Page no.

INDEX
SL. NO. CONTENT PAGE
NO.
1.
Introduction 2
Definition And Role Of Vocational
2. Training 2
3.
Transformer: 3
4. Transformer Construction 4
5.
Shell Type Transformer 5
6. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER 6
7.
OUTPUT EQUATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER 7
OUTPUT EQUATION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

8. 9
9.
EMF PER TURN
12
OVERALL DIMENSIONS OF THE TRRNSFORMER
10. 20
11.
COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS
22
 Page no. 2

introduction:
Industrial training is an important part of our curriculum and I am fortunate
enough to have this training at Electrical Sub-Division (PWD), Kulgam. During this
training I visited workshop at Kulgam this unit is mainly engaged in repairing and
maintenance of distribution transformer.

Definition and Role of Vocational Training:

Broadly defined, vocational training (VT) comprise at more or less organized or
activities- whether or not they lead to a recognized qualification- which aim to
provide people with knowledge skills and competences that are necessary and
sufficient in order to perform a job or a set of jobs. Trainees in initial or continuing
training thus under take work preparation or adapt their skills to changing
requirements.

VT is independent of its venue, of the pr other characteristics of participants,

and of their previous level of qualification. The content of VT should be job-
specific, directed to a border range of jobs or occupations, or it mixture of both.
VT may also include general education elements. However the definition of VT
and continuing training (CVT) in individual countries is different.
 Transformer: Page no. 3

A transformer is an electrical device

that transfers electrical energy between
two or
More circuits through electromagnetic
induction. A varying current in one coil of
The transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a voltage
in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the
magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Farads’ law
of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to
increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885,
transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and
Utilization of alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer
designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers
range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units
interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.
 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION Page no. 4

 A transformer consists of two windings coupled through a magnetic medium.


 The two windings work at different voltage level.

 The two windings of the transformer are called High voltage winding and Low
voltage winding.

 Both the windings are wound on a common core.

 One of the winding is connected to ac supply and it is called primary.

 The other winding is connected to load and it is called secondary.

 The transformer is used to transfer electrical energy from high voltage winding to low
voltage winding or vice-versa through magnetic field.

 The construction of transformers varies greatly, depending on their applications,
winding voltage and current ratings and operating frequencies.

 The two major types of construction of transformers (used in transmission and
distribution of electrical energy) are core type and shell type.

 Depending on the application, these transformers can be classified as distribution
transformers and power transformers.

 The transformer is extremely important as a component in many different types of
electric circuits, from small-signal electronic circuits to high voltage power
transmission systems.

 The most important function performed by transformers are,

 Changing voltage and current level in an electric system.

 Matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer in
electronic and control circuitry.
 Electrical isolation.

CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER

 In core type transformer, the magnetic core is built of laminations to form a
rectangular frame and the windings are arranged concentrically with each other
around the legs or limbs.
 The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core are called yoke.
 Page no.5

 The yokes connect the two limbs and have a cross sectional area equal to or
greater than that of limbs.

 Each limb carries one half of primary and secondary.

 The two windings are closely coupled together to reduce the leakage
reactance.

 The low voltage winding is wound near the core and high voltage winding is
wound over low voltage winding away from core in order to reduce the
amount of insulating materials required.

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

 In shell type transformers the windings are put around the central limb and the
flux path is completed through two side limbs.

 The central limb carries total mutual flux while the side limbs forming a part
of a parallel magnetic circuit carry half the total flux.

 The cross sectional area of the central limb is twice that of each side limbs
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER page no. 6
 Transformers up to 200kVA are used to step down distribution voltage to a
standard service voltage or from transmission voltage to distribution voltage
are known as distribution transformers.
 They are kept in operation all the 24 hours a day whether they are carrying
any load or not.

 The load on the distribution transformer varies from time to time and the
transformer will be on no-load most of the time.

 Hence in distribution transformer the copper loss (which depends on load)
will be more when compared to core loss (which occurs as long as transformer
is in operation).

 Hence distribution transformers are designed with less iron loss and designed
to have the maximum efficiency at a load much lesser than full load.

 Also it should have good regulation to maintain the variation of supply
voltage with in limits and so it is designed with small value of leakage
reactance.

POWER TRANSFORMER
 The transformers used in sub-stations and generating stations are called power
transformers.

 They have ratings above 200kVA. Usually a substation will have number of
transformers working in parallel.

 During heavy load periods all the transformers are put in operation and during
light load periods some transformers are disconnected.

 Therefore the power transformers should be designed to have maximum
efficiency at or near full load.

 Power transformers are designed to have considerably greater leakage
reactance that is permissible in distribution transformers in order to limit the
fault current.
 In the case of power transformers inherent voltage regulation is less important
than the current limiting effect of higher leakage reactance.
 OUTPUT EQUATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER page no. 7
 The equation which relates the rated kVA output of a transformer to the area
of core and window is called output equation.

 In transformers the output kVA depends on flux density and ampere-turns.

 The flux density is related to core area and the ampere-turns is related to
window area.

 The simplified cross-section of core type and shell type single phase
transformers are shown in figures (4-1) and (4-2).

 The low voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in order to reduce the
insulation requirement.

 The space inside the core is called window and it is the space available for
accommodating the primary and secondary winding.

 The window area is shared between the winding and their insulations.
  The induced emf in a transformer, page no. 8



 Emf per turn,



 The window in single phase transformer contains one primary and one
secondary winding.
 The window space factor Kw is the ratio of conductor area in window to total

area of window.




 Conductor area in window,



 The current density is same in both the windings. Therefore Current density,





 Area of cross - section of primary conductor,




 Area of cross - section of secondary conductor,




 If we neglect magnetizing mmf then primary ampere turns is equal to
secondary ampere turns. Therefore ampere turns,


 Total copper area in window,
Ac = Copper area of primary winding + Copper area of secondary winding
= (Number of primary turns x area of cross-section of primary
conductor) + (Number of secondary turns x area of cross - section of
secondary conductor)
 Page no. 9

 On equating the above equations, we get,




 Therefore Ampere turns,




 The kVA rating of single phase transformer is given by,

 On substituting for E and AT from equations we get,

The above equation is the output equation of single phase transformer.

OUTPUT EQUATION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

 The simplified cross-section of core type three phase transformer is shown in
figure.

 The cross-section has three limbs and two windows.

 Each limb carries the low voltage and high voltage winding of a phase.
 Page no. 10

 The induced emf per phase,




 Emf per turn,




 In case of three phase transformer, each window has two primary and two
secondary windings.

 The window space factor K is the ratio of conductor area in window to total
area of window,





 Therefore Conductor area in the window,



 The current density is same in both the windings.

where, I = Primary current per phase

= Secondary current per phase
 Area of cross - section of primary conductor,
Area of cross - section of secondary conductor, page no. 11
 





 If we neglect magnetizing mmf then primary ampere turns per phase is equal
to secondary ampere turns per phase.




 Total copper area in window, Ac = (2 x Number of primary turns x area of
cross-section of primary conductor) + ( 2 x Number of secondary turns x area
of cross - section of secondary conductor)

 On equating we get,

 The kVA rating of three phase transformer is given by,

  On substituting for E and AT from equations we get, page no. 12

 The above equation is the output equation of three phase transformer.

EMF PER TURN

 The transformer design starts with selection of an appropriate value for emf
per turn.

 Hence an equation for emf per turn can be developed by relating output kVA,
magnetic and electric loading.

 In transformers, the ratio of specific magnetic and electric loading is specified
rather than actual value of specific loadings.

 Let, ratio of specific magnetic and electric loading be,





 The volt-ampere per phase of a transformer is given by the product of voltage
and current per phase.

 Considering the primary voltage and current per phase we can write,
  We know that Emf per turn, page no. 13



 On substituting for m from equation we get,

 From the above equation we can say that the emf per turn is directly
proportional to K.

 The value of K depends on the type, service condition and method of
construction of transformer.

 The value of K for different types of transformers is listed in table below.
Transformer type K
Single phase shell type 1 0 to 1 2
Single phase core type 0.75toO.85
Three phase shell type 1.3
Three phase core type, 0.45
distribution transformer
Three phase core type, 0 6_to 0 7
power transformer

DESIGN OF CORES
 For core type transformer the cross-section may be rectangular, square or
stepped.

 When circular coils are required for distribution and power transformers, the
square and stepped cores are used.

 For shell type transformer the cross-section may be rectangular.

 When rectangular cores are used the coils are also rectangular in shape.

 The rectangular core is suitable for small and low voltage transformers.
  page no. 14
 In core type transformer with rectangular cores, the ratio of depth to width of
the core is 1.4 to 2.

 In shell type transformers with rectangular cores the width of the central limb
is 2 to 3 times the depth of the core.

 The figure shows the cross-section of transformer cores.

 In square cores the diameter of the circumscribing circle is larger than the
diameter of stepped cores of same area of cross-section.

 Thus when stepped cores are used the length of mean turn of winding is
reduced with consequent reduction in both cost of copper and copper loss.

 However with larger number of steps a large number of different sizes of
laminations have to be used.

 This results in higher labor charges for shearing and assembling different
types of laminations.

SQUARE CORES

 Let d = diameter of circumscribing circle


 Also, d = diagonal of the square core and a = side of square

 Diameter of circumscribing circle,
  Therefore Side of square, page no. 15



 Gross core area, Agj = area of square = a2




 Let stacking factor, Sf = 0.9

 Net core area, Ai = Stacking factor x Gross core area

= 0.9 x 0.5 d2 = 0.45 d2
 Area of circumscribing circle,

 Another useful ratio for the design of transformer core is core area factor.

 It is the ratio of net core area and square of the circumscribing circle

TWO STEPPED CORE FOR CRUCIFORM CORE

 In stepped cores the dimensions of the steps should be chosen, such as to
occupy maximum area within a circle. The dimensions of the two step to give
maximum area for the core in the given area of circle are determined as
follows.

 Let, a = Length of the rectangle
b = Breadth of the rectangle
d = Diameter of the circumscribing circle
 Also, d= Diagonal of the rectangle page no. 16
= Angle between the diagonal and length of the rectangle.
 The cross-section of two stepped core is shown in figure.

  The maximum core area for a given d is obtained when is maximum value.
 Hence differentiate Agi with respect to and equate to zero to solve for
maximum value of .
 From figure we get,







 The two stepped core can be divided into three rectangles. The area of three
rectangles gives the gross core area. With reference to figure, we can write,





 On substituting for a and b in above equation we get,

 To get maximum value of , differentiate Agi with respect to , and equate to

zero,
  On differentiating equation with respect to we get, page no. 17

 When =31 .72° the dimensions of the core (a & b) will give the maximum
area for core for a specified ‘ d’ .





 On substituting the above values of a & b we get,



 Let stacking factor, Sf =0.9

 Net core-area, Ai = Stacking factor x Gross core area

= 0.9 x 0.6 18 d = 0.56 d

 Another useful ratio for the design of transformer core is core area factor. It is
the ratio of net core area and square of the circumscribing circle
 MULTI-STEPPED CORES page no. 18
 We can prove that the area of circumscribing circle is more effectively utilized
by increasing the number of steps.

 The most economical dimensions of various steps for a multi-stepped core can
be calculated as shown for cruciform (or two stepped) core. The results are
tabulated in table.

CHOICE OF FLUX DENSITY IN THE CORE

 The flux density decides the area of cross-section of core and core loss.

 Higher values of flux density results in smaller core area, lesser cost,
reduction in length of mean turn of winding, higher iron loss and large
magnetizing current.

 The choice of flux density depends on the service condition (i.e., distribution
or transmission) and the material used for laminations of the core.

 The laminations made with cold rolled silicon steel can work with higher flux
densities than the laminations made with hot rolled silicon steel.

 Usually the distribution transformers will have low flux density to achieve
lesser iron loss.

 When hot routed silicon steel is used for laminations the following values can
be used for maximum flux density (Bm)

Bm = 1.1 to, 1.4 Wb/m2- For distribution

transformersBm = 1.2 to 1.5 Wb/m2- For power
transformers
 
  page no. 19
 
 
 When cold rolled silicon steel is used for laminations, the following values
can be used for maximum flux density (Bm)
 Bm = 1.55 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating upto 132 kV

 Bm= 1.6 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating 132 kV to 275 kY

 Bm = 1.7 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating 275 kV to 400 Kv
 page no. 20

OVERALL DIMENSIONS OF THE TRRNSFORMER

 The main dimensions of the transformer are Height of window (Hw) and
Width of window (Ww).

 The other important dimensions of the transformer are width of largest
stamping (a), diameter of circumscribing circle (d), and distance between core
centres (D), height of yoke (Hy), depth of yoke (Dy), overall height of
transformer frame (H) and overall width of transformer frame (W).

 These dimensions for various types of transformers are shown in figures.
  page no. 21
 The above figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of the core and
winding assembly of a core type single phase transformer.

 The following figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of the core
and winding assembly of a core type three phase transformer.

 The next figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of a shell type
single phase transformer.
page no. 22

COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS
 The losses developed in the transformer cores and windings are converted into
thermal energy and cause heating of corresponding transformer parts.

 The heat dissipation in transformer occurs by Conduction, Convection and
Radiation.

 The paths of heat flow in transformer are the following

 From internal most heated spots of a given part (of core or
winding) to their outer surface in contact with the oil.

 From the outer surface of a transformer part to the oil that cools it.

 From the oil to the walls of a cooler, eg. Wall of tank.

 From the walls o the cooler to the cooling medium air or water.
  page no. 23
 In the path 1 mentioned above heat is transferred by conduction. In the path 2
and 3 mentioned above heat is transferred by convection of the oil. In path 4
the heat is dissipated by both convection and radiation.

 The various methods of cooling transformers are

 Air natural

 Forced circulation of oil

 Air blast

 Oil forced-air natural

 Oil natural

 Oil forced-air forced

 Oil natural-air forced

 Oil forced-water forced

 Oil natural-water forced

 The choice of cooling method depends upon the size, type of application and
type of conditions obtaining at the site where the transformer in installed.

 Air natural is used for transformers up to 1.5 MVA. Since cooling by air is not
so effective and proves insufficient for transformers of medium sizes, oil is
used as a coolant.
 Oil is used for almost all transformers except for the transformers used for
special applications.

 Both plain walled and corrugated walled tanks are used in oil cooled
transformer.

 In oil natural-air forced method the oil circulating under natural head transfers
heat to tank walls. The air is blown through the hollow space to cool the
transformer.

 In oil natural-water forced method, copper cooling coils are mounted above
the transformer core but below the surface of oil. Water is circulated through
the cooling coils to cool the transformer.
 In oil forced-air natural method of cooling, oil is circulated through the
transformer with the help of a pump and cooled in a heat exchanger by natural
circulation of air.
  page no. 24
 In oil forced-air forced method, oil is cooled in external heat exchanger using
air blast produced by fans.

 In oil forced-water forced method, heated oil is cooled in a water heat
exchanger. In this method pressure of oil is kept higher than that of water to
avoid leakage of oil.

 Natural cooling is suitable up to 10 MVA. The forced oil and air circulation
are employed for transformers of capacities 3Q MVA and upwards.

 The forced oil and water is used for transformers designed for power plants.
PROBLEMS page no. 25
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page no. 34
 Vocational
Training Report
AT
JKPCC SRINAGAR, JAMMU AND KASHMIR.

Submitted By-
SUHAIL NABI KHAN
Reg. No. : 151010120072
Roll No. : 15101101096
AKNOWLEGDEMENT
I am very thankful to JAMMU & KASHMIR PROJECT
CONSTRUCTION
CORPORATION LIMITED for giving me the opportunity to
undertake my summer training at their prestigious GOVT. COLLEGE
OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SAFAPORA, JAMMU
& KASHMIR. It was a very good learning experience for me to have
worked at this site as this projects involved many unique construction
practices and challenges. I would like to convey my heartiest thanks to
Mr. ABDUL RASHID, managing director JKPCC, who heartily
welcomed me for winter training. I would also like to give my heart-felt
thanks to Mr. NISAR AHMAD, Project Manager JKPCC SAFAPORA.
Mr. FAROOQ AHMAD ,BBS Head who guided and encouraged me
all through the winter training and imparted in depth knowledge of the
project.
Also I would like to thank Mr. ASHRAF MIR, Planning Manager, who
assisted and guided me whenever I needed help.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank all the staff of CIVIL
DEPARTMENT OF JALPAIGURI GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING
COLLEGE for being so helpful and guiding at every step.