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Biotechnology Application of

BIOLOGY MIDTERM REVIEWER technology to Biology

Careers in Biology Genetics Study of heredity and


variation
- Computer analysts and web designers
- Lawyers and legal experts Evolution Theory that organisms
- Medico-legal cases and crime investigators change over time with
- Public servants respect to their
- Insurance companies (humane genome environment
project) Ecology Study of biotic and
- Human resource managers abiotic factors and their
- Mass media industry interactions with each
other
Fields of Study Taxonomy DINC (describing,
identifying, naming,
BRANCH DEFINITION classifying)
*under systematics
Zoology Study of animals (land)
Phylogeny Study of genetic trees,
Ichthyology Study of fish or history and
relationship between
Herpetology Study of reptiles and organisms
amphibians *under systematics

Ornithology Study of birds Morphology Study of an organism


relative to another
Entomology Study of insects organism, comparison
of organisms
Botany Study of plants (land)
Anatomy Study of body parts
Bacteriology Study of bacteria
Physiology Study of body functions
Virology Study of viruses
Cardiobiology Study of the human
Mycology Study of fungi heart

Phycology Study of algae or plant- Neurobiology Study of the nervous


like protists system

Protozoology Study of protozoans or Parasitology Study of parasites


animal-like protists
Microbiology Study of organisms
Cell Biology (Cytology) Study of what’s inside
the cell and their Exobiology Study of the possibility
interactions of extraterrestrial life

Molecular Biology Study of biomolecules Histology Study of tissues


that make up an
organism Paleontology Study of fossil records
(biomolecules:
carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids,
nucleotides)
Filipino Scientists
Fe Del Mundo
- Pediatrician Clara Lim-Sylianco
- First pediatric hospital in the PH - Biochemistry
- Bamboo incubator and jaundice-relieving - Pioneered the research on carcinogenic
device agents found in food, drugs, insecticides,
- Worked with infectious diseases caused by and environmental pollutants
microorganisms (Microbiology) - First to report on anti-cancer agents found
in some 50 PH plants including ampalaya,
Pedro Escuro malunggay, and coconut oil
- Rice Breeding (Genetics)
- Isolation of 9 rice varieties that were Advancements in Biology
eventually commercially released
- Varieties were resistant to pests and Genetic Engineering and Cloning
harmful conditions
- entails obtaining a DNA sample from a

Angel Alcala subject and creating an exact replica of it


- Marine Ecology using lab techniques
- Invented artificial coral reefs that helped - Advantages: better harvests, most desirable
preserve the PH’s aquatic ecosystems traits guaranteed
- Disadvantages: resistance to diseases is
Dolores Ramirez
- Plant Breeding (Genetics) the same (cloning), ethical concerns for
- Genetics of various Philippine products human GMOs
(rice, coconuts, banana, sugarcane, etc.)
- Macapuno (mutation of buko seed) In-Vitro Fertilization
- involves getting a sperm and egg cell and
Dioscoro Umali
- Father of PH Plant Breeding (Genetics) fertilizing them in a test tube; after, the
- Improvements of rice, corn, and other fertilized egg is put back in the mother’s
economic plants womb
- Mango hero (made mangoes available all - Advantages: allows couples who have
year around)
difficulty conceiving to conceive

Jose Velasco - Disadvantages: expensive, not 100%


- Plant Physiology guaranteed, painful for the female, possible
- Elon-elon variety flowered during short days complications
when there was less than 12 hours of light
- Discovered the cause of cadang-cadang, an
Chemotherapy
element toxic to the plant
- form of cancer treatment which slows down
Carmen Velasquez the growth of cancer cells; affects the entire
- Microbiology and Parasitology body and has several side effects; radiation
- Discovered the presence of parasites in PH that targets highly-mutative cells
food fishes
- Advantages: inhibits the growth of cancer

Gregorio Velasquez cells


- Phycology - Disadvantages: kills healthy cells as well;
- Intensive study and collection of the PH side effects such as nausea, hair loss, etc.,
blue-green algal species late side effects (varying on the kind of
chemotherapy drug) like infertility, heart - 3D, colored image
problems, etc

Plastic Surgery
- surgical specialty involving the restoration,
reconstruction, or alteration of the human
body
- Advantages: attainment of desired features,
correction/reconstruction of parts damaged
by health issues
- Disadvantages: cost, risks and possible
complications such as infections and
implant leakage

Vaccines
- preventive drugs; administration of antigenic
material to stimulate an individual's immune
system to develop adaptive immunity to a
pathogen
- Advantages: prevents the spread of
diseases
- Disadvantages: not 100% guaranteed, mild
reactions to the vaccine, natural immunity
(ex: contracting chicken pox to develop
antibodies) > artificial immunity (vaccines)

- Follows the movement of the specimen


CRISPR-Cas9 - Dissecting microscope
- Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short
Palindromic Repeats
- Guide RNA partners with original DNA then
attracts Cas9, which cuts the DNA; gene is
then inserted

Phase Contrast Microscope


Types of Microscopes - Converts phase shifts in light passing
through a transparent specimen to
Compound Microscope
brightness changes in the image
- Image is inverted
- Used for live organisms
- Movement is opposite
- LPO, HPO, and Oil Immersion Objectives
Scanning Electron Microscope
- Sends a beam of electrons across the
Stereomicroscope
specimen from left to right
- Beam of electrons bounces in all directions 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒)(𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

- 3D image, black and white 𝐿𝑃𝑂 𝑀𝑎𝑔


𝐻𝑃𝑂 𝐹𝑂𝑉 = ( ) (𝐿𝑃𝑂 𝐹𝑂𝑉)
- 100,000x - 200,000x 𝐻𝑃𝑂 𝑀𝑎𝑔

Transmission Electron Microscope Estimate Specimen Size = 1/N x HPO FOV; where
- Beam of electrons is absorbed through the N is the no. of cells that can fit in the FOV
specimen
- Creates a clear, detailed image on a TV-like 1 mm = 1000 micrometer
screen
- 2D, black and white Parts of a Microscope
- 200,000x - 500,000x
Mechanical - used to support and adjust the parts
Measurements in Microscopy
Magnifying - used to enlarge specimen
Resolution
- Shortest distance between 2 points on a Illuminating - used to provide light
specimen that can still be observed as Laboratory Equipment
separate entities
Compound Microscope- magnifies microscopic
Magnification organisms or specimen
- Process of enlarging something in
appearance, NOT in physical size Stereomicroscope - used to magnify large
specimen
Field of Vision
- Diameter of the circle of light seen through Coverslip/Glass Slide- container for the specimen
the eyepiece to be viewed under the microscope

Working Distance Petri Dish - a container for growing microorganisms


- Distance between objectives and stage and cells

Higher Magnification, Lower FOV, Lower Light, Test Tube - a container for small samples under
Lower Working Distance observation
Test Tube Rack - a stand where test tubes are
placed for observation Petrol,
Flammable Catches Kerosene,
fire easily Alcohol,
Alcohol Lamp - used for heating samples and Hydrogen
substances

Wire Loop - used to transfer microorganisms


(inoculate) from one medium to another Radioactive
Radioactiv Emits carbon,
e radiation Uranium
Wire Needle - used to transfer microorganisms
(stab inoculate) from one medium to another
Produces
vapors or
Graduated Cylinder - used to measure volume of fumes
liquids Irritant which Phenol,
irritate the Chloroform
eyes, nose,
Pasteur Pipette (dropper) - used to transfer small and throat
amounts of liquid
Eats away Sulfuric Acid,
Dissecting Pan - used as a container to fix other Potassium
specimen for dissection Corrosive substances Hydroxide,
NaOH Pellets

Dissecting Scissors - used to cut parts of specimen


during dissection Poses a
Hazardous potential Carcinogens,
to the threat to Chlorofluorocar
Scalpel - used to slice parts of the specimen during Environment
the bons (CFC),
dissection environmen batteries
t
Digital Balance - used to measure the mass of A
substances poisonous Medical Waste,
and Microorganisms,
Biohazard infectious Urine, Blood
Hazard Symbols substance

Symbol Name Definition Examples Laboratory Techniques


Reacts Wet Mount and Dry Mount of Specimen
violently Flash powder,
Explosive when propane, gas - In order to view some specimen under the
heated or microscope, they must be prepared on a
struck
slide with a liquid medium (to retain
structural integrity)
Harmful Methanol,
even in Cyanide,
Toxic small doses Carbon Centrifugation
Monoxide, - Used to separate solid from liquid
Chlorine components like blood samples
- Produces a precipitate (sinks) and a
supernatant liquid

Polymerase Chain Reaction


- Used to create copies of DNA for molecular - Belong to an individual; different set of
screening values for different people
- Basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
motivate attitudes or actions
- Used to separate fragments of DNA
(according to length) and protein molecules - Influenced by culture and upbringing
- DNA (negative charge) is charged and - Rules by which we make decisions and
separated prioritize

Aseptic Technique and Culturing Bacteria


Bioethics
- Sterile technique used in handling cultures
of growth of microorganisms - Field that explores challenging moral issues
- Used to isolate microorganisms in healthcare and the environment
- Helps us make decisions about how best to
Dissection and Microdissection
use new scientific knowledge
- Dismembering of a deceased animal or
- Bioethical questions arise because of our
plant to study its anatomical structure
- To examine cells and microorganisms social responsibility towards others and our
community
Autoclaving - Best course of action is always to save lives
- Sterilization of materials used in the
- Never deliberately take a life with no moral
laboratory with intense heat
and bioethical basis as all life forms have
- Kill microorganisms
- 400 psi for 15 minutes the right to live

Bioethics History of Bioethics


- Old medical practices cannot moderate the
Ethics spectacular advances of biology and
- Deals with concepts of right and wrong medicine
- Standards of how people ought to act; study - Examples
of morals 1. Genetic advances
- Framework or basis to interpret what is right 2. The concept of death
and wrong 3. Sustaining the life of the very sick
- Moral compass 4. Abortion
- Fixed and unchanging 5. Medical costs
6. Evolving society: government, culture,
Morals religion
- Manners and character Four Principles of Bioethics
- Social responsibility
- Relative to time and place Autonomy
- Depends on the values of the community - Respect for persons and their natural worth
- Standards used to distinguish what is right as an individual
and wrong (set by society) - Acknowledges the person’s right to make
his or her own decision
Values - Animals do not have autonomy
- Parents or the closest relatives decide for
minors and the mentally ill Manifestations of Life

Beneficence 1) All life forms must be composed of cells


- Maximize the benefits of technological - Basic unit of life
advancements - Building blocks of living things
- Refers to when we ask what can make the - Organisms vary in terms of the number of
most good and least harm cells (unicellular and multicellular)
- Preventing harm, removing harm, or - Prokaryotic cells: genetic material is NOT
improving the situation enclosed in a membrane
- Can also pertain to defending the rights of - Eukaryotic cells: genetic material is
others, rescuing those in danger and enclosed in a membrane
helping individuals with disabilities - All cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
cell membrane
Non-Maleficence - Viruses are not living things (NOT a cell)
- Do NOT be the direct source of harm - Organisms are made up of different types of
- Minimize harm cells based on their function

Justice 2) There are levels of organization in life/Living


- Considers how we can treat people fairly things are organized.
and equally - Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule →
- Sharing of resources, risks, and costs Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ →
according to what is due to each person Organ System → Organism → Population
- Prioritize the pregnant, the children and the → Community → Ecosystem → Biome →
elderly in that order Biosphere

Origin of Life 3) Life forms metabolize/obtain and use energy


- Extra-terrestrial origin - Metabolism: sum of all chemical activities of
● Prehistoric earth cannot make life on the organism
its own ● Catabolism: breaking down to make
● Uray - Miller experiment: amino more simple
acids can be obtained but not DNA ● Anabolism: combining to make more
- Panspermia complex
● “Seed of everything” ; - Metabolics: study of metabolism
pan(all)sperm(seed)ia - Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): molecular
● Asteroid containing “ingredients of unit of currency
life” struck the earth - Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs
- Divine creation ● Autotrophs can make their own food
- Abiogenesis
● Life started from no life; 4) Life forms respond to stimuli
a(non)bio(life)genesis(start)
- Stimuli: everything that can be perceived by
Tests Nutrient Positive Color
our senses Tested Change
- Individual and immediate response
Biuret Protein Purple or
Violet
5) Life forms grow and develop
- Every organism goes through a particular Lugol’s Starch Dark Blue to
pattern of growth Black

- Organisms undergo stages of growth in Benedict’s Glucose Yellow to


their life cycle (involves Orange
heating)
- Metamorphosis: Changes happening during
growth (puberty) Indophenol Vitamin C Light Brown
- Grow: increase in size (number of cells) Silver Nitrate Chlorides White
- Develop: change in function Precipitate

Brown Paper Lipids Grease Stain


6) Life forms reproduce
- Produce offspring
Organic Compounds
- Parents pass on their characteristics to their
- Compounds that contain both carbon and
offspring during reproduction hydrogen (hydrocarbons)
- Sexually: 2 parents, 2 gametes, genetic - Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one
variation another
- Inorganic: Carbon not bonded to another
- Asexually: exact copy, no genetic variation
carbon or hydrogen
- Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
7) Life forms maintain homeostasis acids (Biomolecules)
- Homeostasis: internal balance
Organic Molecules & Chemical Bonds
8) Life forms can adapt to their environment Polymers Monomers Chemical
Bonds
- Change overtime as means of adapting to
Carbohydrates Monosaccharide Glycosidic
the changing environment
- Evolution: genetic variation, traits passed on Proteins Amino Acids Peptide
- Prevents extinction of a species Lipids Fatty Acids & Ester
Glycerol

9) Life forms contain DNA/pass on traits to their Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Phosphodiester
offsprings
- DNA = genetic material
- Molecular blueprint of life
Formation of Polymers
- Gives us our identity
- Polymerization: Dehydration Synthesis
- DNA → mRNA → Proteins (Releases H2O)

Biomolecules
Nutrient Test
Biomolecules can be broken apart (catabolism) or
be built (anabolism)

4 Biomolecules (Dela paz)

Carbohydrates
- Main source of energy for cell activities
(starch & sugar)
- Made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
Polymerization: Dehydration Synthesis (Releases
- Long chains of monosaccharides (sugar
H2O)
molecules) bonded together form
polysaccharides
-down of Polymers
- Important polysaccharides found in living
- Hydrolysis Reaction (Adds H2O to break the
things are starch & glucose
bond)
- Monomers
- The simple sugars
- Glucose (blood sugar) is used as the
main energy source in the body
- Fructose is a sugar found in honey
or fruits
- Galactose is a sugar found in milk
and yogurt
- Disaccharide - two sugar monomers formed
through dehydration synthesis
*hydrolysis vs. hydration - Sucrose (common table sugar) =
- hydrolysis occurs at the molecular level glucose + fructose
while hydration occurs at the macro-level - Lactose (major sugar found in milk)
= glucose + galactose
Nature and Structure (Sir Cheo) - Maltose (product of starch digestion)
Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds = glucose + glucose
- Organic: composed of carbons structured in - Polymers
chains or rings covalently bonded to - The complex carbohydrates
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen - Starch & cellulose are long chains of
- Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one simple sugars
another - Starch - found in corn
- Inorganic: small and simple structure, - Cellulose - found in plant leaves &
usually does not contain carbons and long tree trunks (indigestible)
carbon chains - Glycogen - found in animal liver
- Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
acids (Biomolecules) - Simple sugars are bonded together through
Glycosidic Bonds
Polymers - Ex. starch is composed of glucose
- Long molecules made of similar repeating molecules bonded together through
monomers glycosidic bonds
- Ex. nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates - Foods rich in carbohydrates
- Lipids are not polymers because they DO - Starchy Food: Bread, Cereals,
NOT have a monomer Pasta, Rice, Potatoes, Beans,
Chestnuts
- The phosphate group in a nucleotide
Lipids bonds with the 5th carbon of the first
- Include fats and oils sugar molecule
- Fats are solid in room temperature - The phosphate group then bonds
- Oils are liquid in room temperature with the 3rd carbon of the second
- In living organisms, lipids form part of the sugar molecule
structure of cell membranes (phospholipid - Flow of biological information
bilayer) DNA -> mRNA -> protein
- Extra food that is not immediately needed
as a source of energy is changed to fat and Proteins
stored - Form important cell products such as
- Lipids are a source of stored energy in living enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and
organisms hemoglobin
- Also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - Play an important role in cell repair and
- The monomers of lipids are fatty acids and growth
glycerol - Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
- Formed through the dehydration synthesis nitrogen
of fatty acids and glycerol
- Saturated fatty acids (single bonds) 4 Biomolecules (Sir Cheo)
- Solid due to the single bond
- Unsaturated fatty acids (double bonds) Carbohydrates
- Liquid due to the double covalent
bond
- Ester Linkage - connects the glycerol chain
to the fatty acid chains
- Cholesterol - constituent of membranes and
the source of steroid hormones
- Lipids in Biological Membranes
(Phospholipids)
- hydrophilic heads (polar) and
hydrophobic tails (nonpolar) create a
phospholipid bilayer
- Triglyceride - Organic compound composed of C, H & O
- Long term energy storage in a 1:2:1 ratio (except for the majority of
- The energy stored will be used when polysaccharides)
the immediate source is depleted - Function: main source of energy for all living
things
Nucleic Acids - Building block: monosaccharide
- Very large molecules made up of carbon, - Terms:
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus Monosaccharide: glucose, galactose
- The simplest unit or building block of nucleic fructose
acids is the nucleotide Disaccharide: sucrose (gl + f), lactose (gl +
- Nucleotides are composed of a sugar ga), maltose (gl + gl)
molecule, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate Polysaccharide: starch (energy for plants),
group glycogen (energy for animals), cellulose
- Phosphodiester Bond (makes up cell walls)
- 5’ to 3’ - Linked by glycosidic bonds
- Two sugar molecules connected by
the phosphate group
- Sugars: produced by plants during
photosynthesis and are the primary sources
of energy for most organisms
- Used in cell walls of plants and other
organisms (when sugars are placed
- Made up of amino acids (peptides)
together into complex carbs like cellulose,
- Also known as polypeptides
they become strong and rigid)
- Most diverse group of biomolecules,
perform the largest variety of functions
Lipids
- Building block: amino acid
- Linked by peptide bond
- Composition of Monomer: amino group,
carboxyl group, side chain (R-group)

- Made up of a glycerol molecule attached to


three fatty acids
- Organic compound made up of C, H, & O,
but not in any fixed ratio
- Function: energy utilization, hormone
regulation, protection
- Building block: fatty acid
- Triglyceride = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
linked by ester bond - Number of side chains: each of the 20
- Lipids contain MORE ENERGY than unique amino acids corresponds to a
carbohydrates different side chain (20 side chains)
- Fatty Acids - Functions: transport molecules through
● Saturated: all C atoms are joined by membranes, attack germs, carry oxygen
single bonds (solid fats) through blood, send signals to body
● Unsaturated: C chain contain double - Order of amino acids give the protein its
or triple bonds (oils) shape and in turn determines its function
- Types of Lipids - Types based on structure: primary,
● Fats from animals(Saturated) secondary, tertiary, quaternary
● Oils from plants (Unsaturated) ● Quaternary proteins
● Phospholipid: hydrophilic, polar ○ Hemoglobin: transports
heads with hydrophobic, nonpolar oxygen and iron in the blood
tails (has a kink) that make up the stream
phospholipid bilayer of a cell ○ Myoglobin: transports oxygen
membrane and iron in the muscle
● Steroids: has effect on emotions (ex.
testosterone, Vitamin D, cholesterol)
● Some Carotenoids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids;
- Main functions: heredity, protein synthesis,
energy (ex. Adenosine triphosphate or ATP)
- Building block: Nucleotide
- Linked by phosphodiester bond (phosphate
to sugar)
- Structure: phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar
(pentose), nitrogenous base
- Nitrogenous bases (linked by hydrogen
bonds):
● Purines (double ring): Adenine and
Guanine
● Pyrimidines (single ring): Cytosine,
Thymine, Uracil
- Types of pentose in nucleotide
● deoxyribose (deoxyribonucleic acid
or DNA)
● Ribose (ribonucleic acid or RNA)

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