working Non-Working Total

Education
154 72 226
Illiterate
(43.5) (29.3) (37.7)
24 19 43
Primary
(6.8) (7.7) (7.2)
19 18 37
Middle
(5.4) (7.3) (6.2)
39 39 78
Matriculation
(11.0) (15.9) (13.0)
128
36 22 58
Intermediate
(10.2) (8.9) (9.7)
33 48 81
Graduation
(9.3) (19.5) (13.5)
38 26 64
Masters
(10.7) (10.6) (10.7)
9 2 11
M. Phil.
(2.5) (0.8) (1.8)
2 2
PhD ----
(0.6) (0.3)
Total 354 246 600
The education of the respondents’ father is illustrated in Table 6.9. The first
column explains the education level of the respondents’ father from illiterate to PhD.
The second column displays the working status of the women and the third column
shows the non-working status of the women. The forth column explains the % age of
the respondents’ response. Out of the total sample of the 600 women, 354 women are
working and 246 are non-working. In the given sample,72.8 % (maximum value in
the given sample) of the respondents’ fathers are illiterate, 4 % are masters,6 % are
matriculate,7.3 % are graduate, 6% are primary passed, 4 % are middle pass, 3% are
intermediate ,0.7% are M. Phil. and 0.2 % (Minimum value in the given sample) are
PhD. Out of sample of 354 working women, 68.9 % (maximum value in the given
sample) of respondents’ fathers are illiterate, 4 % are masters, 9 % are graduate,4.8 %
are matriculate, 7.6% are primary and 4.5% are middle, 3.7 % are intermediate, .3%
(minimum value in the given sample) are M. Phil. On the other side, when we
analyze data of non-working women, it is observed that 78.5 % (maximum value in
the given sample) respondents’ father are illiterate, 7.7 % are matriculated, 3.7 % are
Primary educated, none of them are masters, 4.9 % are graduated , 3.3 % are middle
passed.
Table 6.10: Distribution of Respondents by Father’s Education
Father’s Working Non-Working Total

Education
244 193 437
Illiterate
(68.9) (78.5) (72.8)
27 9 36
Primary
(7.6) (3.7) (6.0)
16 8 24
Middle
(4.5) (3.3) (4.0)
129
17 19 36
Matriculation
(4.8) (7.7) (6.0)
13 5 18
Intermediate
(3.7) (2.0) (3.0)
32 12 44
Graduation
(9.0) (4.9) (7.3)
4 4
Masters ----
(1.1) (0.7)
1 1
M. Phil. ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
The analysis of access of doctor to the respondents is illustrated in Table 6.11.
The first column explains the access of doctor or medicine to the respondents. It is in
binary form of Yes or No. The second column explains the working status of the
women and the third column shows the non-working status of the women. The forth
column exhibits the % ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample, 354 are
working women and 246 are non-working women. 88.5 % of the respondents have
access to the doctors or medicine and 11.5 % have no access to the medicine or
doctors. Out of sample of working women, 89.3 % have access to the doctor and 10.7
% have no access to the doctors. Out of sample of non-working women of 246, 87.4
% of the non-working women have access to the doctor and 12.6 % have no access to
the doctors.
Table 6.11: Distribution of Respondents by Access to Doctor/ Medicine
Access to Doctor/ Working Non-Working Total

Medicine
38 31 69
No
(10.7) (12.6) (11.5)
316 215 531
Yes
(89.3) (87.4) (88.5)
Total 354 246 600
The analysis of number of visits to health center in a month by the respondents
is illustrated in Table 6.12. In the first column number of visits of respondents to the
health center in a month is mentioned by categorizing them with the difference of
range 3. The second column explains the working status of the women and the third
column shows the non-working status of the women. The forth column shows the %
ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 354 are working
130
women and 246 are non-working women in the total sample of 600. The 40 % of the
women visits to the hospital 1-4 times in a month, 30.2 % of the women visits to the
hospital 5-8 times in a month, 11 % of the women visits to the hospital 9-12 times in a
month. 7.8 % the women visits to the hospital zero times in a month, 6.2 % of the
women visit to the hospital 13-16 times in a month. 1-4 times visits to the hospital by
the working women are by 41.5 % of the sample of the working women, 27.7 % of
the working women visits to the hospital 5-8 times in a month, 11 % of the working
women visits to the hospital 9-12 times in a month, 7.1% of the working women
visits to the hospital zero times in a month, 6.2% of the working women visits to the
hospital 13-16 times in a month, 6.5 % of the working women visits to the hospital
more than 16 times in a month.1-4 times visits to the hospital by the non- working
women are by 37.8 % of the sample of the non-working women ,33.7 % of the non-
working women visits to the hospital 5-8 times in a month, 11 % of the non-working
women visits to the hospital 9-12 times in a month, 8.9 % of the non-working women
visits to the hospital zero times in a month,6.1% of the non-working women visits to
the hospital 13-16 times in a month,2.4 % of the non-working women visits to the
hospital more than 16 times in a month.
Table 6.12: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Visits to Health Centers in

a Year
Visits to Health Centre Working Non-Working Total
25 22 47
Zero
(7.1) (8.9) (7.8)
147 93 240
(1 - 4)
(41.5) (37.8) (40.0)
98 83 181
(5 - 8)
(27.7) (33.7) (30.2)
39 27 66
(9 - 12)
(11.0) (11.0) (11.0)
22 15 37
(13 - 16)
(6.2) (6.1) (6.2)
23 6 29
(Greater than 16)
(6.5) (2.4) (4.8)
Total 354 246 600
In Table 6.13, the health issues (Minor/ Major Disease) of respondents are
discussed by asking the respondent they have major or minor disease or not. In the
first column minor/ major disease is taken in binary form Yes or No. The second and
third column explains the working status of the women and the non-working status of
131
the women respectively. The forth column shows the % ages of the respondents’
response. In the sample of 600 women, 59 % are working women and 39 % are non-
working women. 63% of sample of women have no disease and 37 % of the sample of
women have minor or major disease. Out of 354 working women, 62.7% of women
have no disease and 37.3% have major or minor disease. Out of 246 non- working
women, 63.7% of women have no disease and 37.3% have major or minor disease.
Table 6.13: Distribution of Respondents by any Health Issue
Minor/ Major Working Non-Working Total

Disease
222 156 378
No
(62.7) (63.4) (63.0)
132 90 222
Yes
(37.3) (36.6) (37.0)
Total 354 246 600
Distance of nearest health center from respondents home is analyzes in Table
6.14. In the first column, distance of health care to respondents home is taken in
kilometers. The second and third column explains the working status of the women
and the non-working status of the women respectively. The forth column shows the %
ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 59 % are working
women and 39 % are non-working women. In the given sample of 600, the distance of
49.5 % respondents home to hospital is 1.01-5 Kms, the distance of 30.8%
respondents home to hospital is 0-1 km, the distance of 14.8 % respondents home to
hospital is 5.01-10 Kms, the distance of 3% respondents home to hospital is 11-20
Kms and the distance of 1.8 % respondents home to hospital is more than 20 Kms. In
the given sample of 354 working women, the distance of 51.4 % respondents home to
hospital is 1.01-5 Kms, the distance of 30.2 % respondents home to hospital is 0-1
km, the distance of 15 % respondents home to hospital is 5.01 -10 Kms, the distance
of 2% respondents home to hospital is 11-20 Kms, and the distance of 1.4 %
respondents home to hospital is more than 20 Kms. In the given sample of 246 non-
working women, the distance of 46.7 % respondents home to hospital is 1.01-5 Kms,
the distance of 31.7 % respondents home to hospital is 0-1 km, the distance of 14.6 %
respondents home to hospital is 5.01 -10 Kms, the distance of 4.5 % respondents
home to hospital is 11-20 Kms, and the distance of 2.4 % respondents home to
hospital is more than 20 Kms.
132
Table 6.14: Distribution of Respondents by Distance of Nearest Health Center
From Home
Distance of health Working Non – Working Total
Center (Km)
107 78 185
(0 - 1)
(30.2) (31.7) (30.8)
182 115 297
(1.01 - 5)
(51.4) (46.7) (49.5)
53 36 89
(5.01 - 10)
(15.0) (14.6) (14.8)
7 11 18
(11 - 20)
(2.0) (4.5) (3.0)
5 6 11
(Greater than 20)
(1.4) (2.4) (1.8)
Total 354 246 600
In Table 6.15, respondents time (in minutes) to travel from home to health
center is illustrated. In the first column, time in minutes is taken to travel hospital
from respondents home. The second and third column explains the working status of
the women and the non-working status of the women respectively. The forth column
shows the relative % ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women,
59 % are working women and 39 % are non-working women. In the total sample of
600 women, 21.2 % women takes 6-10 minutes to reach hospital, 19.5 % women
takes 1-5 minutes to reach hospital,17.8 % women takes 16-20 minutes to reach
hospital, 17.8 % women takes 11-15 minutes to reach hospital, 5.7 % women takes
more than 30 minutes to reach hospital. In the sample of 354 working women, 21.7 %
working women takes 1-5 minutes to reach hospital, 18.4 % working women takes
21-30 minutes to reach hospital,17.8 % working women takes 16-20 minutes to reach
hospital, 14.4 %working women takes 11-15 minutes to reach hospital and 7.1%
working women takes more than 30 minutes to reach hospital. In the sample of 246
non- working women, 22.8 % working women takes 11-15 minutes to reach hospital,
22 % of non-working women takes 11-15 minutes to reach hospital, 17.9 % of non-
working women takes 16-20 minutes to reach hospital, 16.3% of non-working women
takes 1-5 minutes to reach hospital and 3.7% of non-working women takes more than
30 minutes to reach hospital.
133
Table 6.15: Distribution of Respondents by Time to Travel from Home to Health
Center
Time to Travel to Health Working Non-Working Total
Center (minutes)
77 40 127
(1 - 5)
(21.7) (16.3) (19.5)
51 56 107
(11 - 15)
(14.4) (22.8) (17.8)
63 44 107
(16 - 20)
(17.8) (17.9) (17.8)
65 43 108
(21 - 30)
(18.4) (17.5) (18.0)
73 54 127
(6 - 10)
(20.6) (22.0) (21.2)
25 9 34
(Greater than 30)
(7.1) (3.7) (5.7)
Total 354 246 600
Respondent access to drinking water is analyzed in Table 6.16. In the first
column, access to safe drinking water is taken binary form Yes or No. The second and
the women respectively. The forth column shows the relative %ages of the
respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 354 are working women and 246
are non-working women. In the given sample of 600 women, 83.5% have access to
safe drinking water and rest of them has not access to the safe drinking water. In the
given sample of 354 working women, 82.5% of working women have access to safe
drinking water and rest of them have not access to the safe drinking water. In the
given sample of 246 non-working women, 85% of non-working women have access
to safe drinking water and rest of them have not access to the safe drinking water.
Table 6.16: Distribution of Respondents by Access to Safe Drinking Water
Access to Safe Working Non-Working Total

Drinking Water
62 37 99
No
(17.5) (15.0) (16.5)
292 209 501
Yes
(82.5) (85.0) (83.5)
Total 354 246 600
134
Respondent access to sanitation facility is analyzed in Table 6.17. In the first

column, access to sanitation facility is taken binary form Yes or No. The second and
the women respectively. The forth column shows the relative %ages of the
respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 354 are working women and 246
are non-working women. In the given sample of 600 women, 499 women have access
to sanitation facility and only 101 women have no access to the sanitation facility. In
the given sample of 354 working women 293 of working women have access to
sanitation facility and 61 of them have not access to the sanitation facility. In the
given sample of 246 non-working women, 206 of non-working women have access to
sanitation facility and 40 women have no access to the sanitation facility.
Table 6.17: Distribution of Respondents by Access to Sanitation Facility
Access to Working Non – Working Total

Sanitation
Facility
61 40 101
No
(17.2) (16.3) (16.8)
293 206 499
Yes
(82.8) (83.7) (83.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.18 illustrates the distance of workplace from home of the respondent.
In the first column, distance (in Km) of workplace from home of the respondent is
taken. The second and third column explains the working status of the women and the
non-working status of the women respectively. The forth column shows the relative
%ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 354 are working
women and 246 are non-working women. 59.7 % of women have distance of 0-0.50
km from home to their workplace, 20.2 % of women have distance of 0.51-4 km
from home to their workplace,8.2 % of women have distance of 0-0.50 km from home
to their workplace,5.7 % of women have distance of 9-12 km from home to their
workplace, 2.7 % of women have distance of 13-16 km from home to their
workplace, 2.7 % of women have distance of 17-25 km from home to their
workplace, and only 1 % of women have distance more than 25 km from home to
135
their workplace. 39.8 % of working women have distance of 0-0.50 km from home to
their workplace, 27.4 % of women have distance of 0.51-4 km from home to their
workplace,13.3 % of women have distance of 5-8 km from home to their
workplace,9.3 % of women have distance of 9-12 km from home to their workplace,
4.5 % of women have distance of 13-16 km from home to their workplace, 4 % of
women have distance of 17-25 km from home to their workplace, and only 1.7 % of
women have distance more than 25 km from home to their workplace. 88.2 % of non-
working women have distance of 0-0.50 km from home to their workplace, 9.8 % of
non-working women have distance of 0.51-4 km from home to their workplace,1.2
% of non-working women have distance of 5-8 km from home to their workplace,.8
% of non-working women have distance of 17-25 km from home to their workplace.
Table 6.18: Distribution of Respondents by Distance from Home to Workplace
Distance from Home to Working Non-Working Total

Workplace
141 217 358
(0 - 0.50)
(39.8) (88.2) (59.7)
97 24 121
(0.51 - 4)
(27.4) (9.8) (20.2)
47 3 49
(5 - 8)
(13.3) (1.2) (8.2)
33 34
(9 - 12) ----
(9.3) (5.7)
16 16
(13 - 16) ----
(4.5) (2.7)
14 2 16
(17 - 25)
(4.0) (0.8) (2.7)
6 6
(Greater than 25) ----
(1.7) (1.0)
Total 354 246 600
Respondent decision to do any paid or unpaid work is analyzed in Table 6.19.
In the first column, decision to do any paid or unpaid work is taken binary form Yes
or No. in the second and third column the working status of the women and the non-
working status of the women is taken respectively. The forth column shows the
relative % ages of the respondents’ response. In the sample of 600 women, 59% of
women are working and 39 % are non-working women. Out of the given sample, 58.3
% of respondent are willing to do paid work or job, and 41.7% of respondent are not
willing to do paid work or job. Out of the given sample of working women ,80.5 % of
136
respondent are willing to do paid work or job, and 19.5 % of respondent are not
willing to do paid work or job. Out of the given sample of non -working women ,73.6
% of respondent are willing to do paid work or job, and 26.4 % of respondent are not
willing to do paid work or job.
Table 6.19: Distribution of Respondents by Decision to do any Paid or Unpaid

Work
Decision to do Working Non-Working Total
any Paid or
Unpaid Work
69 181 250
No
(19.5) (73.6) (41.7)
285 65 350
Yes
(80.5) (26.4) (58.3)
Total 354 246 600
Family set up of respondent is analyzed in Table 6.20. In the first column,
family structure is described either it is nuclear or joint. In the second and third
column the working status of the women and the non-working status of the women
are taken respectively. The forth column shows the relative % ages of the respondents’
response. In the sample of 600 women, 59% of women are working and 39 % are
non-working women. In the given sample, 302 women live in nuclear family and 298
women live in joint family system. In the given sample of 354 working women, 54%
of women are living in the joint family and rest of them live in the nuclear family. In
the given sample of 246 non- working women, 56.5 % of women are living in the
nuclear family and rest of them live in the joint family.
Table 6.20: Distribution of Respondents by Family Setup
Family structure Working Non-Working Total

191 107 298
Joint
(54.0) (43.5) (49.7)
163 139 302
Nuclear
(46.0) (56.5) (50.3)
Total 354 246 600
The involvement of women in the household decision making is illustrated in
Table 6.21. In the first column, Participation in Household decision making by
women is taken in binary form of Yes or No. In the second and third column the
working status of the women and the non-working status of the women are taken
137
respectively. The forth column shows the relative %ages of the respondents’ response.
In the sample of 600 women, 59% of women are working and 39 % are non-working
women. In the given sample, 82.5 % of women take participation in the household
decision making and only 17.5 % of women do not take participation in the household
decision making. Working women of about 82.8 % take participation in the household
decision making and only 17.2 % of women do not take participation in the household
decision making. Non-Working women of about 82.1 % take participation in the
household decision making and only 17.9 % of women do not take participation in the
household decision making.
Table 6.21: Distribution of Respondents by Participation in Household Decision

Making
Participation in Working Non-Working Total
Household
Decision Making
61 44 105
No
(17.2) (17.9) (17.5)
293 202 495
Yes
(82.8) (82.1) (82.5)
Total 354 246 600
6.4 Respondents’ Households Information
In this section of analysis, respondent household information like total income of the
household, per capita income of the household, income of father and husband, number
of male and female, participation ratio of male and female, dependency ratio will be
analyzed. Total income of the household of respondent is illustrated in Table 6.22.
Income of the respondents is taken in rupees on monthly basis having the difference
of range of 5000 rupees in 1st column. The 2nd column expresses the working status
of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non-working status of respondents. The
forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. The sample of 600
respondents consists of 356 working women and 246 non-working women. The table
interprets that women of 2.8 % have income range from 1-5000 rupees, 15 % women
have income range from 5001-10000 rupees, 9.5 % women have income range from
10001-15000 rupees, 9.2 % women have income range from 15001-20000 rupees,
5.7% women have income range from 20001-25000 rupees , 7.3 % of women have
income range from 25001-30000 rupees, 5.3 % women have income range from
30001-35000 rupees, 4.3 % of women have income range from 35001-40000 rupees,
138
4.7 % women have income range from 40001-45000 rupees, 6.5 % women have
50001-55000 rupees, 4.5 % women have income range from 55001-60000 rupees ,
2.8 % women have income range from 60001-70000 rupees, 3 % women have income
range from 70001-80000 rupees, 3 % women have income range from 80001-90000
rupees, 2.5 % women have income range from 90001-100000 rupees, 10.7 % women
have income range above 100000 rupees. The sample of 356 working women
interprets that women of 3.1 % have income range from 1-5000 rupees, 12.4 %
women have income range from 5001-10000 rupees, 7.3 % women have income
range from 10001-15000 rupees, 10..2 % women have income range from 15001-
20000 rupees, 5.6 % women have income range from 20001-25000 rupees , 8.2 % of
range from 30001-35000 rupees, 4.8 % of women have income range from 35001-
40000 rupees, 5.4 % women have income range from 40001-45000 rupees, 6.5 %
range from 50001-55000 rupees, 5.1 % women have income range from 55001-60000
rupees , 3.1 % women have income range from 60001-70000 rupees, 3.1% women
have income range from 70001-80000 rupees, 3.7 % women have income range from
80001-90000 rupees, 2.8 % women have income range from 90001-100000 rupees,
10.2 % women have income range above 100000 rupees. The sample of 246 non-
working women interprets that non- working women of 2.4 % have income range
from 1-5000 rupees, 18.7 % women have income range from 5001-10000 rupees,
12.6 % women have income range from 10001-15000 rupees, 7.7 % women have
income range from 15001-20000 rupees, 5.7% women have income range from
20001-25000 rupees , 6.1 % of women have income range from 25001-30000 rupees,
4.1 % women have income range from 30001-35000 rupees, 3.7 % of women have
40001-45000 rupees, 6.5 % women have income range from 45001-50000 rupees, 4.5
% women have income range from 50001-55000 rupees, 3.7 % women have income
range from 55001-60000 rupees , 2.4 % women have income range from 60001-
70000 rupees, 2.8% women have income range from 70001-80000 rupees, 2 %
women have income range from 80001-90000 rupees, 2 % women have income range
from 90001-100000 rupees, 11.4 % women have income range above 100000 rupees.
139
Table 6.22: Distribution of Respondents by Total Income of Household
Income Working Non-Working Total

11 6 17
(1 - 5000)
(3.1) (2.4) (2.8)
44 46 90
(5001 - 10000)
(12.4) (18.7) (15.0)
26 31 57
(10001 - 15000)
(7.3) (12.6) (9.5)
36 19 55
(15001 - 20000)
(10.2) (7.7) (9.2)
20 14 34
(20001 - 25000)
(5.6) (5.7) (5.7)
29 15 44
(25001 - 30000)
(8.2) (6.1) (7.3)
22 10 32
(30001 - 35000)
(6.2) (4.1) (5.3)
17 9 26
(35001 - 40000)
(4.8) (3.7) (4.3)
19 9 28
(40001 - 45000)
(5.4) (3.7) (4.7)
23 16 39
(45001 - 50000)
(6.5) (6.5) (6.5)
8 11 19
(50001 - 55000)
(2.3) (4.5) (3.2)
18 9 27
(55001 - 60000)
(5.1) (3.7) (4.5)
11 6 17
(60001 - 70000)
(3.1) (2.4) (2.8)
11 7 18
(70001 - 80000)
(3.1) (2.8) (3.0)
13 5 18
(80001 - 90000)
(3.7) (2.0) (3.0)
10 5 15
(90001 - 100000)
(2.8) (2.0) (2.5)
36 28 64
(Greater than 100000)
(10.2) (11.4) (10.7)
Total 354 246 600
Per capita income of the household of respondent is illustrated in Table 6.23.
Per capita Income of the respondents is taken in rupees on monthly basis having the
difference of range of 5000 rupees in 1st column. The 2nd column expresses the
working status of respondents and 3rd column shows the non-working status of
140
respondents. The forth column displays the relative %age of respondents response.
The sample of 600 respondents consists of 356 working women and 246 non-working
women. The table interprets that women of 3.2 % have per capita income range from
1-1000 rupees, 13.5 % women have per capita income range from 1001-2000 rupees,
9 % women have per capita income range from 2001-3000 rupees, 10.5 % women
have per capita income range from 3001-4000 rupees, 9% women have per capita
income range from 4001-5000 rupees , 7 % of women have per capita income range
from 5001-6000 rupees, 6.3 % women have per capita income range from 6001-7000
rupees, 4.3 % of women have per capita income range from 7001-8000 rupees, 4 %
women have per capita income range from 8001-9000 rupees, 4.2 % women have per
capita income range from 9001-10000 rupees, 12.2 % women have per capita income
range from 10001-15000 rupees, 6 % women have per capita income range from
15001-20000 rupees , 4.8 % women have per capita income range from 20001-30000
rupees, 3.7% women have per capita income range from 40001-50000 rupees and 2.3
% women have per capita income range above 50000 rupees. The sample of 354
working respondents interprets that women of 2.8 % have per capita income range
from 1-1000 rupees, 11.3 % women have per capita income range from 1001-2000
rupees, 8.5% women have per capita income range from 2001-3000 rupees, 10.2 %
women have per capita income range from 3001-4000 rupees, 9.9 % women have per
capita income range from 4001-5000 rupees , 6.8 % of women have per capita income
range from 5001-6000 rupees, 6.2 % women have per capita income range from
6001-7000 rupees, 5.1 % of women have per capita income range from 7001-8000
rupees, 4.2 % women have per capita income range from 8001-9000 rupees, 4.5 %
women have per capita income range from 9001-10000 rupees, 11.3 % women have
per capita income range from 10001-15000 rupees, 6.2 % women have per capita
income range from 15001-20000 rupees , 5.9 % women have per capita income range
from 20001-30000 rupees, 4.2% women have per capita income range from 40001-
50000 rupees and 2.8 % women have per capita income range above 50000 rupees.
The sample of 264 non- working respondents interprets that women of 3.7 % have per
capita income range from 1-1000 rupees, 16.7 % women have per capita income
range from 1001-2000 rupees, 9.8 % women have per capita income range from
2001-3000 rupees, 11 % women have per capita income range from 3001-4000
rupees, 7.7 % women have per capita income range from 4001-5000 rupees , 7.3 %
of women have per capita income range from 5001-6000 rupees, 6.5 % women have
141
per capita income range from 6001-7000 rupees, 3.3 % of women have per capita
income range from 7001-8000 rupees, 3.7 % women have per capita income range
from 8001-9000 rupees, 3.7 % women have per capita income range from 9001-
10000 rupees, 13.4 % women have per capita income range from 10001-15000
rupees, 5.7 % women have per capita income range from 15001-20000 rupees , 3.3 %
women have per capita income range from 20001-30000 rupees, 2.8 % women have
per capita income range from 40001-50000 rupees and 1.6 % women have per capita
income range above 50000 rupees.
Table 6.23: Distribution of respondents by Per Capita Income
Per Capita Income Working Non-Working Total

10 9 19
(1 - 1000)
(2.8) (3.7) (3.2)
40 41 81
(1001 - 2000)
(11.3) (16.7) (13.5)
30 24 54
(2001 - 3000)
(8.5) (9.8) (9.0)
36 27 63
(3001 - 4000)
(10.2) (11.0) (10.5)
35 19 54
(4001 - 5000)
(9.9) (7.7) (9.0)
24 18 42
(5001 - 6000)
(6.8) (7.3) (7.0)
22 16 38
(6001 - 7000)
(6.2) (6.5) (6.3)
18 8 26
(7001 - 8000)
(5.1) (3.3) (4.3)
15 9 24
(8001 - 9000)
(4.2) (3.7) (4.0)
16 9 25
(9001 - 10000)
(4.5) (3.7) (4.2)
40 33 73
(10001 - 15000)
(11.3) (13.4) (12.2)
22 14 36
(15001 - 20000)
(6.2) (5.7) (6.0)
21 8 29
(20001 - 30000)
(5.9) (3.3) (4.8)
15 7 22
(40001 - 50000)
(4.2) (2.8) (3.7)
10 4 14
(Greater than 50000)
(2.8) (1.6) (2.3)
Total 354 246 600
142
Husband’s job status of respondent is illustrated in Table 6.24. Status of
respondents husbands’ job either employed or unemployed is taken in 1st column of
the Table. The 2nd column expresses the working status of respondents and 3 rd
column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column shows the
relative %age of respondents response. The sample of 600 respondents consists of 356
working women and 246 non-working women. Out of the total sample, 376 are
unemployed and 224 are employed. In the sample of working respondents, 194 are
unemployed and 160 are employed and in the sample of non-working respondents,
182 are unemployed and 64 are employed.
Table 6.24: Distribution of Respondents by Husband’s Job Status
Husband’s Job Working Non-Working Total

Status
160 64 224
Employed
(45.2) (26.0) (37.3)
194 182 376
Unemployed
(54.8) (74.0) (62.7)
Total 354 246 600
Father’s job status of respondent is illustrated in Table 6.25. Status of
respondents’ Fathers job either employed or unemployed is taken in 1st column of the
Table. The 2nd column displays the working status of respondents and 3 rd column
expresses the non-working status of respondents. The forth column explains the
relative %age of respondents response. The sample of 600 respondents consists of 356
working women and 246 non-working women. Out of the total sample, 62.3 % are
employed and 37.7 % are un-employed. In the sample of working respondents, 54.8%
are employed and 45.2% are unemployed and in the sample of non-working
respondents, 73.2% are employed and 26.8% are unemployed.
Table 6.25: Distribution of Respondents by Father’s Job Status
Father’s Job Working Non-Working Total

Status
194 180 374
Employed
(54.8) (73.2) (62.3)
160 66 226
Unemployed
(45.2) (26.8) (37.7)
Total 354 246 600
143
Number of Male members of household of respondent is illustrated in Table
6.26. Number of male members is expressed in 1st column of the Table. The 2nd
column displays the working status of respondents and 3 rd column expresses the non-
working status of respondents. The forth column shows the relative %age of
respondents response. 356 working women and 246 non-working women are part of
the sample of 600 respondents. 24.7% of the respondents have 3 male members in
women household, 22.8% of the respondents have 2 male members in women
household, 19 % of the respondents have 4 male members in women household, 10.8
%of the respondents have 5 male members in women household , 9.8% of the
respondents have one male member in household, 3.7 % of the respondents have 7
male members in household, 2.2 of the respondents have 8 male members in
household,.7% of the respondents have 9 male members in household, .5% of the
respondents have 11 male members in household.23.4 % of the working women have
2 male members in women household, 21.8% of the respondents have 3 male
members in women household, 16.7 % of the respondents have 4 male members in
women household, 12.7 %of the respondents have one male members in women
household , 11.6 % of the respondents have 5 male member in household, 6.2 % of
the respondents have 6 male members in household, 3.7% of the respondents have 7
male members in household, 3.1 % of the respondents have 8 male members in
household, .6% of the respondents have 9 male members in household, .3% of the
respondents have 11 male members in household.
Table 6.26: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Male Members in

Household
Male Members Working Non-Working Total
45 14 59
1.00
(12.7) (5.7) (9.8)
83 54 137
2.00
(23.4) (22.0) (22.8)
77 71 148
3.00
(21.8) (28.9) (24.7)
59 55 114
4.00
(16.7) (22.4) (19.0)
41 24 65
5.00
(11.6) (9.8) (10.8)
22 13 35
6.00
(6.2) (5.3) (5.8)
13 9 22
7.00
(3.7) (3.7) (3.7)
144
11 2 13
8.00
(3.1) (0.8) (2.2)
2 2 4
9.00
(0.6) (0.8) (0.7)
1 2 3
11.00
(0.3) (0.8) (0.5)
Total 354 246 600
Number of Female members of household of respondent is illustrated in Table
6.27. Number of female members is shown in 1 st column of the Table. The 2nd
column expresses the working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non-
working status of respondents. The forth column discusses the relative %age of
respondents response. 356 working women and 246 non-working women are part of
the sample of 600 respondents. 35.7% of the respondents have 2 female members in
women household, 32.5 % of the respondents have one female members in women
household, 9.2 % of the respondents have 4 female members in women household, 2
%of the respondents have 5 female members in women household, 1.7% of the
respondents have 6 female member in household, .3% % of the respondents have 7
female members in household. In the sample of working women, 35.9% of the
respondents have one female members in women household, 33.6% of the
respondents have 2 female members in women household, 18.4 % of the respondents
have 3 female members in women household, 8.5 % of the respondents have 4 female
members in women household, 2.3 % of the respondents have 5 female member in
household, 1.1% of the respondents have 6 female members in household, .3 % of the
respondents have 7 female members in household. In the sample of non-working
women, 38.6 % of the respondents have 2 female members in women household, 27.6
% of the respondents have one female members in women household, 19.1 % of the
respondents have 3 female members in women household, 10.2 % of the respondents
have 4 female members in women household, 1.6 % of the respondents have 5 female
member in household, 2.4 % of the respondents have 6 female members in household,
.1 % of the respondents have 7 female members in household.
Table 6.27: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Female Members in

Household
Female Members Working Non – Working Total
127 68 195
1.00
(35.9) (27.6) (32.5)
145
119 95 214
2.00
(33.6) (38.6) (35.7)
65 47 112
3.00
(18.4) (19.1) (18.7)
30 25 55
4.00
(8.5) (10.2) (9.2)
8 4 12
5.00
(2.3) (1.6) (2.0)
4 6 10
6.00
(1.1) (2.4) (1.7)
1 1 2
7.00
(0.3) (0.4) (0.3)
Total 354 246 600
Female to Male Ratio of respondent Household is described in Table 6.28.
Female to male ratio in respondents household is shown in column 1 by expressing
the ranges of female to male ratio. The 2nd column explains the working status of
respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The
forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. 356 working
women and 246 non-working women are part of the sample of 600 respondents. In the
given sample, 44.2 % of the respondents have 0.51-1.00 female to male ratio, 43.2 %
of the respondents have less than 0.50 female to male ratio, 11.5 % of the respondents
have 1.01-2.00 female to male ratio, 1.2 % of the respondents have greater than 2
female to male ratio. In the given sample of working women, 45.8 % of the
respondents have less than .50 female to male ratio, 39.5 % of the respondents have
less than 0.51-1.00 female to male ratio, 13.6 % of the respondents have 1.01-2.00
female to male ratio, 1.1 % of the respondents have greater than 2 female to male
ratio. In the given sample of non- working women, 50.8 % of the respondents have
0.51-1.00 Female to male ratio, 39.4 % of the respondents have less than .50 female to
male ratio, 18.5 % of the respondents have 1.01-2.00 female to male ratio, 1.2 % of
the respondents have greater than 2 female to male ratio.
Table 6.28: Distribution of Respondents by Female to Male Ratio in Household
Female to Male Ratio Working Non-Working Total

162 97 259
(Less than 0.50)
(45.8) (39.4) (43.2)
140 125 265
(0.51 - 1.00)
(39.5) (50.8) (44.2)
48 21 69
(1.01 - 2.00)
(13.6) (8.5) (11.5)
146
4 3 7
(Greater than 2.00)
(1.1) (1.2) (1.2)
Total 354 246 600
Number of working members of respondent Household is described in Table

6.29. 1st column represents the number of working members in respondents
household. The 2nd column displays the working status of respondents and 3 rd column
expresses the non-working status of respondents. The forth column expresses the
relative %age of respondents response. 356 working women and 246 non-working
women are part of the sample of 600 respondents. In the sample of 600, 48.3 % of
women have one working member in women household. This is the highest %age in
the Table. 29.2 % of women have 2 working member in women household, 11 % of
women have 3 working member in women household, 7.3 % of women have 4
working member in women household, 2.3 % of women have 5 working member in
women household, .8 % of women have 6 working member in women household, .7
% of women have 7 working member in women household, .2 % of women have 8
working member in women household, .2 % of women have 9 working member in her
household. In the sample of working women 42.1 % of women have one working
member in women household. This is the highest %age in the Table 32.5 % of women
have 2 working member in women household, 13.6 % of women have 3 working
member in women household, 7.6 % of women have 4 working member in women
household, 2 % of women have 5 working member in women household, 1.1 % of
women have 6 working member in women household, .8 % of women have 7 working
member in women household, .3 % of women have 9 working member in women
household. In the sample of non- working women 57.3 % of women have one
working member in women household. This is the highest %age in the particular
column. 14.4 % of women have 2 working member in women household, 7.3 % of
women have 3 working member in women household, 6.9 % of women have 4
working member in women household, 2.8 % of women have 5 working member in
women household, .4 % of women have 6 working member in women household, .4%
of women have 7 working member in women household, .4 % of women have 8
working member in women household.
147
Table 6.29: Distribution of Respondents by Number of Working Members in
Household
Working Working Non-Working Total
Members
149 141 290
1.00
(42.1) (57.3) (48.3)
115 60 175
2.00
(32.5) (24.4) (29.2)
48 18 66
3.00
(13.6) (7.3) (11.0)
27 17 44
4.00
(7.6) (6.9) (7.3)
7 7 14
5.00
(2.0) (2.8) (2.3)
4 1 5
6.00
(1.1) (0.4) (0.8)
3 1 4
7.00
(0.8) (0.4) (0.7)
1 1
8.00 ----
(0.4) (0.2)
1 1
9.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.30 depicts Members of respondents’ households older than 60 years of
age. 1st column represents the number of household members who are older than 60
years. The 2nd column shows the working status of respondents and 3rd column
expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column expresses the
relative %age of respondents response. Out of the 600 respondents, 452 women have
none member who is older than 60 years and this is the highest %age in the column.
99 women have one member who is older than 60 years ,36 women have 2 member
who is older than 60 years,4 women have four member who is older than 60 years, 3
women have 3 member who is older than 60 years,2 women have 5 member who is
older than 60 years, 2 women have 6 member who is older than 60 years, 2 women
have 8 member who is older than 60 years. Out of the 354 working women, 261
working women have none member who is older than 60 years and this is the highest
%age in the column. 60 working women have one member who is older than 60
148
years , 25 working women have 2 member who is older than 60 years, 3 women have
four member who is older than 60 years, 2 working women have 5 member who is
older than 60 years,2 working women have 6 member who is older than 60 years.
Out of the 246 non- working women, 191non-working women have none member
who is older than 60 years and this is the highest %age in the column. 39 non-
working women have one member who is older than 60 years, 11 non- working
women have 2 member who is older than 60 years, 2 non- women have three member
who is older than 60 years, 1 non-working women have 4 member who is older than
60 years, one non- working women have 4 member who is older than 60 years, 2 non-
working women have 8 member who is older than 60 years
Table 6.30: Distribution of Respondents by Members of Households older than

60 years of age
Members > 60 Working Non-Working Total
261 191 452
Zero
(73.7) (77.6) (75.3)
60 39 99
1.00
(16.9) (15.9) (16.5)
25 11 36
2.00
(7.1) (4.5) (6.0)
1 2 3
3.00
(0.3) (0.8) (0.5)
3 1 4
4.00
(0.8) (0.4) (0.7)
2 2
5.00 ----
(0.6) (0.3)
2 2
6.00 ----
(0.6) (0.3)
2 2
8.00 ----
(0.8) (0.3)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.31 explains Members of respondents’ households younger than 18
years of age. 1st column represents the number of household members who are
younger than 18 years. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents
and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column
expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Out of the 600 respondents,
30.7% women have none member who is younger than 18 years and this is the highest
%age in the column. In the same sample, 21.7 % women have two members who are
younger than 18 years, 19 % women have one member who are younger than 18
years, 15.5 % women have three members who are younger than 18 years, 7.7 %
149
women have four members who are younger than 18 years, 0.2 % women have ten
members who are younger than 18 years, 0.1 % women have seven members who
are younger than 18 years. Out of the 354 working respondents, 31.9 % women have
none member who is younger than 18 years and this is the highest %age in the
column. In the same sample, 20.9 % working women have two members who are
younger than 18 years, 20.6 % working women have one member who are younger
than 18 years, 13.8 % working women have three members who are younger than
18 years, 6.8 % working women have four members who are younger than 18 years,
3.1 % working women have five members who are younger than 18 years,1.4 %
working women have six members who are younger than 18 years, 1.1 % working
women have seven members who are younger than 18 years. Out of the 246 non-
working respondents, 28.9 % non-working women have none member who is younger
than 18 years and this is the highest %age in the column. In the same column, 22.8 %
non-working women have two members who are younger than 18 years, 16.7 %
non-working women have one member who are younger than 18 years, 17.9 % non-
working women have three members who are younger than 18 years, 8.9 % non-
working women have four members who are younger than 18 years, 3.7 % non-
working women have five members who are younger than 18 years,0.4 % non-
working women have six members who are younger than 18 years, 0.8 % working
women have seven members who are younger than 18 years.
Table 6.31: Distribution of Respondents by Members of Household younger than

18
Members < 18 Working Non-Working Total
113 71 184
Zero
(31.9) (28.9) (30.7)
73 41 114
1.00
(20.6) (16.7) (19.0)
74 56 130
2.00
(20.9) (22.8) (21.7)
49 44 93
3.00
(13.8) (17.9) (15.5)
24 22 46
4.00
(6.8) (8.9) (7.7)
11 9 20
5.00
(3.1) (3.7) (3.3)
5 1 6
6.00
(1.4) (0.4) (1.0)
4 2 6
7.00
(1.1) (0.8) (1.0)
150
1 1
10.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.32 illustrates members of respondents’ households between 18 and 60
years of age. 1st column represents the number of respondents’ households between 18
and 60 years of age. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and
3rd column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column
expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Out of the 600 respondents,
30.7% women have two members between 18 and 60 years of age and this is the
highest %age in the column. In the same sample, 13.7 % women have three members
between 18 and 60 years of age, 10.2 % women have one member who are younger
than 18 years, 11.8 % women have five members between 18 and 60 years of age,
14.5 % women have four members between 18 and 60 years of age , 8 % women
have six members between 18 and 60 years of age, 6.2 % women have seven
members between 18 and 60 years of age, 2.3 % women have eight members
between 18 and 60 years of age, 1.5 % women have six members between 18 and 60
years of age, 0.3 % women have ten members between 18 and 60 years of age. Out of
the 354 working respondents, 28.8 % women have two members between 18 and 60
years of age and this is the highest %age in the column. In the same sample, 13.8 %
working women have four members between 18 and 60 years of age, 13.3 % working
women have one member between 18 and 60 years of age, 13.8 % working women
have four members between 18 and 60 years of age, 12.7 % working women have
three members between 18 and 60 years of age, 14.1 % working women have five
members between 18 and 60 years of age, 6.8 % working women have six members
between 18 and 60 years of age, 6.2 % working women have seven members
between 18 and 60 years of age, 2.3 % working women have eight members between
18 and 60 years of age, 1.1 % working women have nine members between 18 and
60 years of age. Out of the 246 non-working respondents, 33.3 % women have two
members between 18 and 60 years of age and this is the highest %age in the column.
In the same sample, 15.4 % working women have four members between 18 and 60
years of age, 15 % working women have three member between 18 and 60 years of
age, 9.8 % working women have six members between 18 and 60 years of age, 8.5
% working women have five members between 18 and 60 years of age, 6.1 %
151
working women have seven members between 18 and 60 years of age, 2.4 %
working women have eight members between 18 and 60 years of age, 2 % working
women have nine members between 18 and 60 years of age, .4 % working women
have tent members between 18 and 60 years of age, .4 % working women have
eleven members between 18 and 60 years of age.
Table 6.32: Distribution of Respondents by Members of Households between 18

and 60 years
Members > 18 Working Non-Working Total
and < 60
2 2 4
Zero
(0.6) (0.8) (0.7)
47 14 61
1.00
(13.3) (5.7) (10.2)
102 82 184
2.00
(28.8) (33.3) (30.7)
45 37 82
3.00
(12.7) (15.0) (13.7)
49 38 87
4.00
(13.8) (15.4) (14.5)
50 21 71
5.00
(14.1) (8.5) (11.8)
24 24 48
6.00
(6.8) (9.8) (8.0)
22 15 37
7.00
(6.2) (6.1) (6.2)
8 6 14
8.00
(2.3) (2.4) (2.3)
4 5 9
9.00
(1.1) (2.0) (1.5)
1 1 2
10.00
(0.3) (0.4) (0.3)
1 1
11.00 ----
(0.4) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.33 depicts about the total household size of respondents. Total
household size is represented in 1st column. The 2nd column represents the working
status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non-working status of respondents.
The forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of
600 women is taken for analysis. Out of the 600 respondents, 24.5 % (maximum
value in the column)women have 5 members in her household, 14.7 % women have 4
members in her household, 13.2 % women have 6 members in her household, 8 %
152
women have 7 members in her household, 7 % women have 8 members in her
household, 6.8 % women have 9 members in her household, 2.3 % women have 10
members in her household, 2.2 % women have 11 members in her household, 1.3 %
women have 12 members in her household. and rest of the sample has more than 12
and less than 17 members in her household. Sample size of 354 working women is
taken for analysis. Out of the working respondents, 21.2 % (maximum value in the
column)working women have 5 members in her household, 15.8 % working women
have 4 members in her household, 15 % working women have 6 members in her
household,12.1% working women have 3 members in her household, 8.2 % working
women have 2 members in her household, 7.9 % working women have 7 members in
her household, 5.9 % working women have 8 members in her household,5.6 %
working women have 9 members in her household, 2.8 % working women have 10
members in her household and rest of the sample have more than 10 and less than 17
members in her household. Sample size of 246 non- working women is taken for
analysis. Out of the non-working respondents, 29.3 % (maximum value in the
column)non- working women have 5 members in her household, 13 % non- working
women have 4 members in her household, 10.6 % non- working women have 6
members in her household, 10.2 % non- working women have 3 members in her
household , 8.5 % non- working women have 8 members in her household, 8.5 %
non- working women have 9 members in her household, 5.3 % non- working women
have 2 members in her household, and rest of the sample have more than 9 and less
than 17 members in her household.
Table 6.33: Distribution of Respondents by Total Household Size
Household Size Working Non-Working Total

1 1
1.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
29 13 42
2.00
(8.2) (5.3) (7.0)
43 25 68
3.00
(12.1) (10.2) (11.3)
56 32 88
4.00
(15.8) (13.0) (14.7)
75 72 147
5.00
(21.2) (29.3) (24.5)
53 26 79
6.00
(15.0) (10.6) (13.2)
153
28 20 48
7.00
(7.9) (8.1) (8.0)
21 21 42
8.00
(5.9) (8.5) (7.0)
20 21 41
9.00
(5.6) (8.5) (6.8)
10 4 14
10.00
(2.8) (1.6) (2.3)
9 4 13
11.00
(2.5) (1.6) (2.2)
4 4 8
12.00
(1.1) (1.6) (1.3)
3 3 6
13.00
(0.8) (1.2) (1.0)
1 1
14.00 ----
(0.4) (0.2)
1 1
15.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
1 1
16.00 ----
(0.3) (0.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.34 shows the participation ratio of women in household. Participation
ratio of women is represented in 1st column by taking the ratio along with ranges of
0.50 differences. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd
column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column expresses
the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is taken for
analysis. In the sample of 354 working women, 78.8 % women have participation
ratio less than 0.50, 18.6 % women have participation ratio between 0.51-1.00 ,1.7 %
women have participation ratio between 1.01-2.00, 0.8 % women have participation
ratio greater than 2.00. In the sample of 246 non- working women, 85.4 % women
have participation ratio less than 0.50, 13.4 % women have participation ratio
between 0.51-1.00, 1.2 % women have participation ratio between 1.01-2.00. In the
given sample of 600 women, 81.5 % women have participation ratio less than 0.50,
16.5 % women have participation ratio between 0.51-1.00 ,1.5 % women have
participation ratio between 1.01-2.00, 0.5 % women have participation ratio greater
than 2.00.
Table 6.34: Distribution of Respondents by Participation ratio
Participation ratio Working Non-Working Total
154
279 210 489
(Less than 0.50)
(78.8) (85.4) (81.5)
66 33 99
(0.51 - 1.00)
(18.6) (13.4) (16.5)
6 3 9
(1.01 - 2.00)
(1.7) (1.2) (1.5)
3 3
(Greater than 2.00) ----
(0.8) (0.5)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.34 displays the Dependency ratio of women household. Dependency
ratio of women is represented in 1st column by taking the ratio along with ranges of
0.20 differences. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd
column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column expresses
the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is taken for
analysis. In the sample of 354 working women, 33.1 % of women have Dependency
ratio less than 0.20, 26.3 % women have Dependency ratio between 0.41-0.60, 22.3 %
women have Dependency ratio between 0.21- .40, 15.8 % women have participation
ratio between 0.61-0.80, 2.5 % women have participation ratio greater than .81. In the
sample of 246 non- working women, 31.7 % of women have Dependency ratio less
than 0.20, 28.9 % women have Dependency ratio between 0.21-0.40, 24.8 % women
have Dependency ratio between 0.41- .60, 12.2 % women have participation ratio
between 0.61-0.80, 2.4 % women have participation ratio greater than .81. In the
given sample of 600 women, 32.5 % women have dependency ratio less than 0.20,
25.7 % women have dependency ratio between 0.41-0.60 , 25.0 % women have
dependency ratio between 0.21-0.40, 14.3 % women have dependency ratio between
0.61-0.80, 2.5 % women have dependency ratio greater than 0.81.
Table 6.35: Distribution of Respondents by Dependency ratio
Dependency ratio Working Non-Working Total

117 78 195
(Less than 0.20)
(33.1) (31.7) (32.5)
79 71 150
(0.21 - 0.40)
(22.3) (28.9) (25.0)
93 61 154
(0.41 - 0.60)
(26.3) (24.8) (25.7)
56 30 86
(0.61 - 0.80)
(15.8) (12.2) (14.3)
9 6 15
(Greater than 0.81)
(2.5) (2.4) (2.5)
155
Total 354 246 600
6.5 Women Empowerment in Southern Punjab
In the following section, Women empowerment is analyzed by the index of women

empowerment according to region wise. Table 6.36 explains the women
empowerment index of respondents. In 1st column, Index is described by taking the
difference of 0.20 among each of the row. The 2nd column represents the working
status of respondents and 3rd column shows the non-working status of respondents.
The forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of
600 women is taken for analysis. Out of the total sample, 39.8 % of women have the
value in between 0.41and 0.60, 30.5 % of women have the value in between 0.61and
0.80, 18.5 % of women have the value in between 0.21and 0.40, 7.5 % of women
have the value in between 0.81and 1.00, 3.7 % of women have the value in between
0.00and 0.20. Sample size of 354 working women, 40.1 % of women have the value
in between 0.61and 0.80, 33.9 % of working women have the value in between
0.41and 0.60, 12.4 % of women have the value in between 0.81and 1.00, 11.9 % of
women have the value in between 0.21and 0.40, 1.7 % of women have the value in
between 0.00and 0.20. Sample size of 246 non- working women, 48.4 % of women
have the value in between 0.41and 0.60, 28 % of non- working women have the value
in between 0.21and 0.40, 16.7 % of non-working women have the value in between
0.61and 0.80, 6.5 % of non- working women have the value in between 0.00 and 0.20,
0.4 % of non-working women have the value in between 0.81and 1.00.
Table 6.36: Distribution of Women Empowerment Index
Index Working Non-Working Total

6 16 22
(0 – 0.20)
(1.7) (6.5) (3.7)
42 69 111
(0.21 – 0.40)
(11.9) (28) (18.5)
120 119 239
(0.41 – 0.60)
(33.9) (48.4) (39.8)
142 41 183
(0.61 – 0.80)
(40.1) (16.7) (30.5)
44 1 45
(0.81 – 1.00)
(12.4) (0.4) (7.5)
Total 354 246 600
156
Table 6.37 explains the decomposition of Women Empowerment Index by
Regions and area of residence of the women. In 1 st column, job status of women is
defined either working or non-working. The 2nd column represents the area of the
residency (Multan, Bahawalpur or DG. Khan) of women, 3rd column particular area of
respondents either rural or urban is defined. Fourth column shows the economic, 4th
column shows the social and 5th column shows the familial status of respondents. The
6th column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600
women is taken for analysis.
Table 6.37: Distribution of Decomposition of Women Empowerment Index by

Regions and Area of Residence
Job
Division Area Economic Social Familial Total
Status
Total 0.701 0.695 0.665 0.687
Multan Rural 0.648 0.661 0.661 0.657
Urban 0.791 0.753 0.672 0.739
Working
Total 0.642 0.638 0.605 0.628

Bahawalpur Rural 0.625 0.582 0.658 0.622
Urban 0.658 0.687 0.558 0.634
Total 0.580 0.604 0.529 0.571
DG Khan Rural 0.557 0.526 0.446 0.510
Urban 0.620 0.737 0.673 0.676
Total 0.424 0.643 0.568 0.545
Multan Rural 0.394 0.684 0.529 0.535
Non-Working
Urban 0.447 0.614 0.595 0.552

Total 0.419 0.569 0.477 0.488
Bahawalpur Rural 0.416 0.504 0.520 0.480
Urban 0.421 0.597 0.459 0.492
Total 0.352 0.530 0.449 0.444
DG Khan Rural 0.373 0.569 0.455 0.465
Urban 0.326 0.479 0.442 0.416
In the sample of 600 women, 0.687 % working women belong to Multan
division, and .545 % non-working women belong to Multan division. 0.628 %
working women belong to Bahawalpur division and .448% non- working women
belong to Bahawalpur division. 0.571 % working women belong to DG Khan division
and .444 % non- working women belong to DG Khan division. In the sample of 600
women, 59 % of women are working and 39 % women are non- working. In the
working women sample, In Multan division, .657 % are rural with the distribution of
0.648 % Economic, .661% Social, .661% familial and .739% are urban with the
157
distribution of 0.791 % Economic, .753% Social, and .672% familial. In Bahawalpur
division, .622 % are rural with the distribution of 0.625 % Economic, .582% Social, .
605% familial and .634% are urban with the distribution of 0.658 % Economic, .
687% Social, .558 % familial. In D.G Khan division, 0.51 % are rural with the
distribution of 0.557 % Economic, .526% Social, .446 % familial and .676% are
urban with the distribution of 0.620 % Economic, .737% Social, .673 % familial. In
the non- working women sample, in Multan division,.535 % are rural with the
distribution of 0.394 % Economic,.684% Social, .529 % familial and .739% are
urban with the distribution of 0.447% Economic,.614% Social, .595% familial. In
Bahawalpur division, .480 % are rural with the distribution of 0.416 % Economic, .
504 % Social, .520% familial and .492% are urban with the distribution of 0.421 %
Economic, .579% Social, and .459 % familial. In DG Khan division, .465 % are rural
with the distribution of 0.373 % Economic, .569% Social, .455 % familial and .416%
are urban with the distribution of 0.326 % Economic, .479 % Social, and .442 %
familial.
6.5.1 Economic Empowerment of Women
Economic empowerment of women is determined by women control over the

spending of her personal income, Independence in making expenditures by women;
own bank account of women, women ownership of any asset, women access to loan/
microfinance.
Table 6.38 explains the respondents (women) control over the spending of her
personal income. In 1st column, Control over the Spending of women Personal Income
is taken in the binary form with Control and No Control. The 2nd column represents
the working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
respondents. The forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response.
Sample size of 600 women is taken for analysis. In the given sample, 75.2 % women
have control over her spending and rest of them has no control on her spending. Out
of the 600, 354 women are working and rests of them are non-working. In the sample
of working women, 82.2 % women have control over her spending and rests of them
have no control on her spending. In the sample of non-working women 65 % women
have control over her spending and rests of them have no control on her spending.
Table 6.38: Distribution of Respondents by control over the Spending of her

Personal Income
158
Control over the Spending Working Non-Working Total
of her Personal Income
63 86 149
No Control
(17.8) (35) (24.8)
291 160 451
Control
(82.2) (65) (75.2)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.39 explains the respondents (women) independence in making
expenditures. In 1st column, Independence in Making Expenditures is taken in the
binary form with Independence and No Independence. The 2nd column represents the
working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
Sample size of 600 women is taken for analysis. In the given sample, 72.8 % women
have independence in expenditure and No independence in expenditure. Out of the
600, 354 women are working and rests of them are non-working. In the sample of
working women, 81.6 % women have independence in expenditure and 18.4 % have
No independence in expenditure. In the sample of non- working women, 60.2 %
women have independence in expenditure and 39.8 % have No independence in
expenditure.
Table 6.39: Distribution of Respondents by Independence in making

Expenditures
Independence in Making Working Non-Working Total
Expenditures
65 98 163
No Independence
(18.4) (39.8) (27.2)
289 148 437
Independence
(81.6) (60.2) (72.8)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.40 explains the respondents (women) having their accounts in the
bank. In 1st column, bank account is taken in the binary form with having bank
account and having no bank account. The 2nd column represents the working status of
forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600
women is taken for analysis. In the sample of 600 women,55.5% have their bank
account and 44.5 have not their bank account. Working women are 354 in the sample
with 59 % having No bank account in the banks and 41 % having accounts in the
159
banks. Non-Working women are 246 in the sample with 76.4 % having the bank
account in the banks and 23.6 % having accounts in the banks.
Table 6.40: Distribution of Respondents having Own Bank Account
Bank Account Working Non-Working Total

145 188 333
No Account
(41) (76.4) (55.5)
209 58 267
Own Bank Account
(59) (23.6) (44.5)
Total 354 246 600
Table 6.41 illustrates the respondents (women) ownership of any assets. In 1 st
column, ownership of any assets is taken in the binary form with having ownership of
any assets and having no ownership of any assets. The 2nd column represents the
working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
Sample size of 600 women is taken for analysis. In the sample of 600 women, 57.7 %
have No ownership of any assets and 42.3 have ownership of any assets. Working
women are 354 in the sample with 51.7 % having their ownership of any assets and
48.3% having no ownership of any assets. Non-Working women are 246 in the sample
with 71.1 % have ownership of any assets and 28.9 % have no ownership of any
assets.
Table 6.41: Distribution of Respondents by ownership of any asset
Ownership of Working Non-Working Total

Any Asset
171 175 346
No Asset
(48.3) (71.1) (57.7)
183 71 254
Assets
(51.7) (28.9) (42.3)
Total 354 246 600
Access to microfinance is illustrated in Table 6.42. In 1st column, Access to
Loan/ Microcredit is taken in the binary form with having Access to Loan/
Microcredit and having no Access to Loan/ Microcredit. The 2nd column represents
the working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
Sample size of 600 women is taken for analysis. In the given sample of 600
160
respondents, 59.3% are working and 39.7% are non-working. Out of 600 women, 63.5
% have No Access to Loan/ Microcredit and 36.5% have Access to Loan/ Microcredit.
Out of 354 working women, 52.5 % have No Access to Loan/ Microcredit and 47.5%
have Access to Loan/ Microcredit. Out of 246 non-working women, 79.3 % have No
Access to Loan/ Microcredit and 20.7 % have Access to Loan/ Microcredit.
Table 6.42: Distribution of Respondents by Access to Loan/ Microfinance
Access to Loan/ Working Non-Working Total

Microcredit
186 195 381
No Access to Microcredit
(52.5) (79.3) (63.5)
168 51 219
Access to Microcredit
(47.5) (20.7) (36.5)
Total 354 246 600
Women empowerment index is displayed in Table 6.43. 1st column defines
index having the values between 0.00 and 1.00. The 2nd column represents the
working status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non-working status of
respondents, 354 women are working and 246 % are non-working women. Out of 600
women, 21.5% women have index value of .60, 21.7% women have index value of .
40, 17.3% women have index value of 1.00, 15.5% women have index value of .80,
14.8 % women have index value of .20, 9.2 % women have index value of 0.00. Out
of 354 working women, 26.8 % working women have index value of .60, 25.1 %
working women have index value of 1.00, 19.2 % working women have index value
of 1.00,15.3% working women have index value of .40, 8.5 % working women have
index value of .20, 5.1 % working women have index value of 0.00. Out of 246 non-
working women, 30.9 % non- working women have index value of .40, 24 % non-
working women have index value of 0.20 , 15 % non-working women have index
value of 0.00,13.8 % non-working women have index value of .60, 10.2 % non-
working women have index value of .80, 6.1 % non-working women have index value
of 1.00.
Table 6.43: Distribution of Women’s Economic Empowerment Index
Index Working Non-working Total

0.00 18 37 55
161
(5.1) (15) (9.2)
30 59 89
0.20
(8.5) (24) (14.8)
54 76 130
0.40
(15.3) (30.9) (21.7)
95 34 129
0.60
(26.8) (13.8) (21.5)
68 25 93
0.80
(19.2) (10.2) (15.5)
89 15 104
1.00
(25.1) (6.1) (17.3)
Total 354 246 600
6.5.2 Social Empowerment of Women
Social women empowerment is explained in the following section. In this section,

social empowerment is measured by access to media to women, shopping or visit
status of women to park or to their relatives and their participation at community
services. Access to media to women is illustrated in Table 6.44. In 1 st column, Access
to media/ internet is taken in the binary form with having Access to media/ internet
and having no Access to media/ internet. The 2nd column represents the working
status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
Table 6.44: Distribution of Respondents by Access to Media/Internet
Access to Media/ Internet Working Non-Working Total

152 128 280
No Access to Media
(42.9) (52) (46.7)
202 118 320
Access to Media
(57.1) (48) (53.3)
Total 354 246 600
respondents, 59.3% are working and 39.7% are non-working. Out of 600 women,53.3
% women have Access to Media and 46.7 % have No Access to Media. Out of the
59.3 % of working women, 57.1 have Access to Media and 42.9% have No Access to
Media. Out of the 59.3 % of non-working women, 48% have Access to Media and 52
% have No Access to Media.
Permission to go out for shopping or visit park to women is illustrated in Table

6.45. In 1st column, Permission for Shopping or Park is taken in the binary form with
162
having Permission for Shopping or Park and having No Permission for Shopping or
Park. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column
relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is taken for
analysis. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 59.3% are working and 39.7% are
non-working. In working sample of women,69.8% have Permission for Shopping or
Park and 30.2 % have No Permission for Shopping or Park. In non-working sample of
women, 62.6 % have Permission for Shopping or Park and 37.4 % have No
Permission for Shopping or Park. In total sample of 600, 66.8% have Permission for
Shopping or Park and 33.2 % have No Permission for Shopping or Park.
Table 6.45: Distribution of Respondents by permission to go out for shopping or

visit park
Permission for Working Non-Working Total
Shopping or Park
No Permission for 107 92 199
Shopping or Park (30.2) (37.4) (33.2)
Permission for 247 154 401
Shopping or Park (69.8) (62.6) (66.8)
Total 354 246 600
Permission to visit family members or other relatives to women is explained in
Table 6.46. In 1st column, Permission to visit family members or other relatives is
taken in the binary form with having Permission to visit family members or other
relatives and having No Permission to visit family members or other relatives. The
2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column expresses the
non- working status of respondents. The forth column expresses the relative %age of
respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is taken for analysis. In the given
sample of 600 respondents, 59.3% are working and 39.7% are non-working. In
working sample of women,68.1 % have Permission to visit family members or other
relatives and 31.9 % have No Permission for Shopping or Park. In non-working
sample of women,64.6 % have Permission to visit family members or other relatives
and 35.4 % have No Permission to visit family members or other relatives. In total
sample of 600, 66.7% have Permission to visit family members or other relatives and
33.3 % have No Permission to visit family members or other relatives.
Table 6.46: Distribution of respondents by permission to visit family members or

other relatives
163
Permission to visit Family Working Non-Working Total
or Relatives
No Permission to visit 113 87 200
Family or Relatives (31.9) (35.4) (33.3)
Permission to visit Family 241 159 400
or Relatives (68.1) (64.6) (66.7)
Total 354 246 600
Freedom to express her views in the family to women is displayed in Table
6.47. In 1st column, freedom to express her views in the family is taken in the binary
form with having freedom to express her views in the family and having No freedom
to express her views in the family. The 2nd column represents the working status of
women is taken for analysis. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 59.3% are
working and 39.7% are non-working. In working sample of women,66.9 % have
freedom to express her views in the family and 33.1 % have No freedom to express
her views in the family. In non-working sample of women,64.6 % have freedom to
express her views in the family and 35.4 % have No freedom to express her views in
the family. In total sample of 600, 66 % have freedom to express her views in the
family and 34 % have No freedom to express her views in the family.
Table 6.47: Distribution of Respondents by freedom to express her views in the

family
Freedom to express her Working Non-Working Total
Views in the Family?
No Freedom to express 117 87 204
her Views (33.1) (35.4) (34)
Freedom to express 237 159 396
her Views (66.9) (64.6) (66)
Total 354 246 600
Women Participation at community services is shown in Table 6.48. In 1 st
column, Women Participation at community services is taken in the binary form with
having Women Participation at community services and having No Women
Participation at community services. The 2nd column represents the working status of
women is taken for analysis. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 354 are working
164
and 246 are non-working. In working sample of women, 219 working women have
Participation at community services and 135 working women have No Participation at
community services. In non-working sample of women,126 non-working women
have Participation at community services and 120 non-working women have No
Participation at community services. In total sample of 600, 339 women have
Participation at community services and 261 women have No Participation at
community services.
Table 6.48: Distribution of Respondents by Participation at community services

Participation at Working Non-Working Total
community
services
135 126 261
No
(38.1) (51.2) (43.5)
219 120 339
Yes
(61.9) (48.8) (56.5)
Total 354 246 600
Women social empowerment index is shown in Table 6.49. 1 st column defines
index having the values between 0.00 to 1.00. The 2nd column represents the working
status of respondents and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of
respondents, 354 women are working and 246 % are non-working women. Out of 600
women, 34.8 % women have Social Empowerment Index value of .60, 27 % women
have Social Empowerment Index value of .80, 22.3 % women have Social
Empowerment Index value of 0.40 ,9.2 % women have Social Empowerment Index
value of 1.00, 6.3 % women have Social Empowerment Index value of .20, 0.3 %
women have Social Empowerment Index value of 0.00. Out of 354 working women,
31.1 % working women have Social Empowerment Index value of .80, 30.8 %
working women have Social Empowerment Index value of 0.60, 21.8 % working
women have Social Empowerment Index value of 0.40, 11.9% working women have
Social Empowerment Index value of 1.00, 4.2 % working women have Social
Empowerment Index value of .20, 0.3 % working women have Social Empowerment
Index value of 0.00. Out of 246 non-working women, 40.7 % non- working women
have Social Empowerment Index value of .60, 23.2 % non- working women have
Social Empowerment Index value of 0.40, 21.1 % non-working women have Social
165
Empowerment Index value of 0.80, 9.3 % non-working women have Social
Empowerment Index value of 0.20, 5.3 % non- working women have Social
Empowerment Index value of 1.00, 0.4 % non-working women have Social
Empowerment Index value of 0.00.
Table 6.49: Distribution of Women’s Social Empowerment Index

Index Working Non-working Total
1 1 2
0.00
(0.3) (0.4) (0.3)
15 23 38
0.20
(4.2) (9.3) (6.3)
77 57 134
0.40
(21.8) (23.2) (22.3)
109 100 209
0.60
(30.8) (40.7) (34.8)
110 52 162
0.80
(31.1) (21.1) (27)
42 13 55
1.00
(11.9) (5.3) (9.2)
Total 354 246 600
6.5.3 Familial/ Interpersonal Women Empowerment
Interpersonal women empowerment index will be described in this section. choice to

make decision about family size/ planning, choice to make decision about child health
care, choice to make decision about child’s education, choice to make decision about
own health care, fear of violence from husband/ father explain Interpersonal women
empowerment. Women choice to make decision about family size/ planning is shown
in Table 6.50. In 1st column, Women choice to make decision about family size/
planning is taken in the binary form with having Women choice to make decision
about family size/ planning and Women having No choice to make decision about
family size/ planning. The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents
and 3rd column expresses the non- working status of respondents. The forth column
expresses the relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is
taken for analysis. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 354 are working and 246
are non- working. In working sample of women, 227 working women have choice to
make decision about family size/ planning and 127 working women have No choice
to make decision about family size/ planning. In non-working sample of women,135
non-working women have choice to make decision about family size/ planning and
111 non-working women have No choice to make decision about family size/
166
planning. In total sample of 600, 362 women have choice to make decision about
family size/ planning and 238 women have No choice to make decision about family
size/ planning.
Table 6.50: Distribution of Respondents by choice to make decision about family

size/ planning
Choice to Make Decision Working Non-Working Total
About Family Size/
Planning?
No Choice to Make Decision 127 111 238
About Family Planning (35.9) (45.1) (39.7)
Choice to Make Decision 227 135 362
About Family Planning (64.1) (54.9) (60.3)
Total 354 246 600
Women choice to make decision about child health care is illustrated in Table
6.51. In 1st column, Women choice to make decision about child health care is taken in
the binary form with having Women choice to make decision about child health care
and Women having No choice to make decision child health care. The 2nd column
represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column expresses the non-
working status of respondents. The forth column expresses the relative %age of
sample of 600 respondents, 354 are working and 246 are non- working. In working
sample of women, 65.3% working women have choice to make decision about child
health care and 34.7% working women have No choice to make decision about child
health care. In non-working sample of women, 56.9% non-working women have
choice to make decision about child health care and 43.1% non-working women have
No choice to make decision about child health care. In total sample of 600, 61.8%
women have choice to make decision about child health care and 38.2% women have
No choice to make decision about child health care.
Table 6.51: Distribution of Respondents by choice to make decision about child

Health care
Choice to make Decision Working Non – Working Total
about Child Health Care?
No Choice to make Decision 123 106 229
about Child Health (34.7) (43.1) (38.2)
Choice to make Decision 231 140 371
about Child Health (65.3) (56.9) (61.8)
Total 354 246 600
167
Women choice to make decision about child’s education is discussed in Table
6.52. In 1st column, Women choice to make decision about child’s education is taken
in the binary form with having Women choice to make decision about child’s
education and Women having No choice to make decision about child’s education.
The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column
relative %age of respondents response. Sample size of 600 women is taken for
analysis. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 354 are working and 246 are non-
working. In working sample of women, 67.5% working women have choice to make
decision about child’s education and 32.5% working women have No choice to make
decision about child’s education. In non-working sample of women, 56.1% non-
working women have choice to make decision about child’s education and 43.9%
non-working women have No choice to make decision about child’s education. In
total sample of 600, 62.8% women have choice to make decision about child’s
education and 37.2% women have no choice to make decision about child’s
education.
Table 6.52: Distribution of Respondents by choice to make decision about child’s

Education
Choice to make decision Working Non-Working Total
about Child’s Education?
No Choice to make decision 115 108 223
about Child’s Education (32.5) (43.9) (37.2)
Choice to make decision 239 138 377
about Child’s Education (67.5) (56.1) (62.8)
Total 354 246 600
In Table 6.53, Women choice to make decision about own health care is
demonstrated. In 1st column, Women choice to make decision about own health care is
taken in the binary form with having Women choice to make decision about own
health care and Women having No choice to make decision about own health care.
The 2nd column represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column
relative %age of respondents response. In the given sample of 600 respondents, 354
are working and 246 are non- working. In total sample of 600, 408 women have
choice to make decision about own health care and 192 women have no choice to
168
make decision about own health care. In sample of working women, 263 working
women have choice to make decision about own health care and 91 working women
have No choice to make decision about own health care. In sample of non-working
women, 145 non-working women have choice to make decision about own health
care and 101 non-working women have No choice to make decision about own health
care.
Table 6.53: Distribution of Respondents by choice to make decision about own

Health care
Choice to make decision Working Non-Working Total
about own Health Care?
No Choice to decide about 91 101 192
Health Care (25.7) (41.1) (32)
Choice to decide about 263 145 408
Health Care (74.3) (58.9) (68)
Total 354 246 600
In Table 6.54, Women fear of violence from husband/ father is clarified. In 1 st
column, Women fear of violence from husband/ father is taken in the binary form with
having Women fear of violence from husband/ father and Women having No fear of
violence from husband/ father. The 2nd column represents the working status of
respondents and 3rd column expresses the non-working status of respondents. The
forth column expresses the relative %age of respondents response. In the given
sample of 600 respondents, 354 are working and 246 are non- working. In the sample
of working women, 69.8% Women have no fear of violence from husband/ father and
30.2% Women have fear of violence from husband/ father. In the sample of non-
working women, 79.7 % Women have no fear of violence from husband/ father and
20.3 % Women have fear of violence from husband/ father. In the total sample of 600
women, 73.8 % Women have no fear of violence from husband/ father and 26.2 %
Women have fear of violence from husband/ father.
Table 6.54: Distribution of Respondents by fear of violence from Husband/

Father
Fear of Violence from Working Non-Working Total
Husband/ Father
247 196 443
No
(69.8) (79.7) (73.8)
107 50 157
Yes
(30.2) (20.3) (26.2)
169
Total 354 246 600
Familial/ Interpersonal social empowerment index is shown in Table 6.55. 1 st
column defines index having the values between 0.00 and 1.00. 2nd column
represents the working status of respondents and 3 rd column expresses the non-
working status of respondents. The forth column expresses the relative %age of
sample of 600 respondents, 354 women are working and 246 % are non-working
women. Out of 600 women, 35.2 % women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value
of .60, 28.3 % women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value of .40, 21.3 % women
have Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.80, 8.3 % women have
Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.20, 4.7 % women have
Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 1.00. Out of 354 working
women, 30.5 % women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value of .60, 29.7 %
women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value of .80, 22.9 % women have Familial/
Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.40, 7.6 % women have Familial/
Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.20. Out of 246 non-working women,
41.9 % non-working women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value of .60, 36.2 %
women have Familial/ Interpersonal Index value of .40, 9.8 % women have Familial/
Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.20 ,9.3 % women have Familial/
Interpersonal Empowerment Index value of 0.00.
Table 6.55: Distribution of Women’s Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment

Index
Index Working Non-Working Total
7 6 13
0.00
(2) (2.4) (2.2)
26 24 50
0.20
(7.3) (9.8) (8.3)
81 89 170
0.40
(22.9) (36.2) (28.3)
108 103 211
0.60
(30.5) (41.9) (35.2)
105 23 128
0.80
(29.7) (9.3) (21.3)
170
27 1 28
1.00
(7.6) (0.4) (4.7)
Total 354 246 600
6.6 Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty Profile based on

National Poverty line
The following section describes the poverty status of the women of the three divisions
i.e. Multan, Bahawalpur and D.G Khan. Poverty of household is calculated on
National and international basis by head count ratio. Table 6.56 depicts the respondent
Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of Residence based on National
Poverty Line. in the 1st column, regions are specified, in the 2 nd column respondent
residence ids described, in the third column respondents household below poverty line
(National Poverty line: Rs. 3030.32 in 2013 and inflated for 2015 as estimated @ Rs.
3320.88 per month) are described, the 4th column represents the total households of
each region, and in 5th column head count poverty (%) is calculated. In Multan
division, total sample of 200 household is evaluated and out of 200, 41 household
(20.5 %) live below poverty line. Moreover poverty by head count (%) is 20.50% in
Multan division. In the 200 sample of Multan division, 110 women belong to the rural
areas and 90 belong to the urban areas. In rural areas 20.9 % household lives below
poverty line and in urban areas 20 % household lives below poverty line. In
Bahawalpur division, total sample of 200 household is evaluated and out of 200, 59
household (29.5 %) live below poverty line. Moreover poverty by head count (%) is
29.50% in Bahawalpur division. In the 200 sample of Bahawalpur division, 120
women belong to the rural areas and 80 belong to the urban areas. In rural areas 21.6
% household lives below poverty line and in urban areas 41.25 % household lives
below poverty line. In D.G Khan Division, total sample of 200 household is
evaluated and out of 200, 60 household (30 %) live below poverty line. Moreover
poverty by head count (%) is 30 % in DG Khan. In the 200 sample of D.G Khan
division, 121 women belong to the rural areas and 79 belong to the urban areas. In
rural areas 33.8 % household lives below poverty line and in urban areas 24.05 %
household lives below poverty line.
When we illustrate the whole sample of 600, it is illustrated that out of the
given 600 sample, 160 household (26.6%) live below the poverty line and overall
head count poverty (%) is 26.66. When we comparatively analyze the poverty level in
171
all the three selected districts, it is evaluated that in D.G Khan Division 30 % live
below poverty line and D.G Khan Division is the most poorest among the three
districts.
Table 6.56: Distribution of Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of

Residence based on National Poverty Line
Respondents’
Respondents’ Total Head Count
Regions Households
Residence Households Poverty (%)
Below Poverty line
Total 41 200 20.50
Multan Rural 23 110 20.90
Urban 18 90 20
Total 59 200 29.50
Bahawalpur Rural 26 120 21.66
Urban 33 80 41.25
Total 60 200 30
DG Khan Rural 41 121 33.88
Urban 19 79 24.05
Total Sample 160 600 26.66
Note: National Poverty line: Rs. 3030.32 in 2013 and inflated for 2015 as estimated @ Rs. 3320.88 per month
6.7 Distribution of Area wise Household Poverty Profile based on

International Poverty line
The Table 6.57 depicts the respondent Household Poverty profile by Region and Area
of Residence based on International Poverty Line. In the 1 st column, regions are
specified, in the 2nd column respondent residence ids described, in the third column
respondents household below poverty line (International Poverty line: $1.90 or less a
day in 2015 and estimated @ $1 = Rs. 102.1516 gives equal to Rs. 194.088 per day
and Rs. 5822.64 per month in Pakistan) are described, the 4 th column represents the
total households of each region, and in 5th column head count poverty (%) is
calculated. In Multan division, total sample of 200 household is evaluated and out of
200, 75 household (37.5 %) live below poverty line. Moreover poverty by head count
(%) is 37.50% in Multan division. In the 200 sample of Multan division, 110 women
belong to the rural areas and 90 belong to the urban areas. In rural areas 44.5 %
household lives below poverty line and in urban areas 28.8 % household lives below
poverty line. In Bahawalpur division, total sample of 200 household is evaluated and
out of 200, 106 household (53.0 %) live below poverty line. Moreover poverty by
172
head count (%) is 53 % in Bahawalpur division. In the 200 sample of Bahawalpur
division, 120 women belong to the rural areas and 80 belong to the urban areas. In
rural areas 27 % household lives below poverty line and in urban areas 65 %
household lives below poverty line. In DG Khan Division, total sample of 200
household is evaluated and out of 200, 113 household (56 %) live below poverty line.
Moreover poverty by head count (%) is 56 % in DG Khan. In the 200 sample of DG
Khan division, 121 women belong to the rural areas and 79 belong to the urban areas.
In rural areas 65.28 % household lives below poverty line and in urban areas 43.03 %
household lives below poverty line. When we illustrate the whole sample of 600, it is
illustrated that out of the given 600 sample , 294 household (49%) live below the
poverty line and overall head count poverty (%) is 49%. When we comparatively
analyze the poverty level in all the three selected districts, it is evaluated that in
Bahawalpur Division 53 % live below poverty line and Bahawalpur Division is the
most poorest among the three districts.
Table 6.57: Distribution of Household Poverty profile by Region and Area of

Residence based on International Poverty Line
Respondents’ Total Head Count
Respondents’
Regions Households Households Poverty (%)
Residence
Below Poverty line
Total 75 200 37.50
Multan Rural 49 110 44.54
Urban 26 90 28.88
Total 106 200 53
Bahawalpur Rural 54 120 45
Urban 52 80 65
Total 113 200 56.50
DG Khan Rural 79 121 65.28
Urban 34 79 43.03
Total Sample 294 600 49
Note: International Poverty line: $1.90 or less a day in 2015 and estimated @ $1 = Rs. 102.1516 gives equal to
Rs. 194.088 per day and Rs. 5822.64 per month in Pakistan. Global Monitoring Report
(http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/global-monitoring-report)
6.8 Conclusion
The respondent of the research belong the three divisions (Multan, Bahawalpur and
DG Khan) of the South Punjab (Pakistan). The sample of 600 respondents is sub
173
divided into working and non-working group of respondents and the respondents are
the women. About 59 % 0f the sample is working group of women and 39 % is non-
working group of women. The following conclusion is done on the basis of
information provided by the respondents.
The most of the respondents are in the age bracket of 31-40 years are married
and the working group of the women have age between 21-30 years and are married.
Generally, the working women have no child and women who are non-working have
3 children. It is also observed that working and non-working women have no children
with ages less than 15 years or more than 15 years. The women who are working are
masters and illiterate women are non-working and most of the group of respondents is
illiterate. The analysis shows that generally husbands and fathers of working and non-
working women are illiterate and non-working husbands’ are less illiterate than
working women, it means that women works due to illiteracy of their husbands and
due to the comparatively more fathers education than the non-working. The most of
the women have access to the doctor and have 1-5 km distance (takes only 11-15
minutes) of health centers from their home either they are working or non-working
which shows provision of the better health facilities to the women of selected
divisions. The women visits 1-4 times to the medical centers in a year either they are
working or non-working which shows the most of them has no health issue.
By and large, women have access to the safe drinking water and better
sanitation facility. Usually the women have to cover distance of half km from home to
their workplace which shows the nearest location of workplace from the women
home. Working women have willingness to do paid jobs and non-working have
willingness to do unpaid jobs which shows that they do small works at their homes
which are worthless.
Mostly, the women live in the nuclear families and comparatively most of the
working women live in joint families than the non-working women. The working
women have more Participation in Household decision making than the non-working
women and generally most of the women of the selected three divisions have
participation in household decision making in most of the times.
Usually, the monthly income of the women is in between 5001-10000 rupees

and the per capita income is 10001-2000 rupees monthly, either the women are
174
working or non-working. Most of the husbands of the respondents are unemployed
and unfortunately husbands of the non-working women are more unemployed than
the working women. Most of the fathers of the respondents are employed and father
of the non-working women are more employed than the working women which shows
the facilitation provided by the father to their daughters even after their marriage.
Most of the women have 3 male and 2 female members in their household,
and non- working women have more male and female than the working women which
shows the more dependency on non-working women than working women. Generally
Female to Male Ratio in Household of the selected three divisions is 0.51 - 1.00 and
Female to Male Ratio in Household of non-working women is greater than working
women. Generally the working household members in sample have 0ne member who
participate in household earnings and both working and non-working women have
one member who participate in household earnings.
The household size of women is 5 in most of the selected households in both

of the working and non-working group of the women. Generally there is no members
of women households older than 60 years or younger than 18 of age in the sample of
selected three divisions either it is the working group or non-working group of
women. Most of the women have 2 members in household between 18 and 60 years in
the sample of selected three divisions either it is the working group or non-working
group of women. The women Participation ratio in the selected household is less than
0.50 and Dependency ratio is less than 0.20 in most of the women household of both
working and non-working women of the selected divisions.
Mostly, Women Empowerment Index in the selected household lies between

0.41 and 0.60 in the total selected sample, Women Empowerment of working women
lies between 0.61 and 0.80 and of non-working women lies between 0.41 and 0.60.
The maximum value (.739) of Women Empowerment Index either it is economic
(having max value 0.791) or social (having max value 0.753) in the total selected
sample belong to Multan division (urban area) and interpersonal women
empowerment (having max value 0.673) belong to D.G Khan Division (urban area).
By and large women have control over the spending of her personal income
and Independence in making expenditures either they are working or non-working
show the economic empowerment of the women. Most of the women have own bank
175
account ,ownership of asset , access to loan/ microfinance and relatively most of
working women having bank account , more asset , more access to loan/ microfinance
as compare to non-working women. Generally Economic Empowerment Index of
women is .40 in the selected sample of the three divisions. Working women have
Economic Empowerment Index of .60 and non-working women have Economic
Empowerment Index of .40.
Women have access to media/ internet and non-working women have less
access to media as compare to working women. Most of the women have permission
to go out for shopping or visit park, permission to visit family members or other
relatives, freedom to express her views in the family either women are working or
non-working. Most of the women take Participation at community services and non-
working women have less Participation at community services as compare to working
women. Social empowerment index of women is generally 0.60 either women are
working or non-working. This all discussion about women show the strong social
empowerment of women.
Most of the women have choice to make decision about family size/ planning,
child health care, child’s education, own health care and have no fear of violence
from husband/ father, either women are working or non-working, which shows strong
Women’s interpersonal Empowerment Index. The value of Familial/ Interpersonal
Women Empowerment is 0.60 either in case of working or non-working women.
When we comparatively analyze the poverty level in all the three selected
divisions (Multan, Bahawalpur and DG Khan), it is evaluated that in DG Khan
Division 30 % of respondents live below poverty line and DG Khan Division is the
most poorest among the three districts on the basis of national poverty line (Note:
National Poverty line: Rs. 3030.32 in 2013 and inflated for 2015 as estimated @ Rs.
3320.88 per month).
When we comparatively analyze the poverty level on the basis of international

poverty line (Note: International Poverty line: $1.90 or less a day in 2015 and
estimated @ $1 = Rs. 102.1516 gives equal to Rs. 194.088 per day and Rs. 5822.64
per month in Pakistan ) in all the three selected districts, it is evaluated that in
Bahawalpur Division 53 % of respondents live below poverty line and Bahawalpur
176
Division is the most poorest among the three divisions (Multan, Bahawalpur and DG
Khan) on the basis of international poverty line.
177
Chapter 7
WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION AND

EMPOWERMENT: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
7.1 Introduction
To analyze the impact of women work participation and women empowerment on

household poverty, it is necessary to examine the factors which affect women’s work
participation and women empowerment in the Southern Punjab. Apart from
Introduction in section 7.1, this chapter points out various factors affecting women’s
work participation in Section 7.2. The determinants of Married women work
participation are provided in Section 7.3. Similarly the causes of women
empowerment which are investigated through econometric analysis are given in
Section 7.4. Lastly, concluding remarks are offered in Section 7.5.
7.2 Factors Affecting Women’s Work Participation
The factors influence women’s work participation in the Southern Punjab is explored
in this section. Their results are divided into Descriptive Analysis of women’s work
participation in 7.2.1, Correlation Analysis of Women’s Work participation in 7.2.2
and Econometric Analysis of Women’s work participation in section 7.2.3.
7.2.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women’s Work Participation

A descriptive analysis gives snapshot of variables to capture the average and variation
behavior of the variables. The results of descriptive analysis of women work
participation variables are produced in Table 7.1. On average 59 percent women
participate in the labor supply market. On the average, age, education, dependency
ratio, workplace distance from home, participation ratio and distance of health unit are
respectively 35.987 years, 9.263, 0.363, 3.168 km, 0.397 and 3.987 km. Fathers’ of
37.7 percent respondents are doing their jobs, 48.2 percent respondents are from
urban areas, 49.7 percent respondents are living in joint system and 58.3 respondents
take decision to work independently. The study finds little deviations of women’s
work participation, dependency ratio, father’s job, participation ratio, residence,
178
family setup, decision to work and distance of health unit from their mean values. The
values of age, education, workplace distance and marital status are highly deviated
from their mean values.
Table 7.1: Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women Work Participation
Variables Mean Standard Deviation

Women’s Work Participation 0.590 0.492
AGE 35.987 10.263
Education 9.263 6.329
Dependency Ratio 0.363 0.259
Father’s Job 0.377 0.485
Workplace Distance 3.168 6.001
Participation Ratio 0.397 0.327
Residence 0.482 0.500
Family Setup 0.497 0.500
Decision to Work 0.583 0.493
Distance of Health Unit 3.987 4.503
Marital Status 0.790 0.408
Source: Results are estimated based on Survey data, 2015
7.2.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women’s Work Participation

Correlation analysis is utilized in the study to see the degree of association among
each set of variables and to check the problem of multicollinearity in the data. The
results of correlation analysis of women’s work participation are provided in Table
7.2. The values without brackets are coefficient of correlation and values in brackets
are their probability values. If the value of correlation coefficient is greater or equal to
0.80, so there exists the problem of Multicollinearity. The values of correlation
coefficient for all sets of variables are less than 0.80 showing that there is no problem
of Multicollinearity in the model.
In the study, women’s work participation and age, age and education, age and
father’s job, dependency ratio and workplace distance, dependency ratio and
participation ratio, women’s work participation and urban area, age and urban area,
dependency ratio and urban area, education and joint family setup, workplace distance
and joint family setup, urban area and joint family setup, urban area and work
decision; women’s work participation and Distance of health unit; education and
Distance of health unit, urban area and Distance of health unit, women’s work
participation and marital status; education and marital status, father’s job and marital
status, urban area and marital status and decision to work and marital status are
negative associated with each other having significant probability values.
179
The positive interdependence is analyzed among women’s work participation
education, women’s work participation and father’s job, education and father’s job,
women’s work participation and workplace distance, education and workplace
distance, father’s job and workplace distance, women’s work participation and
participation ratio, education and participation ratio, father’s job and participation
ratio, education and urban area, father’s job and urban area, women’s work
participation and joint family system, father’s job and joint family system, women’s
work participation and work decision, education and work decision, father’s job and
work decision, workplace decision and work decision, joint family setup and work
decision, age and health center distance, age and marital status, dependency ratio and
marital status and health center distance and marital status having significant
probability values.
180
Table 7.2: Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Work Participation Correlates
WWPAR EDU ARE FAMIL WPAID
Variables AGE DEPD FJOB DIST PART H4 MS
T R A Y 1
WWPAR
1.000
T
-0.132
AGE 1.000
(0.001)
-0.331
0.175
EDUR (0.000 1.000
(0.000)
)
-0.017 0.000
0.013
DEPD (0.680 (1.000 1.000
(0.749)
) )
-0.225 0.258 -0.048
0.186
FJOB (0.000 (0.000 (0.237 1.000
(0.000)
) ) )
-0.040 0.218 -0.076 0.117
0.324
DIST (0.331 (0.000 (0.063 (0.004 1.000
(0.000)
) ) ) )
-0.051 0.105 -0.116 0.258 0.152
0.117
PART (0.216 (0.010 (0.004 (0.000 (0.000 1.000
(0.004)
) ) ) ) )
-0.173 0.290 -0.109 0.077 -0.057 0.033
-0.139
AREA (0.000 (0.000 (0.008 (0.060 (0.162 (0.422 1.000
(0.001)
) ) ) ) ) )
-0.010 -0.151 -0.013 0.067 -0.115 -0.028 -0.090
0.103
FAMILY (0.799 (0.000 (0.745 (0.101 (0.005 (0.498 (0.027 1.000
(0.012)
) ) ) ) ) ) )
WPAID1 0.540 -0.034 0.095 -0.040 0.078 0.257 0.058 -0.085 0.069 1.000
(0.000) (0.409 (0.020 (0.325 (0.057 (0.000 (0.155 (0.037 (0.093)
) ) ) ) ) ) )
181
0.116 -0.131 0.024 -0.019 0.059 -0.037 -0.148
-0.079 -0.009 0.007
H4 (0.005 (0.001 (0.558 (0.634 (0.147 (0.371 (0.000 1.000
(0.052) (0.821) (0.866)
) ) ) ) ) ) )
0.543 -0.289 0.283 -0.258 -0.065 -0.006 -0.191 0.131
-0.147 -0.044 -0.095 1.00
MS (0.000 (0.000 (0.000 (0.000 (0.113 (0.890 (0.000 (0.001
(0.000) (0.278) (0.019) 0
) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
182
7.2.3 Results of Econometric Analysis of Women’s Work Participation
The determinants of women work participation are analyzed in this section and their
results are reported in Table 7.3. In which women work participation is taken as dummy
variable. In this Table, first column shows names of explanatory variables, second
column provides value of coefficients, third column gives respective standard errors, z-
statistics are stated in forth column, probability values are presented in fifth column and
their marginal effects are furnished in the sixth column.
Considering age of respondent, it is examined to be positively related with

women’s work participation. It is found to be statistically significant at 5 percent level.
Younger women are 3.9 percent more likely to be engaged in economic activities. The
reason may be that younger women have much spare time to be spent at job place. To
trace out the effect of old age, the study considers square of age. The sign of age square is
negative revealing that at higher age, the participation of women will decrease. It is also
statistically significant at 5 percent level. Older women are 0.1 percent less motivated to
be engaged in economic activities. The reason may be that older women are relatively
much engaged in their family matters so they don’t have much time to be engaged in
economic activities. These findings are reconciled with earlier studies conducted by
Goksel (2013), Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002) and Faridi and Rashid (2014).
Education of respondent turns out to be positively associated with women’s work

participation but it is not statistically significant. Highly educated women have more
opportunities to have jobs in labor market and they can easily get good job. As regards to
decision to work, if women can independently decide about their job so there would be
more chances of women’s participation in work. The coefficient of this variable is
positive and statistically significant as well at 1 percent level of significance. The
probability of participation increases by about 55 percent if women can decide
independently about their job. Similar results are also concluded by Goksel (2013), Faridi
et al. (2009), Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002), Ackah et al. (2009), Evans and Saraiva (1993)
and Faridi and Rashid (2014) in their studies.
The unmarried women have greater opportunity to do job in labor market because
they have few responsibilities in home as compared to married women. Similar findings
183
are concluded from logistic results. Married marital status appears to be negative with
women work participation. The value of z-statistics is -1.73 which is significant at 10
percent level of significant. The probability of women participation in job decreases by
17.6 percent if women are married by marital status. These results are consistent with
Hancock (1986), Faridi et al. (2009), Ackah et al. (2009) and Faridi and Rashid (2014).
Health indicator is an important factor affecting women’s work participation. For

that purpose, distance of health unit is taken that is estimated to be negatively affecting
women’s participation in economic activities having statistically significant probability
value at 1 percent level of significance. On the average, the probability of women’s work
participation will increase by 1.5 percent if health unit is nearer to home. It may be
justified as the nearer health unit may easily be visited by women. If there is no issue of
health so women can easily take part in economic activities.
Distance from workplace is also another imperative aspect in determining women

work participation. The econometric results conclude positive influence of workplace
distance on women’s work participation and it is also statistically significant at 1 percent
level of significance. Women’s work participation increases by 8.6 probabilities if
workplace distance increases. Father’s job can play key role in women’s work
participation (Faridi and Rashid, 2014). It has positive connection with women
participation in economic activities having significant probability value at 1 percent level
of significance. If father does job so women work participation increases by about 17.2
percent on the average. Fathers put special attention on education and job of their
daughters and they prefer their daughters to have good jobs and education to survive in
the society morally, economically and socially.
With respect to participation ratio, it is revealed that participation ratio is directly

affecting women’s work participation with statistically significant z–statistics at 5 percent
level of significance. If more household members are participating in economic activities
so they would prefer their women to be on job for improvement of socioeconomic status
of households. On average, the probability of women’s participation in economic
activities increases by 22 percent if more family members are doing job.
184
Taking into consideration the area of residence that may be rural or urban, it is
noticed that the women from rural areas are much involved in economic activities.
Although they have few employment activities in such areas but mostly of them are
working with their fathers or husbands in the fields in the season of wheat or cotton
especially. It is analyzed that all family members work together in the fields. On the other
side, educated women are teaching in private or public schools or working in rural health
centers. The probability of women work participation in urban areas is 22.1 percent less
as compared to women work participation in rural areas as depicted by results. The
negative sign attached with residence variable exhibits lower work participation of urban
women and it is statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance.
With regard to family setup, the study explores significant effect of joint family
setup on women work participation at 1 percent level of significance. Joint family setup
appears to be positively correlated with women’s work participation (Naqvi and Shahnaz,
2002; Faridi and Rashid, 2014). Almost, the probability of women’s work participation
increases by 15.2 percent in joint family setup. Because there are more family members
available to take care of home and their children so women can easily do their jobs at
workplace.
Concerning dependency ratio, it is observed that if dependents in home are more

so women have to involve in economic activities to maintain their family status. In the
current analysis, dependency ratio is exposed to be positively linked with women’s work
participation but the value of coefficient is not statistically significant. Constant shows
the effect of all variables which are not included in the study but have special effect on
women’s work participation. Constant has significant negative effect on women’s work
participation. McFadden R-square demonstrates the proportion of explained variations in
women’s work participation which is due to variations in independent variables
considered in the current model. On the basis, 38.2 percent variations in women’s work
participation are explained by the considered independent variables in the model. The
value of LR statistics is 310.436 and probability value is 0.00 revealing that overall
logistic model is significant at 1 percent level of significance.
185
Table 7.3: Logistic Regression results of the Determinants of Women Work
Participation
Dependent Variable: Women Work Participation (If woman participates = 1, Otherwise =
0)
Explanatory Standard Marginal
Coefficients z-Statistics Probability
Variables Errors Effects
Constant -4.258 1.456 -2.925 0.003 ----
Women’s Own Characteristics
AGE 0.161 0.081 1.973 0.048 0.039
AGE2 -0.002 0.001 -2.121 0.034 -0.001
Education 0.026 0.021 1.262 0.207 0.006
Decision to Work 2.274 0.230 9.889 0.000 0.550
Marital Status -0.729 0.421 -1.732 0.083 -0.176
Distance of
-0.064 0.024 -2.672 0.008 -0.015
Health Unit
Workplace
0.354 0.068 5.175 0.000 0.086
Distance
Households’ Characteristics
Father's Job 0.712 0.258 2.764 0.006 0.172
Participation
0.909 0.457 1.989 0.047 0.220
Ratio
Residence -0.916 0.243 -3.769 0.000 -0.221
Family Setup 0.627 0.230 2.725 0.006 0.152
Dependency
0.671 0.485 1.384 0.166 0.162
Ratio
McFadden R-squared 0.382 Mean dependent var 0.590
LR statistic 310.436 Prob. (LR statistic) 0.000
186
7.3 Factors Affecting Married Women’s Work Participation
Married Women’s Work participation is affected by various factors in the Southern
Punjab which are discussed in detail in this section. The results of Descriptive Analysis of
married women’s work participation are given in 7.3.1, results of Correlation Analysis of
married women’s work participation are offered in 7.3.2 and result of Econometric
Analysis of married women’s work participation are presented in Section 7.3.3.
7.3.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Married Women’s Work

Participation
A descriptive analysis gives overview of variables to capture the average and variation
behavior of the variables. The results of descriptive analysis of women work participation
variables are produced in Table 7.4.
Average values of age, husband’s education, education of respondent, dependency
ratio, workplace distance, number of earners, number of children and distance of health
unit are 38.85 years, 9 years, 8 years, 0.40, 2.968 km, 1.937, 3.523 and 4.291 km
correspondingly. 55.30 percent married women participate in economic activities, 73.8
percent respondent’s husbands do job, 31.2 percent married respondent’s fathers involve
in economic activities, 43.2 percent live in urban areas, 48.5 percent married respondents
live in joint families, 55.9 percent married women can decide about job independently,
80.6 percent married respondents have good sanitation system and 82.3 percent married
respondents having access to safe drinking water. The variables married women’s work
participation, father’s job, number of earners, residence, family setup, decision to work,
no. of children and distance of health unit have small deviation from their mean values.
On the other side, age, husband’s education, education of respondent, dependency ratio,
workplace distance, sanitation and safe drinking water have relatively large deviation
from their mean values.
187
Table 7.4: Results of Descriptive Analysis of Married Women Work Participation
Married Women’s Work Participation 0.553 0.498
AGE 38.857 9.313
Husband’s Education 9.006 5.915
Husband’s Job 0.738 0.440
Education of Respondent 8.321 6.088
Dependency Ratio 0.400 0.253
Number of earners 1.937 1.241
Residence 0.432 0.496
Decision to Work 0.559 0.497
No. of Children 3.523 2.258
Sanitation 0.806 0.396
Safe Drinking Water 0.823 0.382
7.3.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Married Women’s Work

Participation
The interdependence among variables may be examined by using Correlation analysis. It
also observes the problem of multicollinearity in the data. The results of correlation
analysis of married women’s work participation are provided in Table 7.5. The values
without brackets are coefficient of correlation and values in brackets are their probability
values. If the value of correlation coefficient is greater or equal to 0.80, so there exists the
problem of Multicollinearity. The results exhibit that the values of correlation coefficient
are less than 0.80 denoting that the variables are not multicollinear to each other.
The correlation analysis discovers negative relationship between women’s work
participation and age, age and husband’s education, women’s work participation and
husband’s job, age and husband’s job, age and education, age and dependency ratio,
husband’s job and dependency ratio, age and father’s job, husband’s job and father’s job,
husband’s job and workplace distance, husband’s job and number of earners, dependency
ratio and number of earners, women’s work participation and urban area, age and urban
area, number of earners and urban area, husband’s education and joint family setup,
188
education and joint family setup, workplace distance and joint family setup, urban area
and joint family setup, husband’s job and work decision, urban area and joint family
setup, husband’s education and no. of children, education and no. of children, father’s job
and number of children; urban area and no. of children, age and sanitation facility,
number of children and sanitation facility; husband’s job and safe drinking water, joint
family setup and safe drinking water; no. of children and safe drinking water; husband’s
education and health unit distance, husband’s job and health unit distance and urban area
and health unit distance having significant probability values.
The interdependence between husband’s education and husband’s job; women’s
work participation and education of respondent; husband’s education and education of
respondent; education of respondent and dependency ratio, women’s work participation
and father’s job, education of respondent and father’s job, women’s work participation
and workplace distance, husband’s education and workplace distance, education of
respondent and workplace distance, father’s job and workplace distance, women’s work
participation and number of earners, age and number of earners, father’s job and number
of earners, husband’s education and urban area, education of respondent and urban area,
women’s work participation and joint family setup, number of earners and joint family
setup, women’s work participation and work decision, education of respondent and work
decision, father’s job and work decision, workplace distance and work decision, number
of earners and work decision, joint family setup and work decision, age and no. of
children, number of earners and no. of children, joint family setup and no. of children,
husband’s education and sanitation facility, education of respondent and sanitation
facility, workplace distance and sanitation facility, urban area and sanitation facility,
husband’s education and safe drinking water, education of respondent and safe drinking
water, urban area and safe drinking water, sanitation facility and safe drinking water and
husband’s job and health center distance is positive with significant probability values.
189
Table 7.5: Results of Correlation Analysis of Married Women Work Participation
Variables MWWPART AGE HEDUR HJOB EDUR DEPD FJOB DIST WORK AREA FAMILY WPAID1 CHILD SANI WATER H4
MWWPART 1.000
-0.092
AGE 1.000
(0.046)
-0.043 -0.154
HEDUR 1.000
(0.352) (0.001)
-0.178 -0.125 0.118
HJOB 1.000
(0.000) (0.007) (0.010)
0.158 -0.239 0.539 0.041
EDUR 1.000
(0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.375)
0.063 -0.234 0.017 -0.075 0.090
DEPD 1.000
(0.174) (0.000) (0.709) (0.104) (0.051)
0.194 -0.116 0.060 -0.303 0.170 0.026
FJOB 1.000
(0.000) (0.012) (0.191) (0.000) (0.000) (0.566)
0.362 -0.039 0.129 -0.079 0.284 -0.056 0.128
DIST 1.000
(0.000) (0.401) (0.005) (0.086) (0.000) (0.222) (0.005)
0.088 0.106 0.012 -0.077 -0.037 -0.120 0.295 0.048
WORK 1.000
(0.057) (0.021) (0.787) (0.095) (0.424) (0.009) (0.000) (0.300)
-0.208 -0.075 0.184 0.035 0.236 -0.063 0.000 -0.035 -0.086
AREA 1.000
(0.000) (0.101) (0.000) (0.445) (0.000) (0.174) (0.999) (0.449) (0.061)
0.101 0.036 -0.148 -0.037 -0.189 -0.002 0.065 -0.134 0.077 -0.081
FAMILY 1.000
(0.028) (0.431) (0.001) (0.424) (0.000) (0.971) (0.155) (0.004) (0.095) (0.079)
0.500 -0.004 -0.061 -0.074 0.090 -0.027 0.085 0.290 0.102 -0.125 0.080
WPAID1 1.000
(0.000) (0.929) (0.186) (0.107) (0.050) (0.561) (0.065) (0.000) (0.026) (0.006) (0.082)
-0.066 0.360 -0.173 0.002 -0.388 -0.022 -0.142 -0.136 0.171 -0.135 0.136 0.036
CHILD 1.000
(0.152) (0.000) (0.000) (0.968) (0.000) (0.629) (0.002) (0.003) (0.000) (0.003) (0.003) (0.429)
-0.023 -0.091 0.149 -0.062 0.143 -0.058 -0.003 0.114 -0.034 0.235 0.018 0.015 -0.125
SANI 1.000
(0.617) (0.048) (0.001) (0.181) (0.002) (0.211) (0.945) (0.013) (0.465) (0.000) (0.704) (0.738) (0.006)
-0.017 -0.051 0.104 -0.075 0.180 0.009 0.050 0.029 -0.068 0.227 -0.124 0.022 -0.086 0.443
WATER 1.000
(0.705) (0.267) (0.023) (0.102) (0.000) (0.840) (0.273) (0.534) (0.138) (0.000) (0.007) (0.635) (0.062) (0.000)
-0.052 0.033 -0.077 -0.108 -0.092 -0.011 0.025 -0.003 -0.039 -0.099 0.011 0.012 0.016 0.028 0.072
H4 1.000
(0.254) (0.478) (0.092) (0.019) (0.045) (0.819) (0.580) (0.952) (0.396) (0.032) (0.804) (0.790) (0.736) (0.544) (0.120)
190
191
7.3.3 Results of Econometric Analysis of Married Women’s Work
Participation
The determinants of married women work participation are investigated in this section
and their results are reported in Table 7.6. In which married women work participation is
taken as dummy variable. In this Table, first column shows names of explanatory
variables, second column provides value of coefficients, third column gives respective
standard errors, z-statistics are stated in forth column, probability values are presented in
fifth column and their marginal effects are shown in the sixth column.
Regarding age of respondent, it is generally seen that younger women have much
spare time and less domestic responsibilities so they may easily involve in economic
activities. In the analysis, age is examined to be positively related with married women’s
work participation. It is found to be statistically significant at 10 percent level. Younger
married women are 4.1 percent more likely to be engaged in economic activities. To trace
out the effect of older age, the study considers square of age. The sign of age square is
negative revealing that at higher age, the participation of married women will decrease. It
is statistically significant at 5 percent level. Older married women are 0.1 percent less
motivated to be engaged in economic activities. The reason may be that older married
women are relatively much engaged in their children and family matters so they don’t
have much time to be engaged in economic activities. These findings are reconciled with
earlier studies conducted by Goksel (2013), Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002) and Faridi and
Rashid (2014).
Turning to the education of respondent, it is pointed out to be positively

associated with married women’s work participation. It is statistically significant at 10
percent level of significance. Highly educated women have more employment
opportunities in labor market and they can easily get good job. Highly educated married
women are 1.1 percent more motivated to involve in economic activities as compared to
less educated married women. Similar results are also concluded by Goksel (2013), Faridi
et al. (2009), Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002), Ackah et al. (2009), Evans and Saraiva (1993)
and Faridi and Rashid (2014) in their studies.
192
With respect to the decision to work, if married women can independently decide
about their job status so there would be more chances of married women’s participation
in work. The coefficient of this variable is positive and statistically significant as well at 1
percent level of significance. The probability of participation increases by about 48
percent if women can decide independently about their job.
To capture the effect of health on married women’s work participation, distance of

health unit is considered. It is turned out to be negatively related with women’s
participation in economic activities having statistically significant probability value at 5
percent level of significance. On the average, the probability of married women’s work
participation will increase by 1.4 percent if health unit is near to home. It may be justified
as the nearer health unit may easily be visited by married women so that any issue of
health may easily be resolved and women can easily take part in economic activities.
The distance of workplace from home is found to be statistically significant 1

percent level of significance. It is positively associated with married women’s work
participation. On the average, the probability of married women’s work participation
increases by 11.6 percent if workplace distance increases.
Fathers plays vital role in women’s work participation. Father’s job has positive
relationship with married women participation in economic activities having insignificant
probability value (Faridi and Rashid, 2014). Normally, fathers put special attention on
education and job of their daughters and they prefer their even married daughters to have
good jobs and education to survive morally, economically and socially and to have
improved social status in the society.
With reference to participation ratio, it is uncovered that participation ratio is

directly related with married women’s work participation with statistically insignificant z-
statistics value. If more household members are participating in economic activities so
they would prefer their women to be on job for improvement of socioeconomic status of
households.
Relating to residence (rural or urban), it is noticed that the married women

belonging from rural areas are much involved in economic activities. Although they have
a few employment opportunities available in such areas but mostly of them are working
193
with their husbands in the fields in the season of wheat or cotton especially. It is also
analyzed that all family members work together in the fields. On the other side, educated
women are teaching in private or public schools or working in rural health centers. The
negative sign attached with residence variable exhibits lower work participation of urban
married women and it is statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance. The
probability of married women work participation in urban areas is 26.4 percent less as
compared to married women work participation in rural areas.
Pertaining to family setup, the value of its coefficient indicates positive and
statistically significant effect of joint family setup on married women work participation
at 1 percent level of significance. Almost, the probability of married women’s work
participation increases by 18 percent in joint family setup. Because there are more family
members available to take care of home and their children so married women can easily
move outside the home for their jobs. Similar findings are also concluded by Naqvi and
Shahnaz (2002), Faridi and Rashid (2014).
So far as the dependency ratio is concerned, it is examined that more number of

dependents in home motivates married women to involve in economic activities to
maintain their family status. In the current research, dependency ratio is revealed to be
positively linked with married women’s work participation but the value of coefficient is
statistically not significant.
The married women have generally less permission for job if their husbands are
educated enough and if they are earning well by their business or job. Husband’s
education appears to be negative with married women work participation. The value of z
- statistics is -1.19 which is significant insignificant. On the other side, coefficient value
of husband’s job is – 0.984 denoting that married women work participation declines if
husband is doing job (Faridi and Rashid, 2014). Statistically, it is significant at 1 percent
level of significance. Due to job of husband, the probability of married women’s work
participation declines by about 24.3 percent on the average.
By considering the number of children, interesting findings are revealed by the

logistic regression analysis with reference to married women’s work participation. As
number of children increases so activities of married women rises at home as well
194
because women have to take care of her children and also of husband. In this situation, it
would not be comfortable for married women to go outside for the purpose of doing job.
The current analysis also concludes the same results as the sign of coefficient attached
with no. of children is negative but the probability value is statistically insignificant.
Mahendra (2004), Faridi et al. (2009), Naqvi and Shahnaz (2002) also found same results
in their studies.
Constant shows the effect of all variables which are not included in the study but
have an effect on married women’s work participation. Constant has significant negative
effect on married women’s work participation. McFadden R-square demonstrates the
proportion of explained variations in women’s work participation which is due to
variations in independent variables considered in the current model. On the basis, 39.5
percent variations in married women’s work participation are explained by the considered
independent variables in the model. The value of LR statistics is 257.394 and probability
value is 0.00 revealing that overall logistic model is significant at 1 percent level of
significance.
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Table 7.6: Logistic regression Results of the determinants of Married Women
Work Participation
Dependent Variable: Married Women Work Participation (If woman participates = 1,
Otherwise = 0)
Coefficients z-Statistics Probability
Constant -3.886 1.877 -2.070 0.038 -0.961
AGE 0.168 0.091 1.839 0.066 0.041
AGE2 -0.002 0.001 -2.051 0.040 -0.001
Education 0.046 0.028 1.647 0.100 0.011
Decision to
1.942 0.261 7.440 0.000 0.480
work
Distance of
-0.056 0.025 -2.251 0.024 -0.014
Health Unit
Distance of
0.471 0.091 5.143 0.000 0.116
Workplace
Father’s Job 0.501 0.321 1.561 0.119 0.124
Participation
0.652 0.527 1.238 0.216 0.161
ratio
Residence -1.068 0.268 -3.985 0.000 -0.264
Family Setup 0.728 0.261 2.787 0.005 0.180
Dependency
0.497 0.545 0.912 0.362 0.123
ratio
Husband’s
-0.030 0.025 -1.197 0.231 -0.007
Education
Husband’s Job -0.984 0.336 -2.930 0.003 -0.243
No. of Children -0.028 0.066 -0.424 0.671 -0.007
LR statistic 257.394 Prob. (LR statistic) 0.000
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7.4 Factors Affecting Women Empowerment
The study covers women empowerment in the Southern Punjab by segregating into three
parts i.e. women economic empowerment, women social empowerment and women
familial/ interpersonal empowerment. This section finds out various factors which
determine women empowerment and its various types in this region. The results are
estimated at three stages, first at descriptive level and their results are produced in
Section 7.4.1, second in correlations and their results are reported in Section 7.4.2 and
thirdly at econometric stage by describing its results in Section 7.4.3.
7.4.1 Results of Descriptive Analysis of Women Empowerment

To capture the average and variation behavior of the variables, descriptive analysis is
used to give an overview of variables. The results of descriptive analysis of women work
participation variables are produced in Table 7.7. The average values of age, economic
women’s empowerment, education, women empowerment, Father’s education, household
size, participation ratio, Familial/Interpersonal Women’s Empowerment, Social Women’s
Empowerment, Number of earners and Distance of Health Unit are respectively 35.987
years, 0.543, 9.263, 0.573, 2.743, 5.655, 0.397, 0.558, 0.619, 1.932 and 0.583. There is
low deviation of variables i.e. Economic Women’s Empowerment, Family setup,
participation ratio, Access to media/ Internet, number of earners, distance of health unit,
father’s job and salaried employed from the mean values. High level of deviation from
the Mean is observed in age, household decision making, control over personal income
spending, bank account, education, women empowerment, decision about own health
care, fear of violence, father’s education, household size, marital status, familial/
interpersonal women’s empowerment, permission for shopping or to visit park,
sanitation, self-employed, women social empowerment and safe drinking water.
197
Table 7.7: Descriptive Statistics of Women Empowerment Model
AGE 35.987 10.263
Household Decision making 0.825 0.380
Control over Personal Income Spending 0.752 0.432
Bank Account 0.728 0.445
Economic Women’s Empowerment 0.543 0.310
Women Empowerment 0.573 0.178
Decision about own Health care 0.680 0.467
Fear of Violence 0.262 0.440
Father’s Education 2.743 4.849
Household’s Size 5.655 2.485
Participation Ratio 0.397 0.327
Familial/ Interpersonal Women’s Empowerment 0.558 0.216
Access to Media/ Internet 0.533 0.499
Permission for Shopping or to visit park 0.668 0.471
Salaried Employed 0.343 0.475
Self Employed 0.247 0.431
Social Women’s Empowerment 0.619 0.213
Safe Drinking Water 0.835 0.371
7.4.2 Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Empowerment

To check the degree of association among each set of variables, the study uses
Correlation analysis. It also observes the problem of multicollinearity in the data. The
results of correlation analysis of married women’s work participation are provided in
Table 7.8. The values without brackets are coefficient of correlation and values in
brackets are their probability values. If the value of correlation coefficient is greater or
equal to 0.80, so there exists the problem of Multicollinearity. The value of correlation
198
coefficient between women economic empowerment and women empowerment is 0.829
which are used as dependent variables in the study. Apart from these variables, results
exhibit that the values of correlation coefficient are less than 0.80 denoting that the
variables are not multicollinear to each other.
Analyzing values of correlation coefficient, it is investigated that age and decision
making, age and control over spending, age and independence in decision making, age
and women economic empowerment, age and education, age and women empowerment,
age and decision about child health care, age and joint family setup, control over
spending and joint family setup, independence in decision making and joint family setup,
education and joint family setup, age and father’s education, economic empowerment and
household size, education and household size, women empowerment and household size,
decision about health care and household size, joint family setup and household size,
father’s education and household size, control over spending and marital status,
independence in expenditure and marital status, women economic empowerment and
marital status, education and marital status, women empowerment and marital status,
decision about child health care and marital status, violence of husband/father and marital
status, father’s education and marital status, household size and participation ratio,
household size and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, age and access to
media/ internet, household size and access to media/ internet, marital status and access to
media/ internet, access to media/ internet and permission for shopping, age and salaried
employed, household size and salaried employed, marital status and salaried employed,
age and sanitation facility, violence of husband/ father and sanitation facility, household
size and sanitation facility, marital status and sanitation facility, education and self-
employed, father’s education and self-employed, salaried employed and self-employed,
sanitation facility and self-employed, age and women social empowerment, women
familial empowerment, marital status and women social empowerment, age and number
of earners, marital status and decision to work, age and father’s job, marital status and
father’s job are negatively associated with each other having probability values.
The results notice positive interdependence among decision making and
independence in expenditure, decision making and control over spending, control over
spending and independence in expenditure, decision and women economic
199
empowerment, control over spending and women economic empowerment, independence
in expenditure and women economic empowerment, control over spending and
education, independence in expenditure and education, women economic spending and
education, decision making and women empowerment, control over spending and women
empowerment, independence in expenditure and women empowerment, women
economic empowerment and women empowerment, education and women
empowerment, control over spending and decision about child health care, independence
in expenditure and decision about child health care, women economic empowerment and
decision about child health care, education and decision about child health care, women
empowerment and decision about child health care, independence in expenditure and
violence of husband/ father, women empowerment and violence of husband/ father,
independence in expenditure and joint family setup, control over spending and father’s
education, women economic empowerment and father’s education, education of
respondent and father’s education, women empowerment and father’s education, decision
about child health care and father’s education, age and household size, joint family setup
and household size, age and marital status, women economic empowerment and
participation ratio, education and participation ratio, women empowerment and
participation ratio, decision of health care and participation ratio, father’s education and
participation ratio, decision making and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment,
control over spending and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, independence in
expenditure and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, women economic
empowerment and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, education and familial/
interpersonal women empowerment, women empowerment and familial/ interpersonal
women empowerment, decision of health care and familial/ interpersonal women
empowerment, violence from husband/ father and familial/ interpersonal women
empowerment, father’s education and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment,
participation ratio and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, decision making and
familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, control over spending and familial/
interpersonal women empowerment, independence in expenditure and familial/
interpersonal women empowerment, women economic empowerment and familial/
interpersonal women empowerment, education and familial/ interpersonal women
200
empowerment, women empowerment and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment,
decision about health care and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, violence of
husband/ father and familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, father’s education and
familial/ interpersonal women empowerment, participation ratio and familial/
interpersonal women empowerment, control over spending and access to media/ internet,
women economic empowerment and access to media/ internet, education and access to
media/ internet, women empowerment and access to media/ internet, violence of
husband/ father and access to media/ internet, women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment, control over spending and permission to go park/ shopping, independence
in expenditure and permission to go park/ shopping, women economic empowerment and
permission to go park/ shopping, education and permission to go park/ shopping, women
empowerment and permission to go park/ shopping, decision of health care and
permission to go park/ shopping, women familial/ interpersonal empowerment and
permission to go park/ shopping, control over spending and salaried employed,
independence in expenditure and salaried employed, women economic empowerment and
salaried employed, education and salaried employed, women empowerment and salaried
employed, decision about health care and salaried employed, father’s education and
salaried employed, participation ratio and salaried employed, women familial/
interpersonal empowerment and salaried employed, access to media/ internet and salaried
employed, decision making and sanitation facility, control over spending and sanitation
facility, independence in expenditure and sanitation facility, women economic
empowerment and sanitation facility, education of respondent and sanitation facility,
women empowerment and sanitation facility, father’s education and sanitation facility,
access to media/ internet and sanitation facility, salaried employed and sanitation facility,
decision making and violence of father/ husband, joint family setup and violence of
father/ husband, household size and violence of father/ husband, marital status and
violence of father/ husband, women familial/ interpersonal empowerment and violence of
father/ husband, decision making and women social empowerment, control over spending
and women social empowerment, independence in expenditure and women social
empowerment, women economic empowerment and women social empowerment,
education and women social empowerment, women empowerment and women social
201
empowerment, father’s education and women social empowerment, participation ratio
and women social empowerment, women familial/ interpersonal empowerment and
women social empowerment, access to media/ internet and women social empowerment,
permission for shopping/ park and women social empowerment, salaried employed and
women social empowerment, sanitation facility and women social empowerment,
decision making and safe drinking water, control over spending and safe drinking water,
independence in expenditure and safe drinking water, women economic empowerment
and safe drinking water, education and safe drinking water, women empowerment and
safe drinking water, access to media/ internet and safe drinking water, sanitation facility
and safe drinking water, women social empowerment and safe drinking water, age and
no. of earner, women empowerment and no. of earner, joint family setup and no. of
earner, household size and no. of earner, participation ratio and no. of earner, salaried
employed and no. of earner, women social empowerment, decision making and decision
to work, control over spending and decision to work, independence in expenditure and
decision to work, women economic empowerment and decision to work, education and
decision to work, women empowerment and decision to work, decision about health care
and decision to work, violence of husband/ father and decision to work, joint family setup
and decision to work, women familial/ interpersonal empowerment and decision to work,
permission for shopping/ park and decision to work, salaried employed and decision to
work, self employed and decision to work, women social empowerment and decision to
work, number of earners and decision to work, control over spending and father’s job,
independence in expenditure and father’s job, women economic empowerment and
father’s job, education and father’s job, women empowerment and father’s job, decision
of health care and father’s job, joint family setup and father’s job, father’s education and
father’s job, participation ratio and father’s job, women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment and father’s job, violence of husband/ father and father’s job, salaried
employed and father’s job, women social empowerment and father’s job, safe drinking
water and father’s job, number of earners and father’s job, decision to work and father’s
job having significant probability values.
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Table 7.8: Results of Correlation Analysis of Women Empowerment Correlates
Variables AGE DECISION E1 E2 ECONOMIC EDUR EMPOWER F4 F5 FAMILY FEDUR HHSZ MS PART PERSONAL S1 S2 SALARY SANI SEMP SOCIAL WATER WORK WPAID1 FJOB
AGE 1.000
0.027
DECISION 1.000
(0.506)
-0.163 0.284
E1 1.000
(0.000) (0.000)
-0.135 0.113 0.360
E2 1.000
(0.001) (0.006) (0.000)
-0.105 0.116 0.593 0.622
ECONOMIC 1.000
(0.010) (0.005) (0.000) (0.000)
-0.331 0.048 0.181 0.133 0.240
EDUR 1.000
(0.000) (0.237) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000)
-0.165 0.202 0.507 0.539 0.829 0.330
EMPOWER 1.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
-0.053 0.004 0.176 0.167 0.171 0.170 0.299
F4 1.000
(0.194) (0.927) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
-0.071 -0.065 -0.009 0.074 0.039 0.012 0.226 -0.022
F5 1.000
(0.084) (0.111) (0.828) (0.071) (0.338) (0.773) (0.000) (0.583)
-0.010 -0.034 -0.069 0.067 -0.034 -0.151 -0.063 -0.019 0.053
FAMILY 1.000
(0.799) (0.409) (0.089) (0.101) (0.413) (0.000) (0.125) (0.645) (0.193)
-0.196 0.018 0.112 0.063 0.138 0.301 0.188 0.119 -0.026 -0.035
FEDUR 1.000
(0.000) (0.657) (0.006) (0.125) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.003) (0.519) (0.396)
0.146 0.017 -0.039 -0.046 -0.105 -0.241 -0.154 -0.113 -0.015 0.198 -0.087
HHSZ 1.000
(0.000) (0.673) (0.334) (0.264) (0.010) (0.000) (0.000) (0.006) (0.714) (0.000) (0.033)
0.543 0.021 -0.154 -0.140 -0.156 -0.289 -0.186 -0.099 -0.065 -0.044 -0.387 0.044
MS 1.000
(0.000) (0.608) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.015) (0.109) (0.278) (0.000) (0.285)
-0.051 -0.021 0.053 0.053 0.117 0.105 0.157 0.101 -0.008 -0.028 0.067 -0.389 -0.006
PART 1.000
(0.216) (0.610) (0.196) (0.194) (0.004) (0.010) (0.000) (0.013) (0.839) (0.498) (0.101) (0.000) (0.890)
-0.052 0.102 0.203 0.274 0.344 0.178 0.669 0.473 0.469 -0.034 0.071 -0.169 -0.024 0.142
PERSONAL 1.000
(0.208) (0.013) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.410) (0.084) (0.000) (0.563) (0.001)
-0.168 0.053 0.120 0.060 0.120 0.186 0.321 0.032 0.139 -0.046 0.043 -0.096 -0.146 0.036 0.110
S1 1.000
(0.000) (0.197) (0.003) (0.145) (0.003) (0.000) (0.000) (0.441) (0.001) (0.257) (0.295) (0.018) (0.000) (0.385) (0.007)
-0.060 0.002 0.144 0.103 0.112 0.107 0.204 0.071 -0.032 -0.037 0.037 0.002 -0.042 0.050 0.130 -0.205
S2 1.000
(0.143) (0.968) (0.000) (0.012) (0.006) (0.009) (0.000) (0.083) (0.439) (0.371) (0.363) (0.963) (0.309) (0.226) (0.002) (0.000)
-0.148 0.010 0.261 0.229 0.451 0.357 0.415 0.180 -0.031 -0.002 0.244 -0.158 -0.222 0.173 0.195 0.121 0.062
SALARY 1.000
(0.000) (0.813) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.446) (0.957) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.003) (0.129)
-0.144 0.156 0.226 0.166 0.227 0.146 0.197 0.026 -0.107 0.019 0.133 -0.109 -0.134 0.061 0.029 0.079 0.033 0.091
SANI 1.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.532) (0.009) (0.638) (0.001) (0.007) (0.001) (0.139) (0.483) (0.053) (0.418) (0.026)
0.012 -0.001 -0.065 0.019 -0.049 -0.194 -0.009 -0.014 0.161 0.120 -0.151 0.118 0.077 -0.057 0.067 -0.030 0.017 -0.414 -0.115
SEMP 1.000
(0.768) (0.980) (0.113) (0.639) (0.232) (0.000) (0.817) (0.740) (0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.004) (0.060) (0.162) (0.099) (0.456) (0.675) (0.000) (0.005)
-0.209 0.234 0.202 0.170 0.276 0.298 0.624 0.023 0.033 -0.075 0.198 -0.063 -0.216 0.079 0.163 0.518 0.218 0.187 0.136 -0.021
SOCIAL 1.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.570) (0.416) (0.068) (0.000) (0.124) (0.000) (0.052) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.606)
-0.092 0.233 0.139 0.173 0.158 0.178 0.175 0.042 -0.032 -0.124 0.056 -0.071 -0.064 -0.012 0.047 0.097 0.049 -0.019 0.460 -0.016 0.161
WATER 1.000
(0.024) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.309) (0.440) (0.002) (0.170) (0.083) (0.118) (0.777) (0.248) (0.017) (0.228) (0.642) (0.000) (0.687) (0.000)
0.093 -0.022 0.009 0.012 0.059 -0.029 0.066 0.029 0.005 0.076 0.059 0.246 0.008 0.652 0.013 0.021 0.047 0.074 -0.021 0.032 0.067 -0.061
WORK 1.000
(0.023) (0.593) (0.830) (0.775) (0.147) (0.475) (0.105) (0.486) (0.897) (0.062) (0.149) (0.000) (0.847) (0.000) (0.750) (0.604) (0.252) (0.070) (0.604) (0.440) (0.102) (0.137)
-0.034 0.100 0.289 0.282 0.422 0.095 0.380 0.109 0.072 0.069 0.046 0.045 -0.095 0.058 0.212 -0.011 0.144 0.440 0.017 0.131 0.125 0.016 0.114
WPAID1 1.000
(0.409) (0.014) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.020) (0.0000 (0.008) (0.076) (0.093) (0.261) (0.275) (0.019) (0.155) (0.000) (0.783) (0.000) (0.000) (0.672) (0.001) (0.002) (0.697) (0.005)
-0.225 -0.004 0.089 0.135 0.128 0.258 0.194 0.098 0.046 0.067 0.225 -0.028 -0.258 0.258 0.143 0.045 0.087 0.170 0.037 0.026 0.155 0.086 0.240 0.078
FJOB 1.000
(0.000) (0.921) (0.030) (0.001) (0.002) (0.000) (0.000) (0.016) (0.262) (0.101) (0.000) (0.497) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.276) (0.032) (0.000) (0.363) (0.526) (0.000) (0.035) (0.000) (0.057)
203
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7.4.3 Results of Econometric Analysis of Women Empowerment
This section investigates the determinants of women empowerment and their results
are given in Table 7.9. Women empowerment index is dependent variable in the
models which is a continuous variable. In this Table, first column shows names of
explanatory variables, second column provides result of women empowerment model,
third column gives result of women economic empowerment model, result of women
social empowerment model is stated in forth column, result of women interpersonal
empowerment model are presented in fifth column. The values without brackets are
coefficients and their t-statistics are provided in brackets.
Age of respondent is the essential factor affecting women empowerment.

Normally younger women are less empowered in their decision making or in other
family matters. But as women become old and as their children become young they
become more empowered in their families. The study determines the similar findings
according to theory. Age of respondent is turned out to be negatively related with
women empowerment, women economic empowerment and women social
empowerment. The coefficient value for women social empowerment model is
statistically significant at 5 percent level of significance justifying that if age of
younger women increases by 1 year so women social empowerment falls by 0.008
points on the average. On the other side, square of age is positive with women
empowerment, women economic empowerment and women social empowerment but
it is significant for women social empowerment model at 5 percent level of
significance. It indicates that older women are more empowered economically and
socially in southern Punjab. Surprisingly, in women familial/interpersonal
empowerment model, the coefficient of age is positive and it is of age square is
negative showing opposite results against the theory. But the values of coefficients are
not statistically significant which eliminates its importance.
Education of respondent is the most essential variable which plays its role in
empowerment of women in the society. As women become more educated they are
empowered in various dimensions like they can utilize their education for getting
good job, they become aware about their rights in the society, they can educate their
children in well manner; they can handle various socioeconomic problems strongly
etc. In this study, the coefficient of education is positive in all empowerment models
validating the economic theory. The coefficient in women social empowerment model
205
is statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance. It signifies that if women
get 1 year higher education so she can become 0.003 points more socially empowered
on the average. These findings are reconciled with earlier studies conducted by Haque
et al. (2011) and Bushra and Wajiha (2015).
With respect to marital status of women, it is investigated that married women
are more empowered economically and interpersonally as positive sign attached
exhibits. The t-statistics is significant at 5 percent level of significance in women
empowerment, women economic empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment models. On the average, married women are 0.037 points more
empowered, 0.053 points more economically empowered and 0.047 points more
familial/ interpersonally empowered in Southern Punjab. After marriage, women have
complete control on their homes in various matters, they can decide about the
expenditure on food and health; they have permission to go for shopping. In this way,
married women are relatively more empowered as compared to unmarried.
Participation in Household decision making is considered as most significant
factor indicating empowerment of women. The study concludes positive relationship
of household decision making with women empowerment, women social
empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment having statistically
significant t-statistics at 1 percent level of significance. On the average, women
empowerment rises by 0.042 points, women social empowerment increases by 0.107
points and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment by 0.070 points if women
have participation in household decision making.
Employment status of women also determines the level of empowerment

among the households. If women are unemployed so they may not interfere in family
or household related matters means having no empowerment but if women are
working in any organization or having some earning opportunities at their home so
they may be more empowered as compared to unemployed. In the results, it is studied
that self-employed women and salaried employed women are estimated to be more
empowered economically, socially and familial/interpersonally. The coefficient values
are also statistically significant at 1 percent, 5 percent and 10 percent level of
significances in various models. On the average, self-employed women are 0.043
point more empowered, 0.075 points more economically empowered, 0.037 points
more familial/ interpersonally more empowered as compared to unemployed women.
206
On the other side, salaried employed women are 0.051 point more empowered, 0.088
points more economically empowered, 0.028 points more socially empowered, 0.063
points more familial/ interpersonally more empowered as compared to unemployed
women.
Usually, it is observed that women living in joint system or having large

household size are less empowered (Faridi et al., 2009). The reason may be that there
are many persons available in the house to take decisions on various matters. In this
situation, women have no value in decision making and they are less empowered in
their capacity. Interestingly, the analysis also obtains the similar findings. There is
negative coefficient attached with household size variable and family setup variable in
various empowerment models. It reveals that household size is negative associated
with women empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment. On the
other side, family setup has negative relationship with women empowerment, women
social empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment. Statistically,
the coefficient of household size is statistically significant at 1 percent level of
significance. It justifies that women’s familial/ interpersonal empowerment falls by
0.007 points as household size increases by 1 unit on the average.
As regards to participation ratio and number of earners, it is revealed that

participation ratio and number of earners are positively affecting women
empowerment, women economic empowerment, women social empowerment and
women familial/ interpersonal empowerment with statistically insignificant t-
statistics. If more household members are participating in economic activities so they
would prefer their women to be on job for improvement of socioeconomic status of
households. If women participate in labor market, they would be more empowered
economically, socially and interpersonally.
Father’s job and father’s education have positive link with women
empowerment, women economic empowerment, women social empowerment and
women familial/ interpersonal empowerment. Normally, educated fathers put special
attention on education and job of their daughters and they prefer their daughters to
have good jobs and education to survive morally, economically and socially and to
have improved social status in the society. Improved socioeconomic status of women
would ultimately empower the women in all aspects. The coefficient of father’s
education in women empowerment model and women social empowerment models
207
are statistically significant at 10 and 1 percent level of significances respectively. On
the average, women become 0.002 point more empowered and 0.005 points more
socially empowered as education of their father increases.
To capture the effect of health on women empowerment, sanitation facility and

access to safe drinking water are taken. Sanitation facility and Safe drinking water
appear to be positively correlated with women empowerment, women economic
empowerment, women social empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment. The coefficient of Sanitation in women economic empowerment
model is statistically significant at 10 percent level of significance. It shows that
women economic empowerment increases by 0.035 points if sanitation facility is
available in this area. On the other side, the coefficient of safe drinking water for
women empowerment model is statistically significant at 5 percent level of
significance. It demonstrates that women empowerment rises by 0.029 points if there
is access to safe drinking water.
With reference to economic empowerment variables, it is perceived that

control of women over personal income spending has positive linkage with women
empowerment and women economic empowerment (Bushra and Wajiha, 2015). The
values of coefficient are also statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance.
It denotes that women empowerment and women economic empowerment will rise by
0.114 points and 0.321 points respectively if women have control over personal
income spending. Another factor is bank account, it is appeared to be positively
connected with women empowerment and women economic empowerment having
significant t – statistics values at 1 percent level of significance (Bushra and Wajiha,
2015). It indicates that women empowerment will rise by 0.13 points and women
economic empowerment will increase by 0.326 points if women have their own bank
account.
Considering social empowerment, the study uses access to media/ internet and
permission for shopping or to visit park. The women using media/internet or having
permission to go outside for shopping purposes are socially considered more
empowered. The econometric results show that access to media/ internet is found
significant factor which increases women empowerment and women social
empowerment. It is also significant at 1 percent of level of significance. On average,
women are 0.075 points more empowered and 0.224 points more empowered if they
208
have access to media/ internet. On the other side, permission for shopping or to visit
park puts positive pressure on women empowerment and women social empowerment
with statistically significant coefficient values at 1 percent level of significance. On
average, women are 0.066 points more empowered and 0.137 points more empowered
if they have permission for shopping or to visit park.
As regards to familial/ interpersonal empowerment, fear of violence from

husband or father and decision about own health care are included in the current
analysis. Fear of violence from husband or father is turned out to be negatively
associated with women empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment. The coefficients are also statistically significant at 1 percent level of
significance. It shows that women are 0.079 points less empowered and women are
0.242 points less familial/ interpersonally empowered if they have any fear of
violence from husband or father. Additionally, decision about own health care is
positively affecting women empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment having statistically significant coefficient values at 1 percent level of
significance. On average, women empowerment rises by 0.063 points and women
familial/ interpersonal empowerment increases by 0.207 points if women have right to
decide about own health care.
Constant shows the effect of all variables which are not included in the study
but have an effect on women empowerment. The values of Constant have positive
effect on women empowerment. R-Square demonstrates the proportion of explained
variations in women empowerment which is due to variations in independent
variables considered in the models. On the basis, 63.8 percent, 66.8 percent, 46.8
percent and 51.2 percent variations in women empowerment, women economic
empowerment, women social empowerment and women familial/interpersonal
empowerment respectively are explained by the considered independent variables in
the models. The values of F-statistics are respectively 53.811, 107.657, 34.313 and
40.771 and probability values are 0.00 revealing that overall regression models are
significant at 1 percent level of significance. To check the problem of
Heteroskedasticity in the models, the study incorporates White test which indicates
that null hypothesis of no Heteroskedasticity may not be rejected and we can conclude
that these models are not having any problem of Heteroskedasticity.
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Table 7.9: OLS Regression results of the determinants of Women Empowerment
Women Women Women
Explanatory Women
Economic Social Interpersonal
Variables Empowerment
Empowerment Empowerment Empowerment
0.209* 0.072 0.391* 0.178*
Constant
[4.128] [0.919] [5.426] [2.551]
-0.003 -0.002 -0.008** 0.003
AGE
[-1.169] [-0.561] [-2.249] [0.897]
0.000 0.000 0.0001** -0.0001
AGE2
[1.141] [0.653] [2.107] [-0.885]
0.001 0.001 0.003* 0.002
Education
[1.030] [0.776] [2.501] [1.550]
0.037** 0.053** -0.002 0.047**
Marital status
[2.433] [2.169] [-0.093] [2.191]
Household Decision 0.042* 0.107* 0.070*
----
making [3.336] [6.114] [4.122]
0.043* 0.075* 0.027 0.037**
Self employed
[3.657] [3.905] [1.583] [2.268]
0.051* 0.088* 0.028*** 0.063*
Salaried employed
[4.050] [4.276] [1.733] [3.916]
-0.002 0.002 -0.007*
Household size ----
[-0.859] [0.835] [-2.674]
-0.003 -0.014 -0.012
Family setup ----
[-0.333] [-1.015] [-0.942]
0.002 0.006 0.002
Number of earners ----
[0.541] [1.103] [0.360]
0.007
Participation ratio ---- ---- ----
[0.313]
0.020
Father’s job ---- ---- ----
[1.166]
0.002*** 0.005* 0.001
Father’s education ----
[1.932] [3.115] [0.405]
0.008 0.036*** 0.006 0.030
Sanitation
[0.547] [1.738] [0.321] [1.515]
0.029** 0.014 -0.010
Safe Drinking Water ----
[2.069] [0.668] [-0.518]
Economic Empowerment Characteristics
210
Control over Personal 0.114* 0.321*
---- ----
Income Spending [9.728] [17.588]
0.130* 0.326*
Bank Account ---- ----
[11.962] [18.329]
Social Empowerment Characteristics
Access to Media/ 0.075* 0.224*
---- ----
Internet [7.720] [16.233]
Permission for
0.066* 0.137*
Shopping or to visit ---- ----
[6.596] [9.614]
park
Familial/ Interpersonal Empowerment Characteristics
- 0.079* - 0.242*
Fear of Violence ---- ----
[- 7.480] [-16.555]
Decision about own 0.063* 0.207*
---- ----
Health care [6.305] [14.968]
R-squared 0.638 0.668 0.468 0.512
Adjusted R-squared 0.626 0.662 0.455 0.499
F-statistic 53.811 107.657 34.313 40.771
Prob. (F-statistic) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Mean dependent var 0.573 0.543 0.619 0.558
S. D. Dependent var 0.178 0.310 0.213 0.216
Diagnostic Test: Heteroskedasticity While Test
F-statistic 1.081518 1.218078 1.026827 1.309393
Prob. F(194,405) 0.2574 0.1238 0.4154 0.2012
Obs*R-squared 204.7588 80.96318 126.8347 129.5935
Prob. Chi-Square(194) 0.2843 0.1347 0.4126 0.2041
211
In this chapter, the study concludes age of respondent, square of age, decision to
work, marital status, distance of health unit, workplace distance, father’s job,
participation ratio, residence and family setup as the significant factors affecting
women’s work participation in the Southern Punjab. Among these factors, age of
respondent, decision to work, workplace distance, father’s job, participation ratio and
family setup are increasing women’s work participation and square of age, marital
status, distance of health unit and residence are reducing women’s work participation
in economic activities.
Married women’s work participation are influenced by age of respondent,

square of age, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of health unit,
distance of workplace, residence, family setup and husband’s job. In these factors age
of respondent, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of workplace and
family setup are concluded as motivating factors for married women’s work
participation while square of age, distance of health unit, residence and husband’s job
are confirmed as de-motivating factors for married women’s work participation in
economic activities.
In women empowerment model, marital status, household decision making,

self-employed, salaried employed, father’s education, safe drinking water, control
over personal income spending, having own bank account, access to media/ internet,
permission for shopping or to visit park and decision about own health care are
significantly increasing women empowerment while fear of violence from husband/
father is reducing women empowerment in the Southern Punjab.
212
Chapter 8
Impact of Women Work Participation and Empowerment on
Household Poverty: An Econometric Analysis
8.1 Introduction
The impact of women work participation and women empowerment on household
poverty is analyzed in this chapter. As Introduction is presented in Section 8.1,
descriptive analysis of household poverty correlates is offered in Section 8.2,
association analysis of household poverty correlates is given in Section 8.3, Section
8.4 analyzes the impact of women’s socio-economic, demographic and work
participation variables on household poverty, Section 8.5 examines the impact of
women work participation and empowerment with respondents and households’
characteristics on household poverty and concluding remarks are provided in Section
8.6.
8.2 Descriptive Analysis of Household Poverty Correlates
An average and variation behavior of variables may be analyzed using descriptive
statistics. Table 8.1 shows the results of descriptive analysis of household poverty
correlates. The average per capita income, age, education, workplace distance,
household size, number of earners, participation ratio, dependency ratio, economic
empowerment, interpersonal empowerment and social empowerment are respectively
Rs. 10983, 35.987 years, 9.263, 3.168 km, 5.655 persons, 1.932 persons, 0.397, 0.363,
0.543, 0.558 and 0.619. Approximately, 48.2 percent respondents are belonging to
urban areas, 40 percent respondents are poor, 79 percent women are married, 83.2
women have access to sanitation system, 37.7 percent fathers of women have job,
49.7 percent women are living in joint family system and 59 percent women are
participation in economic activities.
A large deviation from the mean value is seen in per capita income, age of
women, education of women, marital status, sanitation, workplace distance,
household size, economic empowerment, interpersonal empowerment and social
empowerment. There is small deviation of poverty, father’s job, number of earners,
213
participation ratio, dependency ratio, family setup, women’s work participation and
area variables form their mean values.
Table 8.1: Results of Descriptive Statistics of Household Poverty Correlates
Per Capita Income 10983.590 20228.050
POVERTY 0.400 0.490
AGE 35.987 10.263
Household Size 5.655 2.485
Participation ratio 0.397 0.327
Dependency ratio 0.363 0.259
Women’s Work Participation 0.590 0.492
Economic Empowerment 0.543 0.310
Interpersonal Empowerment 0.558 0.216
Social Empowerment 0.619 0.213
Area 0.482 0.500
8.3 Association Analysis of Household Poverty Correlates

The interdependence among two variables is examined by Correlation analysis.
Second purpose to use correlation analysis is examination of Multicollinearity
problem. Table 8.2 reports the results of correlation analysis of household poverty
correlates. The values without brackets are coefficient of correlation and values in
brackets are their probability values. If the value of correlation coefficient is greater or
equal to 0.80, so there exists the problem of Multicollinearity. It is inspected that the
values of correlation coefficient for all sets of variables are less than 0.80 denoting
that there is no problem of Multicollinearity in the model.
The study concludes negative association among per capita income and
poverty, per capita income and age of respondent, poverty and education of
respondent, age and education of respondent, education of respondent and marital
status, poverty and sanitation facility, age and sanitation facility, marital status and
sanitation facility, per capita income and household size, education of respondent and
household size, sanitation facility and household size, workplace distance and
household size, poverty and father’s job, age and father’s job, marital status and
214
father’s job, household size and participation ratio, sanitation facility and dependency
ratio, workplace distance and dependency ratio, number of earners and dependency
ratio, participation ratio and dependency ratio, education and joint family setup,
workplace distance and joint family setup, age and women’s work participation,
marital status and women’s work participation, age and women economic
empowerment, marital status and women economic empowerment, household size
and women economic empowerment, household size and women interpersonal
empowerment, age and women social empowerment, marital status and women social
empowerment, dependency ratio and women social empowerment, joint family setup
and women social empowerment, poverty and urban area, age and urban area, marital
status and urban area, workplace distance and urban area, household size and urban
area, dependency ratio and urban area, joint family setup and urban area, women’s
work participation and urban area with statistically significant probability values.
There exists positive linkage among each set of variables i.e. poverty and age,
per capita income and education of respondent, per capita income and marital status,
poverty and marital status, age and marital status, per capita income and sanitation
facility, education of respondent and sanitation facility, per capita income and
workplace distance, education of respondent and workplace distance, sanitation
facility and workplace distance, age and household size, per capita income and
father’s job, education of respondent and father’s job, workplace distance and father’s
job, per capita income and number of earners, age and number of earners, workplace
distance and number of earners, household size and number of earners, father’s job
and number of earners, per capita income and participation ratio, education of
respondent and participation ratio, workplace distance and participation ratio, father’s
job and participation ratio, number of earners and participation ratio, poverty and
dependency ratio, marital status and dependency ratio, household size and
dependency ratio, household size and joint family setup, father’s job and joint family
setup, number of earners and joint family setup, per capita income and women’s work
participation, poverty and women’s work participation, education of respondent and
women’s work participation, workplace distance and women’s work participation,
father’s job and women’s work participation, number of earners and women’s work
participation, participation ratio and women’s work participation, joint family setup
and women’s work participation, women’s work participation and women economic
empowerment, participation ratio and women economic empowerment, father’s job
215
and women economic empowerment, workplace distance and women economic
empowerment, sanitation facility and women economic empowerment, education of
respondent and women economic empowerment, per capita income and women
economic empowerment, per capita income and women interpersonal empowerment,
education of respondent and women interpersonal empowerment, workplace distance
and women interpersonal empowerment, father’s job and women interpersonal
empowerment, participation ratio and women interpersonal empowerment, women’s
work participation and women interpersonal empowerment, women economic
empowerment and women interpersonal empowerment, per capita income and women
social empowerment, education of respondent and women social empowerment,
sanitation facility and women social empowerment, workplace distance and women
social empowerment, father’s job and women social empowerment, number of earners
and women social empowerment, participation ratio and women social empowerment,
women’s work participation and women social empowerment, women economic
empowerment and women social empowerment, women interpersonal empowerment
and women social empowerment, per capita income and urban area, education of
respondent and urban area, sanitation facility and urban area, father’s job and urban
area, women social empowerment and urban area having statistically significant
probability values.
216
217
Table 8.2: Results of Correlation Matrix of Household Poverty Correlates
Variables PCI POVERTY AGE EDUR MS SANI DIST HHSZ FJOB WORK PART DEPD FAMILY WWPART ECONOMIC PERSONAL SOCIAL AREA
PCI 1.000
-0.071
POVERTY 1.000
(0.082)
-0.068 0.090
AGE 1.000
(0.095) (0.028)
0.162 -0.097 -0.331
EDUR 1.000
(0.000) (0.017) (0.000)
0.001 0.070 0.543 -0.289
MS 1.000
(0.979) (0.086) (0.000) (0.000)
0.097 -0.105 -0.144 0.146 -0.134
SANI 1.000
(0.017) (0.010) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001)
0.106 0.000 -0.040 0.218 -0.065 0.074
DIST 1.000
(0.009) (0.996) (0.331) (0.000) (0.113) (0.072)
-0.206 -0.022 0.146 -0.241 0.044 -0.109 -0.112
HHSZ 1.000
(0.000) (0.587) (0.000) (0.000) (0.285) (0.007) (0.006)
0.198 -0.101 -0.225 0.258 -0.258 0.037 0.117 -0.028
FJOB 1.000
(0.000) (0.013) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.363) (0.004) (0.497)
0.286 -0.059 0.093 -0.029 0.008 -0.021 0.072 0.246 0.240
WORK 1.000
(0.000) (0.147) (0.023) (0.475) (0.847) (0.604) (0.079) (0.000) (0.000)
0.479 -0.003 -0.051 0.105 -0.006 0.061 0.152 -0.389 0.258 0.652
PART 1.000
(0.000) (0.942) (0.216) (0.010) (0.890) (0.139) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
-0.065 0.025 -0.017 0.000 0.283 -0.113 -0.076 0.074 -0.048 -0.111 -0.116
DEPD 1.000
(0.114) (0.547) (0.680) (1.000) (0.000) (0.006) (0.063) (0.069) (0.237) (0.007) (0.004)
-0.053 0.012 -0.010 -0.151 -0.044 0.019 -0.115 0.198 0.067 0.076 -0.028 -0.013
FAMILY 1.000
(0.1950 (0.765) (0.799) (0.000) (0.278) (0.638) (0.005) (0.000) (0.101) (0.062) (0.498) (0.745)
0.082 0.100 -0.132 0.175 -0.147 -0.013 0.324 -0.049 0.186 0.099 0.117 0.013 0.103
WWPART 1.000
(0.044) (0.015) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.755) (0.000) (0.231) (0.000) (0.015) (0.004) (0.749) (0.012)
0.139 0.059 -0.105 0.240 -0.156 0.227 0.233 -0.105 0.128 0.059 0.117 0.000 -0.034 0.392
ECONOMIC 1.000
(0.001) (0.150) (0.010) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.010) (0.002) (0.147) (0.004) (0.992) (0.413) (0.000)
0.088 -0.044 -0.052 0.178 -0.024 0.029 0.126 -0.169 0.143 0.013 0.142 0.003 -0.034 0.247 0.344
PERSONAL 1.000
(0.032) (0.281) (0.208) (0.000) (0.563) (0.483) (0.002) (0.000) (0.000) (0.750) (0.001) (0.938) (0.410) (0.000) (0.000)
0.091 -0.049 -0.209 0.298 -0.216 0.136 0.103 -0.063 0.155 0.067 0.079 -0.069 -0.075 0.162 0.276 0.163
SOCIAL 1.000
(0.027) (0.229) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.012) (0.124) (0.000) (0.102) (0.052) (0.090) (0.068) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
0.080 -0.184 -0.173 0.290 -0.191 0.264 -0.057 -0.190 0.077 -0.065 0.033 -0.109 -0.090 -0.139 0.028 0.022 0.135
AREA
(0.051) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.162) (0.000) (0.060) (0.110) (0.422) (0.008) (0.027) (0.001) (0.499) (0.587) (0.001)
1.000
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8.4 Impact of Women’s Socio-economic, Demographic and Work
Participation variables on Household Poverty: An Econometric
Analysis
This section investigates the impact of women’s socio-economic, demographic and work
participation variables on Household poverty and their estimates are reported in Table
8.3. In this Table, per capita income is taken as dependent variable which is a continuous
variable. In the Table, first column shows names of explanatory variables, second column
provides value of coefficients, third column gives respective standard errors, t-statistics
are stated in forth column, probability values are presented in fifth column.
Age of younger women is turned out to be negatively affecting per capita income
indicating that per capita income falls or poverty increases as age of women increases in
her young age. The value of t-statistics is –2.0115 showing its significance at 5 percent
level of significance. It may be interpreted as age of younger women increases by 1 year
so per capita income will fall by 0.0351 rupees per month on the average. It may be due
to increasing household size or change in expenditure or lowering total income of
household. To check the effect of old age women, the analysis incorporates square of age.
The sign of age square is positive denoting that as age of women increases, per capita
income also increases or poverty reduces. It may be due to higher income or due to no
change in household size. Age square is statistically significant at 5 percent level of
significance as well. These findings are reconciled with earlier studies conducted by
Chaudhry et al. (2009).
Education is realized to be a factor of raising per capita income or lowering
poverty in the Southern Punjab. Statistically, it is exhibited to be significant at 1 percent
level of significance. If woman is 1 year more educated, she may be able to raise per
capita income of household by approximately 0.02 rupees per month. The reason may be
that more education gives women a confidence to have good job that would increase per
capita income of households. Similar results are also concluded by Felty (1991), Alam
(2011), and Chaudhry et al. (2009) in their studies.
Married women can play an important role in reducing poverty or raising per
capita income of household. If she is contributing in economic activities so she may be
helpful in raising socioeconomic status of households. The sign of coefficient is positive
in regression results which indicate that married women may increase per capita income
of household. The results are statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance. It
shows that married women may be able to raise per capita income by approximately 0.29
rupees per month on the average.
The most significant factor for raising per capita income or reducing poverty is
women’s work participation. If women are participating in working activities so
household per capita income may be raised by approximately about 0.06 rupees per
month. The value of coefficient is statistically significant at 10 percent level of
significance. Similar findings are also concluded by Alam (2011).
Availability of sanitation facility is an indicator of good health. If households are
provided healthy facilities so they may struggle for raising per capita income or reducing
poverty level. Results show that availability of sanitation facility is positively associated
with per capita income which is statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance.
On the average, per capita income will be raised by 0.25 rupees per month if sanitation
facility is provided to households.
It is generally assumed that women have to travel long to get highly paid jobs. In
other words, longer workplace distances may increase per capita income of households.
Workplace distance is positively linked with per capita income but the value of
coefficient is statistically not significant. Higher household size lowers per capita income
of households. Household size is disclosed to be negatively associated with per capita
income of households (Chaudhry et al. (2009). It is statistically significant at 1 percent
level of significance. On the average, per capita income will fall by 0.08 rupees per
month if household size increases by 1 person.
Father’s job has a significant effect on per capita income of household. It is
determined to be increasing per capita income or reducing poverty of households. On the
average, father’s employed job status increases per capita income by 0.13 rupees per
month. If father is employed, his earning will also increase total income or per capita
income of household.
Number of earners and participation ratio are the most essential factors for raising
per capita income of household which may significantly reduce poverty of households as
well. In this study, number of earners and participation ratio are realized to be statistically
significant at 1 percent level of significance. The signs of these variables are also positive
indicating that more earning persons in house will increase total income of household or
per capita income of household in Southern Punjab (Chaudhry et al., 2009). On the
average, 1 additional earner in household may be able to increase per capita income by
rupees 0.27 per month approximately. Similarly, if participation ratio increases by 1
point, so per capita income will rise by 0.64 rupees per month on the average.
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There would be negative influence of more dependents of households on per
capita income of households because dependents have to share the same total income
which will lower per capita income. In the results, the coefficient value is negative with
statistically significant t-statistics at 5 percent level of significance. Dependency ratio is
estimated to have negative outcome on per capita income (Felty, 1991). On the average,
per capita income falls by 0.27 due to one additional point of dependency ratio. The
similar negative effect of joint family setup is analyzed in the current analysis on per
capita income of household (Chaudhry et al., 2009). It is also statistically significant at 5
percent level of significance. On the average, per capita income of household reduces by
0.14 rupees per month if women belong to joint family setup.
In urban areas, more employment opportunities are available to male and females
for raising total income of household. The income and wages are much higher as
compared to rural areas which ultimately affect per capita income. Urban area is revealed
to be positive with per capita income of households. The coefficient is estimated to be
statistically significant at 1 percent of level of significance. On the average, per capita
income increases by 0.20 rupees per month in urban areas.
Constant shows the effect of the variables which are not included in the study but
have an effect on per capita income. Constant has significant and positive effect on per
capita income. R-square demonstrates the proportion of explained variations in per capita
income which is due to variations in independent variables considered in the current
model. On the basis, 42.30 percent variations in per capita income are explained by the
considered independent variables in the model. The value of F-statistics is 30.64 and
probability value is 0.00 revealing that overall regression model is significant at 1 percent
level of significance. To check the problem of Heteroskedasticity in the model, the study
incorporates White test which indicates that null hypothesis of no Heteroskedasticity may
not be rejected and it may be concluded that the model is not having any problem of
Heteroskedasticity.
Table 8.3: OLS Regression Results of Per Capita Income (Proxy of Household
Poverty)
Dependent Variable: log of Per Capita Income
Explanatory Variables Coefficients Standard Errors t-Statistic Prob.
Constant 8.3332 0.3623 22.9979 0.0000
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AGE -0.0351 0.0174 -2.0115 0.0447
AGE2 0.0004 0.0002 2.1953 0.0285
Education 0.0228 0.0060 3.7906 0.0002
Marital Status 0.2941 0.1111 2.6457 0.0084
Women Work
0.0661 0.0332 1.9887 0.0632
Participation
Sanitation 0.2515 0.0906 2.7754 0.0057
Workplace Distance 0.0041 0.0059 0.7020 0.4829
Household Size -0.0824 0.0209 -3.9301 0.0001
Father’s Job 0.1350 0.0740 1.8239 0.0687
Number of earners 0.2745 0.0498 5.5040 0.0000
Participation Ratio 0.6414 0.1990 3.2235 0.0013
Dependency Ratio -0.2715 0.1361 -1.9947 0.0465
Family Setup -0.1441 0.0679 -2.1218 0.0343
Residence 0.2016 0.0722 2.7897 0.0054
R-squared 0.423073 F-statistic 30.64239
Adjusted R-squared 0.409266 Prob. (F-statistic) 0.000000
Diagnostic Test: Heteroskedasticity White Test
F-statistic 1.371271 Prob. F(13,586) 0.168
Obs*R-squared 17.71355 Prob. Chi-Square(13) 0.169
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8.5 Impact of Women Work Participation and Empowerment with
Respondents and Households’ Characteristics on Household
Poverty: An Econometric Analysis
Table 8.4 reports the econometric results of impact of work participation and
empowerment with respondents and households’ characteristics on Household poverty. In
the table, poverty is taken as dependent variable which is a dummy variable. First column
shows names of explanatory variables, second column provides value of coefficients,
third column gives respective standard errors, z–statistics are stated in forth column,
probability values are presented in fifth column. Marginal effects are portrayed in column
six.
With regard to Age of younger women, it is examined that lower age of women is
increasing poverty in southern Punjab. The value of z–statistics is 0.56 showing its
insignificance. It may be due to increasing household size or change in expenditure or
lowering total income of household. To check the effect of old age women, the analysis
incorporates square of age. The sign of age square is negative denoting that as age of
women increases, poverty reduces. It may be due to higher income or due to no change in
household size but age square is statistically insignificant. These findings are reconciled
with earlier studies conducted by Chaudhry et al. (2009).
Regarding education of respondent, it is realized to be a factor of lowering

poverty in southern Punjab. Statistically, it is concluded to be significant at 1 percent
level of significance. If woman is 1 year more educated, there is 1.33 percent probability
of lowering poverty. The reason may be that more education gives women a confidence
to have good job that would increase income of households and reduce poverty level.
Similar results are also concluded by Felty (1991), Alam (2011), and Chaudhry et al.
(2009) in their studies.
The sign of marital status variable is negative in the results indicating that married
women may reduce poverty level of households but results are statistically insignificant.
Married women can play an important role in reducing poverty or raising income of
household. If she is contributing in economic activities so she may be helpful in raising
socioeconomic status of households.
Women’s work participation is exposed to be negative with poverty level

specifying that women’s active participation in economic activities may reduce poverty in
the Southern Punjab. If women are participating in working activities, there is 2.67
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percent probability that poverty will reduce. The value of coefficient is statistically
significant at 5 percent level of significance. Similar findings are also concluded by Alam
(2011).
The study shows that availability of sanitation facility is negatively correlated
with poverty level which is statistically significant at 1 percent level of significance. On
the average, there is 25.55 percent probability that poverty level reduce due to availability
of sanitation facility in Southern Punjab. Availability of sanitation facility is an indicator
of good health. If households are provided healthy facilities so they may struggle for
raising income or reducing poverty level. Concerning father’s job, it is examined that
it has negative effect on poverty level of household but with insignificant coefficient
value. If father is employed, his earning will increase total income and reduce poverty of
household.
In this study, number of earners is verified to be statistically significant at 1

percent level of significance. Number of earners is the most essential factors for raising
total income of household which may significantly reduce poverty of households as well.
The sign of the variable is also negative indicating that more earning persons in house
will decrease poverty level in the Southern Punjab. On the average, due to 1 additional
earner in household, there is 23.36 percent probability that poverty will reduce.
In the results, the coefficient value of household size is positive with statistically
significant z – statistics at 1 percent level of significance (Chaudhry et al., 2009). There
would be positive influence of household size on poverty because more household
members have to share the same total income which will increase poverty of households.
On the average, there is 7.27 percent probability of increasing poverty due to one
additional person in households.
In urban areas, more employment opportunities are available to male and females
for raising total income of household and reducing poverty. Urban area is revealed to be
negative with poverty of households. The coefficient is estimated to be statistically
significant at 1 percent of level of significance. There is 13.21 percent probability of
lowering poverty if women are residing in urban areas of Southern Punjab.
Women economic empowerment plays vital role in eliminating poverty of

households. If women are given permission to control household spending or they have
control over their income or they have their own bank account so they may utilize the
available resources optimally which will lower their poverty levels in Southern Punjab.
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Negative relationship of women economic empowerment with poverty status is
established in the present study having statistically significant z-statistics value. It
suggests that there is 2.25 percent probability of reducing poverty if women are given
economic empowerment by 1 point in Southern Punjab. Same findings are concluded by
Makombe et al. (1999).
With reference to women social empowerment, it is understood that there would

be negative effect on poverty of households. If women are given access to media/ internet
to know about employment opportunities or if women have permission to go for
shopping or visit park or community services or visit family members to have confidence
to interact with society, they may eliminate their poverty level. Women social
empowerment appears to be negative with poverty with statistically significant
coefficient at 10 percent level of significance. On the average, there is 9.39 percent
probability of lowering poverty if women social empowerment increases by 1 point in the
Southern Punjab. Same findings are concluded by Makombe et al. (1999).
Another important variable is women familial/ interpersonal empowerment which

is determined to be negatively linked with poverty in the Southern Punjab. It is found to
be statistically significant at 5 percent level of significance. On the average, the
probability of lowering poverty is 4.62 percent if women familial/ interpersonal
empowerment rises by 1 point in the Southern Punjab. If women can decide about their
family size, they can decide about their child health care, they don’t have any fear of
violence from husband/ father, they can decide about their health; women may reduce
their poverty level by having such empowerment. Same findings are concluded by
Makombe et al. (1999).
Constant shows the effect of the variables which are not included in the study but
have an effect on poverty. Constant has significant and positive effect on per capita
income. McFadden R-square demonstrates the proportion of explained variations in per
capita income which is due to variations in independent variables considered in the
current model. On the basis, 21.23 percent variations in per capita income are explained
by the considered independent variables in the model. The value of LR-statistics is
176.56 and probability value is 0.00 revealing that overall regression model is significant
at 1 percent level of significance.
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Table 8.4: Logistic Regression results of Household Poverty Determinants in
terms of Women Work Participation and Empowerment
Dependent Variable: Poverty (If poor = 1, otherwise = 0 based on $1.90 per day poverty
line)
Coefficients z-Statistic Prob.
Constant 1.3442 1.1154 1.2050 0.2282 ----
AGE 0.0308 0.0544 0.5665 0.5710 0.0077
AGE2 -0.0006 0.0006 -0.9304 0.3522 -0.0002
Education -0.0531 0.0177 -2.9976 0.0027 -0.0133
Marital Status -0.2465 0.3111 -0.7923 0.4282 -0.0616
Women Work
-0.1070 0.0524 -2.0406 0.0386 -0.0267
Participation
Sanitation -1.0222 0.2858 -3.5757 0.0003 -0.2555
Father’s Job -0.1489 0.2192 -0.6794 0.4968 -0.0372
Number of
-0.9346 0.1144 -8.1651 0.0000 -0.2336
earners
Household
0.2909 0.0479 6.0635 0.0000 0.0727
Size
Residence -0.5287 0.2073 -2.5503 0.0108 -0.1321
Women’s Empowerment Variables
Women
Economic -0.0900 0.0370 -2.4292 0.0131 -0.0225
Empowerment
Women Social
-0.3757 0.1882 -1.9954 0.0621 -0.0939
Empowerment
Women
Interpersonal -0.1848 0.0806 -2.2925 0.0297 -0.0462
Empowerment
LR Statistic 176.5683 Prob. (LR Statistic) 0.0000

In this chapter, the econometric results demonstrate that square of age, education of
respondent, married marital status, women work participation, sanitation facility, father’s
job, number of earners, participation ratio and urban residence of women are significantly
increasing per capita income while joint family setup, dependency ratio, household size
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and age of respondent is significantly reducing per capita income of households in
Southern Punjab. The results of white Heteroskedasticity portrays that there does not
exist any problem of Heteroskedasticity in the poverty model.
On the other side, age of respondent and household size appear to be significant
causes of increasing poverty in the Southern Punjab. Moreover, square of age, education
of respondent, married marital status, women work participation, good sanitation facility,
number of earners, urban residence, women economic empowerment, women social
empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment are significantly turned
out to reduce poverty from the Southern Punjab.
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Chapter 9
CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Since women work participation and women empowerment are considered the drivers of
inclusive growth and consequently reduce the poverty levels, the profile of women work
participation, empowerment and poverty stated that Pakistan is one of the countries in
which there is low women work participation coupled with low empowerment and high
rates of household poverty levels. These low levels of work participation and
empowerment are due to many reasons which have been analyzed in this study. In other
words, an attempt is made to explore the various determinants of women work
participation, empowerment and poverty at first and secondly to analyze their correlates
with various characteristics based on the survey data collected from Southern Punjab of
Pakistan in 2015.
Since comprehensive concluding remarks of each chapter have been provided at the
end of each one, however, an attempt is made to recapitulate the present study in this
final chapter in some detail. Presently, for the sake of brevity, findings will be
summarized and offered some fresh remarks wherever necessary. But before doing this, a
quick look at the background of the study is undertaken.
Keeping in view the theoretical framework, Income-Leisure model of Woman Work

Participation illustrate that a choice of utility maximization is based on income, leisure,
household identity and production to enter the labor market. Collective household
approach reveals that in a household, the decision of each individual’s utility have
importance in this collective supply model and maximize household production as the
household are allocated to every individual (male and female) “sharing rule” and
allocation of resource sharing to purchase the products for each individual and also
provide public service to each individual.
Considering conceptual framework, women’s empowerment refers to abilities or

the process of capacity building of the women to make choices (Kabeer, 2001) and
choices can be attained by resources, agency, awareness rising, and social inclusion. The
most frequently dimensions of the women empowerment are women control and mobility
over economic resources, women’s participation in decision making at household level.
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The women empowerment is influenced by many socio cultural factors ( which has been
identify from literature review) like type of family (nuclear or joint), household head
(either male or female ), women’s education, age, conjugal age, household status , local
level facilities, paid job involvement, religious tendency, observing veil, dowry and
property received by the women from their parents, exposure to mass media, awareness
about the rights, political participation, husband’s cooperation and willingness for
change. The present study has been conducted on the basis of feminist theories.
According to liberal feminist, for reducing gender gap development of political and legal
channels, generation of equal economic opportunities for women, education and
awareness are essential.
According to Marx’s and Engels, women can be empowered if property rights are
taken from men and are shifted to the women but the critics of this theory argue that in
socialist societies women are still being oppressed. In the view of Radical feminist,
Patriarchy creates social inequality and promotes violence against females and
fundamental changes in women thinking and collective action to defend their cause are
suggested and it creates link between Marx’s theories of alienation with women’s work.
Rather than creating conflict, cooperation between super ordinate and subordinate should
be encouraged. The feminist theories helped to develop a tentative conceptual framework
for the present study.
Since there are many concepts of poverty which have been evolved with the
passage of time are discussed in this study, but head count ratio (most commonly
measure) is used in this study. Moreover capability approach of poverty in considering
poverty line has been briefly discussed and this theory correlates with the theory of
women empowerment because women are empowered when they are provided with the
opportunities according to their capabilities.
As a matter of fact, Southern Punjab is that part of Pakistan which has received
little attention not only at the level of policy but also at the level of empirical inquiry
related to women work participation and empowerment. There are few studies who have
analyzed the determinants of female labour force participation in some specific districts
of this region with limited scope. Therefore, the present study is a full fledge study which
first time correlated the scope of women empowerment and household poverty with
women work participation by employing survey data set from Southern Punjab of
Pakistan. Since primary source of data is utilized in the present study, data are collected
from three divisions of South Punjab namely Multan, Bahawalpur and Dera Ghazi Khan.
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A questionnaire is developed to gather information from the women respondents in rural
and urban areas keeping in view the national distribution of the population. Simple
random sampling and stratified random sampling techniques are employed for data
collection and for making sample of the 600 women respondents. The sample of 600
respondents is divided into working and non-working groups of women respondents.
Simple questions from the questionnaire were asked to women living in urban as well as
in rural areas of Southern Punjab. Quantifiable method is chosen for each variable means
responses were converted into dummy variables form and in numbers. For ease of data
collection, questions were asked in local languages i.e. Urdu, Punjabi or Saraiki.
Having various limitations, the study formulates different models for women
work participation, women empowerment and poverty of households and each variable is
defined comprehensively with their appropriate measurement and expected relationships.
In this study, empirical analyses are made in various forms to support findings of each
other. The analyses are made consisting of preliminary, descriptive, correlation and
multivariate analyses. Two econometric techniques are utilized in this study. One is
ordinary least squares method which is used where dependent variable is quantitative i.e.
women empowerment, economic women empowerment, social women empowerment,
familial/ interpersonal women empowerment and per capita income. Logistic regression
is applied having qualitative dependent variables like women work participation and
household poverty.
With above analytical background in mind, findings and conclusion are

summarized in terms of objectives of the study in some detail. Since 200 female
respondents were interviewed in each Division of the South Punjab, the preliminary
results state that 35.59 percent working women belongs to the areas of Multan Division,
33.05 percent to Bahawalpur while less participation is observed in Dera Ghazi Khan
Division among three. The main reasons of better participation of women in Multan and
Bahawalpur are better educational and health facilities in the areas as compared to Dera
Ghazi Khan. The majority of working women are residing in rural areas (54.6 percent) as
compared to urban (42.4 percent) and non-working majority is found in the urban areas
which show that working women of rural areas are engaged in agriculture sector largely.
The majority (35.9 percent) of working women belongs to the age group of (21-
30) years followed by the age group (31-40) years which is 31.9 percent. There is less
participation after the age of 60 years. An important part of the results is that 262 working
women are married as compared to 212 women are non-working. Out of 126 unmarried
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women, 92 were working women and only 34 were non-working. An interesting finding
is that as number of children is increasing, the percentage of working women falls.
Therefore, the majority working women have no children means they have enough time
to participate in the labour market.
The results state that majority of working women are Masters Degree holder and
followed by the majority is illiterate which means that they are working as laborer or
farm worker. The higher the education, higher the women work participation and
similarly majority of non-working is illiterate and as education level rises, percent of
non-working women falls. One more insight of education is that majority working
women’s husband are educated which supports the proposition that educated spouse
encourages female labor force participation. Moreover, father’s education does not matter
for the working women because majority of working women’s father are illiterate.
It is widely accepted that a healthy women can better participate in the labor force
market as compared to unhealthy. The similar evidence is also showed in this study that
significant majority has access to doctor and medicine in the study area. Moreover,
majority working women has one to four visits to health centre in a year. The majority of
working women also has no minor or major disease and remaining has some health issue
has to travel one to five kilometers to reach at nearest health centre. As far as safe
drinking is concerned, majority of working women (82.5 percent) has access to safe
drinking water while minority (17.5 percent) has no access and almost same percentage is
of the women respondents by access to sanitation facility.
Since family structure plays vital role in women work participation, the evidence
from data showed that majority working women are living in joint family system which
sounds the proposition that rest of the non-working members of the family look after the
children of working women. As far as income in Rupees of the family is concerned,
majority working women’s family income falls in income brackets (5001-10000),
(15001-20000) and greater than 100000 whereas, per capita income of majority working
women falls in the income bracket (1001-2000) and (10001-15000).
The job status of father and husband of working and non-working women is
important source of inspiration for participation. The results showed that father of
majority working women are employed while husband of majority working women is
unemployed. This result also gives the indication that if spouse is not working then
women participates largely. The numbers of male members in the family are inversely
related with the participation of working women. As male members are increasing,
participation of women is falling.
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The survey data indicated that majority of working women is associated with low
female-male ratio. As female-male ratio increases, participation of working women falls.
One another dimension states that women work participation falls as number of working
members increases. Similarly, as participation ratio of family members increases, the
women participation in the labor market falls. The household size up to 5 members gives
maximum participation of women.
The second striking feature of the study is women empowerment which is largely
associated with economic, social and familial dimensions. The major concern of women
empowerment is characterized by participation of woman in household decision making.
The survey data showed that when women are involved in household decision making,
more participating to the labor force market which is clear indication of women
empowerment. Women empowerment index is also calculated using survey data which
showed that as women are participating more, the value of empowerment index is also
increasing. This evidence proved positive association between women work participation
and women empowerment. It is also observed that women of Multan Division are more
empower than other two regions and Bahawalpur Division is more empowered than Dera
Ghazi Khan in terms of all indices of women empowerment. All dimensions of women
empowerment in terms of economic empowerment, social empowerment and familial
empowerment are positively associated with women work participation in Southern
Punjab.
Incidence of poverty has been estimated based on national and international
poverty lines. The results of incidence of poverty based on international poverty line are
more severe than based on national poverty line. The household poverty is also more
severe in urban areas than rural of Bahawalpur Division while incidence of poverty in
rural areas of Multan and Dera Ghazi Khan is prominent than the urban.
The nexus of women work participation, women empowerment and poverty alleviation is
analyzed in Chapter 7 and 8. In chapter 7, an attempt is made to analyze the factors
affecting women participation and empowerment separately. The case of married women
participation is also analyzed at length in this chapter. The empirical results showed that
the age of woman respondent, squared of age, decision to work, marital status, distance of
health unit, workplace distance, father’s job, participation ratio, residence and family
setup are affecting women’s work participation in Southern Punjab. Among these factors,
age of respondent, decision to work, workplace distance, father’s job, participation ratio
and family setup are positively affecting women’s work participation while squared of
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age, marital status, distance of health unit and region wise residence are discouraging
women’s work participation in economic activities.
Married women’s work participation are also affected by age of respondent,

squared of age, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of health unit,
distance of workplace, residence, family setup and husband’s job. In these factors, age of
respondent, education of respondent, decision to work, distance of workplace and family
setup are concluded as motivating factors for married women’s work participation while
squared age (old age), distance of health unit, residence and husband’s job are confirmed
as de-motivating factors for married women’s work participation in economic activities.
In women empowerment model, marital status, household decision making, self

employed, salaried employed, father’s education, safe drinking water, control over
personal income spending, having own bank account, access to media/ internet,
permission for shopping or to visit park and decision about own health care are
significantly motivating factors for women empowerment while fear of violence from
husband/ father is causing hurdle to women empowerment in Southern Punjab.
In women economic empowerment model, married marital status, self-employed,

salaried employed, sanitation facility, control over personal income spending and having
own bank account are significantly contributing factors to women economic
empowerment. Women social empowerment model showed that square of age, education
of respondent, household decision making, salaried employed, father’s education, access
to media/ internet and permission for shopping or to visit park are significantly raising
women social empowerment while age of respondent is discouraging women social
empowerment.
The women familial/ interpersonal empowerment model highlighted that

married women marital status, household decision making, self-employed, salaried
employed and decision about own health care are positively associated with women
familial/ interpersonal empowerment while household size and fear of violence from
husband/ father are negative correlated with women familial/ interpersonal empowerment
in Southern Punjab.
The econometric results demonstrated that square of age, education of
respondent, married marital status, women work participation, sanitation facility, father’s
job, number of earners, participation ratio and urban residence of women are significantly
increasing per capita income while joint family setup, dependency ratio, household size
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and age of respondent is significantly reducing per capita income of households in
Southern Punjab.
On the other side, age of respondent and household size appear to be significant
causes of increasing poverty in Southern Punjab. Moreover, squared of age, education of
respondent, married marital status, women work participation, good sanitation facility,
number of earners, urban residence, women economic empowerment, women social
empowerment and women familial/ interpersonal empowerment are significantly turned
out to reduce poverty from Southern Punjab.
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Policy Recommendations
Keeping in view the objectives of the study and empirical analyses of the study, an
attempt is also made to explore some policy implications. The empirical analyses offer
the following policy suggestion for Pakistan in general and for Southern Punjab in
particular.
i. Since education is an important factor which affects women work participation,
women empowerment and household poverty, the government or some other
district level authorities should address the issues education particularly should
take some steps for professional and technical education to women in South
Punjab. Since most of educated women are also found non-working, government
should provide and should induce that part of the educated society to participate
the work force economically.
ii. Since good health and adequate nutrition are not only important goals in
themselves, but they also raise the workers’ productivity and earnings. Therefore,
government should increase the health facilities at nearest place to the households
because empirically it is proved that good health not only enhance women
participation in the labor market but also empower them and consequently it will
reduce poverty.
iii. Since poverty reduction is impossible unless the economy generates opportunities
for investment, entrepreneurship, job creation and sustainable livelihoods, the
principle route out of household poverty is inclusive participation by women in
the market. There is an ardent need to develop micro and small scale
entrepreneurs for especially women in South Punjab for better employment
opportunities for inclusive growth and poverty alleviation. Therefore efforts
should also be made to acquire credit at nominal markup for women particularly
consequently these micro-finance activities will go hand in hand with
entrepreneurship, enabling more women participation, more women
empowerment and will also reduce household poverty levels in South Punjab.
iv. As far as women empowerment is concerned, government should promote girls
education to address social and interpersonal issues at local level with community
participation. The religion Islam gives guarantee of due rights of women,
tolerance and harmony in the society which should be disseminated through
religious educated personnel particularly in rural areas of South Punjab.
v. The steps should be taken to improve the economic and social infrastructure of
the society in remote areas of South Punjab.
ccxxxv
In the end, the efforts should be made through the grass root planning to empower
women and to participate more in the labor market and to reduce poverty by offering
employment opportunities. This can be done through job creation, micro and small scale
entrepreneurship and increased provision of educational and health facilities and variety
of related social and welfare services.
ccxxxvi

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WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION,

EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD ZAHIR FARIDI

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD ZAHIR FARIDI

Table DESCRIPTION Page

Figure DESCRIPTION Page

Analysis is made at three stages i.e. preliminary analysis, descriptive analysis,

Analyzing poverty level in three divisions of Southern Punjab (Multan,

The results of correlation matrix portrays that values of correlation coefficient

Married women’s work participation are affected by age of respondent, square

In women economic empowerment model, married marital status, self

The econometric results demonstrate that square of age, education of

Keywords: Women Work Participation; Women Economic Empowerment; Women

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Mincer (1962) wrote a paper on married women labor force participation in a

Due to importance of women empowerment, this issue has been discussed in

“According to Dyson and Moore (1983), women empowerment is the

Changing the balance of this work is a particularly complex undertaking

Few definitions of women empowerment are given above which encapsulates

Female participation rates are ranging from 20 percent in Pakistan, 80 percent

The specific objectives of the study are:

i. To analyze the factors affecting women work participation in Southern Punjab

1.3 Materials and Methods

1.4 Organization of the Study

Chapter four presents previous literature relating to determinants of female

Chapter five describes conceptual framework, data sources and

Chapter six elaborates preliminary data analysis of women work participation,

PROFILE OF WOMEN WORK PARTICIPATION,

2.2 Prismatic Assessment of Women Work Participation

Source: World Economic Forum Report, 2015

Source: World Bank

The women labor force participation as percentage of female population has

Source: Labor Force Survey (2014-15)

Figure 2.4: Women labor force participation as % of total employed labor

Source: Labor Force Survey (2014-15)

2.2.1 Labor Force Participation Rates: Crude

Table 2.1: Crude Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces

Province/ 2013-14 2014-15

Figure 2.5: Education Statistics for Pakistan

Source: World Economic Forum Report, 2015

2.2.3 Labor Force Participation Rates: Refined

Table 2.2: Refined Activity (Participation) Rates - Pakistan and Provinces

Province/ 2013-14 2014-15

2.2.4 Employment Scenario in Pakistan

Table 2.3: Labor Force, Employed and Unemployed in Pakistan (Millions)

Years 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06 2007-08 2009-10 2011-12 2013-14

Youth development program is by the government of Pakistan was the major

2.2.5 Age Specific Participation Rates-By Sex for Pakistan

2.2.6 Employment Status by Sectors

Table 2.5: Distribution of Employed Persons by Major Industry

2.2.7 Civilian Labor Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)

Table 2.6: Civilian Labor Force – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)

Province/Area Labor Force

Table 2.7: Employed – Pakistan and Provinces (Million)

2.2.9 National Training Bureau (NTB)

2.3 Current Situation of Women Empowerment

Figure 2.7: Gender gap statistics for Pakistan

Source: World Economic Forum Report, 2015

2.4 Poverty among the Women

Figure 2.8: Population (%) Below Poverty Line of $ 2 per Day

Source: World Economic Forum Report, 2015