Zinc

Functions of Zinc
1. Zinc is involved in synthesis of tryptophan, a precursor of IAA.
2. Involved in synthesis of many enzymes i.e carbonic anhydrase which catalyzes the
breakdown of carbonic acid in to carbon di oxide and water.
3. Zinc is essential component of proteinases and peptidases enzyme systems.
4. RNA and ribosomes contents in the cells are greatly reduced under the conditions of
Zn deficiency.
5. Plays role in protein synthesis
6. Zinc regulates the water relation in plants via auxin synthesis. Zn deficient plants
results in failure of cell walls to grow.

Natural sources of Zn in soil.

Mineral containing Zn are ; Augite, Sphalerite Biotite, Hornblende,
Form Utilized by the plants
Zn is taken up by the plants in form of divalent cation Zn++

Zn fertilizers:
Zn sulphate is extensively used as foliar spray in fruit trees. There are several
other inorganic materials and chelates which are used to supply Zn to the orchard.
Material Formula Zn %
Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4. H2O 36
Zinc Oxide ZnO 78
Zinc Carbonate ZnCO3 52
Zinc sulphide ZnS 67
Zinc chelate Na2ZnEDTA 14

Symptoms of Zn deficiency:
Kinnow: Fading of chlorophyll between the main veins in younger leaves. Bands and
fringes adjacent to those midrib remain green. Later series of irregular chlorotic blotches
and patterns appear on leaves. There is complete fading of chlorophyll in the interveinal
areas with sharp yellow colour during winter with marked reduction of leaf size and
Leaves becomes elongated and also curled. The internodal distance get reduced. In next
spring if deficiency persists small chlorotic leaves appear on weak growth giving rosette
look to the twig. During the summer twig die back starts with multiple bud development
giving bushy look to the plant. Finally defoliation and death of plant may also took place.
In case of oranges and other citrus fruits deficiency symptoms are similar to
Kinnow. The fruits of severely deficient plants become light yellow with smooth and thin
rind. The pulp tends to be woody, dry and insipid.
In apple.
Zn deficiency coincides with flowering. The affected shoots bear sparse foliage,
have short internodes with leaf resetting and die back. The leaf size is reduced and
become laceolated with wavy margins and have diffuse interveinal chlorosis with dark
green marginal rim.
Pear:
Reduction in leaf size with upward curling of leaves.
Stone fruits:
Irregular chlorotic areas develop on the margins which later coalesce to form
continuous yellow bands extending from midrib to margins. Red to purple blotches may
appear within the chlorotic areas, later drying up and falling out, producing shot-hole
effect. Crinkling, cupping and curving of the leaves is common.
Grapes:
Zn deficiency appear in summer when tips of emerging secondary shoot growth
get affected along with those of the primary shoots. Smalling of leaves with typical
chlorosis and particularly widening of the petiolar sinus. There is strangling of clusters in
some cvs with small undeveloped shot berries.

Mango:
 The deficiency appears on terminal flushes in the upper part of the tree. As the
deficiency becomes severe, almost all the flushes are affected with narrow, stiff and
deformed leaves. There is interveinal chlorosis. The affected leaves curl backward giving
a cup-shaped appearance. The tips and margins of the curled leaves become chlorotic.
Under very severe deficiency conditions, there is almost total stoppage of flushing and
the death of large twigs and even branches.
Correction of Zn deficiency:
Soil application ZnSO4 did not give proper control of Zn deficiency in fruit plants
in high pH soils. In citrus zinc sprays are given @ 0.3 % to 0.45 % in April, June and
September. In pear and peach 3 kg of ZnSO4 + 1.5 kg of quick lime + 500 litres of water.
In guava 1 kg of ZnSO4 + 500 g of lime + 100 litres of water.
Interactions:
Phosphorus-Zn interaction is well known. Heavy P fertilization resulted in
reduction of Zn uptake. Various mechanisms have been proposed for the P-Zn
antagonism which are;
o A dilution effect of Zn concentration in foliage due to greater plant growth due to
P fertilization.
o Interference during translocation from roots to the leaves.
o Some antagonistic disorder at the functional site.
Zn excess:
In citrus toxicity level in fruit is observed above 200 ppm of Zn concentration
(Opti> 62 ppm; deficient >18 ppm) in leaves. Zn toxicity causes leaf burn, defoliation
and twig die back. The roots become stubby (short and broad), thickened and brownish.
 Iron
Physiological Roles;
• Present in chloroplasts hence associated with chlorophyll formation
• Involved in the activity of many enzymes such as catalase, cyrochrome,
ferrodoxin, hematin and cytochrome oxidase.
• It plays role in respirtation.

Natural sources of Iron in the soil

Large amounts of soil Fe are present in primary minerals such as haematite (Fe 2O3),
goethite (FeOCH), Magnetite (Fe3O4), pyrite (FeS2), olivine (FeSiO4) and limonite
(Fe2O3. 3H2O).

Forms utilized by plants:

The Fe is taken in ferrous form.

Iron materials and fertilizers:

FeSO4 have most commonly used to control the deficiency of Fe.
Material Formula % Iron
Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4. 7H2O 19
Ferrous Oxide FeO 23
Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 69
Fe-chelates Na FeEDTA 5-12

Symptoms of Iron deficiency:

The most striking symptoms of iron deficiency is absence of chlorophyll in the
young leaves.
In citrus, iron deficiency results in darker green veins than the interveinal areas. In later
stages the interveinal area are yellow and eventually the entire leaf may become ivory
colour. In severe case the tree become partially defoliated, causing dieback and sometime
the tree dies. The oranges develop yellow colour like lemons. Iron deficiency may be
confused with deficiencies of Zn or Mn and can be easily distinguished from the latter by
a wide band of green along the leaf veins.
 In case of Fe deficient apple plants, the apical leaves become pale and slightly
bronzed. In later stage these developed characteristic symptoms of dark green veins on a
pale green background. The leaves emerging subsequently became increasingly more
yellow, brittle and curved upward from the midrib and finally irregular, orange necrotic
patches developed on the apical leaves.
In peaches smaller veins and the interveinal area loss the green colour while the
main veins remain green and acute cases the main veins also loose the green colour and
the leaves become white. There is breakdown of the tissue and dead tissue drops away.
In grapes Fe deficiency results in characteristic yellowing of leaves. Generally the
first leaves that emerge in spring are of normal green but the later growth is cholorotic.

Interaction of Fe with other elements;

The mutual antagonism of Fe and Mn is well established. Excess of one of these
micronutrients depresses the other and may even cause deficiency symptoms. High Cu
content in acid sandy soils of Florida may cause iron chlorosis, especially if the total Cu
content of soil exceeds 150 ppm.
 Boron
Functions of Boron
 Boron is claimed to affect the activity of several enzymes such as oxidase and
sucrase.
 Boron plays important role in flowering and fruiting processes, N metabolism,
hormone movement and action and cell division.
 It affects the rate and process of carbohydrate metabolism in to cell wall material.
 B helps in translocation of sugars by formation of an ionizable sugar-borate complex.
Under B-deficient conditions, the supply of carbohydrates to the meristematic regions
is thus reduced resulting in tissue breakdown.
 It play a role in pollen tube growth in addition to stimulatory effect on oxygen uptake
and on sugars absorption by the germinating pollen.
 B posses dehydration properties, prevents hydration of root tips and thus strengthens
the plant roots against the unfavorable and harmful influence of the OH- ions.
 Boron is known to play role in synthesis of nucleic acids as B deficiency causes
decrease in RNA content.

Natural sources of Boron in the soils:

Minerals and organic borates and borosilicates are major sources of Boron in the
soils. The main mineral are tourmaline, fluorine borosilicate, borates of calcium,
magnesium and sodium.

Forms utilized by Plants:

It is present in soil solution and taken up plants as H3BO3 (boric acid)

Boron material
In fruit plants Boron deficiency is controlled by boric acid or borax. This material
is very soluble in water is mostly used as spray. Other material such as sodium borate
and calcium borate are also used.
Material Formula %B
Boric acid H3B2O3 17
Borax Na2B4O7.10 H2O 11
Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 20
Boron optimum 109 and deficient 21

Deficiency symptoms of Boron

Deficiency symptoms of B are usually characterized by malformed and hard

misshapen fruits. There may be cracking and roughening of skin and pitting on the
exterior. Internally the fruit may develop corky areas in the cortex and browning in the
core region. There is partial defoliation and the tree bark may also split. The twigs and
branches also start dying back.
In Kinnow, boron deficiency appears as yellowing of mid-rib and lateral veins of
mature leaves. The older leaves become thickened, leathery and deformed. Curling may
also occur in some leaves. Leaves on newly emerged shoots abscise during rainy season
resulting in die-back of the apical portion followed by multiple bud development.
In apples, B deficiency resulted in purplish pimples on young twigs. Small twigs
showed rough cracked bark. The fruits do not develop properly and are misshapen. The
fruit surface is underlaid by hard cork tissue which rapidly turns brown on exposure to
air. In severe deficiency internal cork spreads to whole of the fruit. In mild deficiency, the
entire fruit surface may be covered with small cracks, giving it rusted appearance.
In B deficient pear trees, irregular, superficial, dark or light coloured bark
cankers with slightly raised, uneven borders appear on young branches. Fewer basal
leaves develop on diseased twigs followed by the die back of twigs. On fruits circular to
angular, blunt bottomed, shallow depressions develop particularly on the calyx end and
often merge into an extended area. Batjer et al (1953) observed ‘blossom blast’, a
disorder caused by incipient (initial) B deficiency on trees growing on heavy soils. This
disorder occurred more frequently in years with above average precipitation and below
average temperature prior to and during the bloom period.
 In peaches boron deficiency is characterized by the die back of branches in
spring. A dark green water-soaked spots appeared on every growing tip, about 2.5 cm
back from the end. Gradually this spot enlarged, brown and necrotic, girdling the growing
point. The leaves beyond the affected area wilted and died. Later, the tip slowly died back
for some distance. Older leaves also developed small necrotic areas, irregularly shaped,
which later dropped out, perforating the leaf. Defoliation occurred early, proceeding from
the tip toward the base. The bark became rough brown and rough with many small cork-
like growths. The root system was very poorly developed, consisting primarily of fibrous
roots.
In grapes, the boron deficiency resulted abnormally roughened leaves with raised
areas between veins resulting in cupping of leaves. There was stunting of growth, flower
clusters were developed but twisted, malformed fail to set fruit. B deficiency results in
high percentage of shot berries; or normal set that shatters severely during midsummer.
The shot berries resulting from B deficiency fail to elongate properly and tend to obtain
improper shape. Death of the growing point and abnormally short internodes are also
observed in B deficiency.
In plums, B deficiency symptoms appears mostly on fruit. The brown sunken
areas formed in the fruit flesh may consist of a single small spot or may involve whole
fruit. The brown flesh beneath the sunken areas is firm and in severe cases extends to the
pit. The B-deficient fruit colours up earlier than the normal fruits and drops. In some
cases, gum pockets may be formed in the flesh.

Interaction of B with other elements:

In citrus plants when the B is low the concentration of P increases and the ratio of
inorganic to total P in stems and leaves was highest in the B deficient plants (Smith and
Reuther, 1951). However, Hernandez and Childers (1956) found no effect due to excess
B application on P concentration of peach leaves.
Base elements such as K and Ca significantly affect the B uptake from the nutrient
medium. In grapefruit Ca-salt additions conspicuously depressed B accumulation and B-
toxicity symptom in the leaves. Similarly, K deficiency in lemon cuttings resulted in a
significant accumulation of B in them (Chapman and Brown, 1943). B deficiency and
toxicity have consistently been associated with an unbalanced ration between B and the
three major bases present in the soil complex. Low levels of bases in proportion to B are
conducive to B toxicity and the high levels of the bases are conducive to B deficiency.
High (Ca+ K)/Mg and high (Ca+Mg)/K ratio consistently resulting in B toxicity. But
high (K+Mg)/Ca ratio have had little effect on the appearance of B toxicity. In grapefruit
high B tend to accentuate the expression of Mn deficiency symptoms.
 Manganese
Functions of Mn:
• Manganese plays important role in respiration and N metabolism in plants.
• It acts as an activator for the enzymes, nitrate reductase and hydroxylamine
redcutase. Mn is involved as an enzyme activator in reactions of Kreb’s cycle.
• It is involved in oxidation-reduction reactions in photosynthesis. Deficiency of
Mn results specifically in inactivation of Hill reaction and the Mn content of
chloroplasts is depressed. According to Nason and McElroy (1963), Mn is
directly or indirectly involved in chloroplast formation and multiplication. Since
chlorosis is common in Mn deficiency workers link it with chlorophyll synthesis
and breakdown.
• An enzyme Indole acetic acid oxidase has been reported requiring Mn++ ions as
high Mn content in avocado leaves depressed rooting of cutting, by activating
IAA oxidases.
• Mn also plays role in pollen tube germination and its growth.

Natural sources of Mn in soil

Natural sources of Mn in the soil are hydrous manganese oxides, carbonates and silicates.
On weathering, where oxygen supply is limited, Mn++ is released in to the soil solution.
This form of Mn which is prevalent in soil below pH 5.5 is immediately available to
plants. As soon as Mn is absorbed it is replenished in the soil solution by exchangeable
Mn held by adsorption to colloidal particles in the soil.
In addition to Mn++, Mn also exists in soil in trivalent (Mn+++) and tetravalent
(Mn++++) forms. The trivalent form which exists as Mn2O2 is favoured by pH values near
neutrality. The tetravalent Mn++++ exists as a very inert oxide, Mn2O and is most likely to
occur at pH values greater than 8.0.
Manganese material:
Manganese sulphate is most common source and it contains 32 per cent of Mn.
Mn is also available in chelated form. MnO is another product containing 48 to 65 per
cent of Mn.

Symptoms of Mn deficiency:
The most common symptoms of Mn deficiency is chlorosis between the veins of
old leaves, generally over the entire tree and the terminal growth showing chlorosis. Loss
of colour is followed by development of necrotic tissue. The entire plant may sometime
be considerably dwarfed.

Kinnow:
Symptoms of manganese deficiency appear on younger as well as older leaves. In
the initial stage (below 20.5 ppm leaf Mn), lamina becomes light green with fine network
of green veins with normal leaf size. The dark green bands along the mid-rib and main
veins develop with yellowish-green areas between veins which is followed by several
colour degradation i.e. light-green to dull pale-green, between main lateral veins. Under
acute deficiency condition, the leaf lamina becomes yellow except narrow green bands
along the mid-rib and lateral veins. New growth appears with marked reduction in leaf
size leading to premature abscission of affected leaves in summer.
In Mango, Mn deficiency cause paling and drooping of plants. There is lightening
of green color between the principal veins, gradually turning yellow with a band of green
along the midrib and the lateral veins in the young leaves. As the deficiency progressed,
there is characteristic mottling of the leaf. Later prominent yellow colour developed with
dark-brown pinhead like spots scattered all over the leaf followed by leaf fall. The size
and shape of leaves remains normal but and the number of leaves and twigs are smaller
than normal.
In deciduous fruit trees, chlorosis between the main veins start near the margin of
the leaf and extends toward the midrib. The areas between the veins remain light green
while the tips remained green. The tip leaves on severely deficient terminal and lateral
shoots failed to size and were light green. Small interveinal necrotic spots also developed.
 In banana, Mn deficiency appeared at highly alkaline soils. There is marginal
interveinal chlorosis on the younger leaves leading to coalescent necrotic spots and
finally a necrotic brown leaf margin. There is black-pimply spotting in fruits.

Interaction with other elements:

Availability of Mn was greatly increased by increasing in rate of P application.
There was 2-3 fold increase in leaf-Mn in sour orange seedling associated with higher P
fertilization as compared with normal fertilization. Application of N increased the leaf
Mn content in sweet orange. Similarly, heavy N fertilization from ammonium sulphate
and ammonium nitrate sources significantly increased the Mn concentration in orange
leaves. However nitrogen from Calcium nitrate did not have any such effect. This might
have been associated with the release of Mn from the exchange complex by NH4+ ions of
the fertilization or by H+ ions produced by nitrification. In peaches application of Fe-
chelates (A heterocyclic compound having a metal ion attached by coordinate bonds to at
least two nonmetal ions) to soil caused a reduction in Mn content in leaves as compared
with trees which were not fertilized.. Fe-Mn antagonism comprises an absorption
relation, interference in translocation and competition at functional site in the plants.
 Copper
Functions of Copper:
It is required for oxidation-reduction reactions at the enzymatic level
It plays important role in several Cu-containing enzymes such as cytochrome oxidase,
ascorbic acid oxidase and phenol oxidase.
Cu is reported to be involved in photosynthesis and chlorophyll formation.
It promotes the formation of vitamin A.
It influences the cell wall permeability and the process by which NO3 –N is reduced to
NH4-N in plants.

Natural sources of copper:

The sulphides containing copper mains sources of copper. The chief Cu mineral is
chalcopyrite (Cu Fe S2). Some carbonate minerals such as malchite (Cu (OH2) CO3) and
azurite and silicate minerals also contain copper.
Form utilized by plants
Plants absorb Cu in divalent ion, Cu++

Copper material
Name Formula % Cu
Copper sulphate CuSO4. 5H2O 25
Cuprous oxide Cu2O 89
Cupric oxide CuO 75
Chalcopyrite Cu Fe S2 35
Cu Chelate Na2 Cu. EDTA 9-13

Deficiency symptoms of Copper:

Citrus:
In citrus copper deficiency also termed as exanthema, die back and ammoniation.
The most reliable symptom of copper deficiency are the gum pockets at the nodes of
twigs and brownish excrescence (abnormal outgrowth) on the fruit, twigs and leaves.
There are dark, reddish brown, gum soaked areas of irregular shape on fruit surface. The
cracking of fruit occurs. Blister-like gum pockets develop between the wood and bark,
usually near the nodes on the twigs. Leaves may also develop brown stained areas.
Multiple buds may form at the nodes. Severely affected twigs usually die back from the
tip and new twig growth appears from many multiple buds, giving a bushy appearance.
The apples trees growing on a medium-coarse sand and gravel overlying showed
symptoms of Cu deficiency. The first symptoms appear in early July on the terminal
leaves of the current-year shoots as large, irregular necrotic areas accompanied by
upward curling and distortion of the leaves. The lower leaves on the affected shoots were
usually pale green and lusterless, and shows numerous small irregular necrotic areas.
Defoliation of shoots occurred toward the end of july, progressively basipetally and from
September onwards they wither and die. Under severe deficiency conditions the bark of
the main branches and trunk of the trees became very rough and deeply followed by
shedding of bark tissues.
Copper excess:
Plants need very small quantities of copper and thus the satisfactory range for this
element is rather a narrow one. Copper toxicity may develop due to presence of excessive
copper minerals in soil, or due to application of cu material to the soil or in spray
programme for disease control also leads to excess of copper. The copper excess leads to
reduced plant growth and iron chlorosis. Copper toxicity also results in stunting, reduced
branching and thickening and abnormally dark rootlets.
Control of excess:
When cu-toxicity problem in fruit plants is encountered, the application of Cu to
soil should be discontinued. Copper spray for disease control should be avoided. Since
high soil pH reduces Cu availability to plants, the lime should be applied to raise the pH
to near 7.0. In the orchard where cu toxicity cause iron chlorosis, iron chelates should be
applied to control it.
Interaction of Cu with other elements:
P is known to minimize the deleterious effect of Cu excess, since heavy P fertilization of
citrus trees reduces foliar Cu content. Under acid, sandy soil conditions high Cu content
in soil resulted in severe Fe chlorosis in citrus trees. Copper also interferes with the
uptake of Zn. Cu spray on plants of various citrus species increased the intensity of Zn-
deficiency symptoms in leaves indicating an antagonism between Zn and Cu.
 Molybdenum
Functions of Mo:
Mo is constituent of two major plant enzymes, nitrogenase and nitrate reductase.
It has a possible role in certain phosphatase systems and ascorbic acid synthesis.

Natural sources of Mo in soil

The principal source of Mo is its stable sulphide, Molybdenite. In addition to this few
fairly insoluble molybdates such as wulfenite, powerllite, and ferrimolybedite are present
in near surface soil environment. On weathering this element is released in to the soil
solution manily as MoO4 ion and again precipitated as Fe and Al molebdates at low pH
conditions.

Form of Mo utilized by plants:

Mo is taken up the plants in form of molybdate, MoO4-.

Symptoms of Mo deficiency
In citrus Mo deficiency appears first as watersoaked areas develop in to large
interveinal yellow spots with gum on the lower leaf surfaces. Badly affected leaves
eventually drop and in extreme cases, the trees become completely defoliated during the
winter. Under severe conditions large, irregular brown spots with a yellow halo may be
found on the fruit, the discoloration going only into the peel and does not penetrate the
albedo. The symptoms of Mo deficiency appears both on both the leave and fruits on
sunny side of tree.
Symptoms of Mo deficiency can be controlled by application of sodium
molybdate or ammonium molybdate.

Interaction with other elements:

Under acidic soil conditions, P application enhanced the uptake of Mo. On the
other hand, in alkaline soils, the uptake of Mo was reduced with excessive P.
Because under acidic soil conditions Mo is released from the exchange complex with
H2PO4 replacement, thus more Mo is available for the plant uptake. Under alkaline
conditions, there is greater fixation and precipitation of molybdates induced by P
application.
Sulpher also competes with Mo for absorption by plants and that there is mutual
antagonism between Cu and Mo. When one of these elements is excess, the toxicity can
be reduced by application of other.
 Chlorine And Sodium
Physiological role (Cl):
The exact role of chlorine in plant metabolism is not very clear. This element is
involved in the evolution of O by chloroplast in photosytem II of photosynthesis.
Chlorine ions are associated with turgor production in the guard cells by the osmotic
pressure exerted by imported K ions.
Na:
No exact role of Na in plant metabolism has yet been ascribed. In a sparing effect,
Na, however, can partially replace K as essential element in some enzyme system in
some plant species when K is limited.

Natural sources of Cl in the soil

Sodium chloride is an important source present in sea water and carried to inlands
by clouds and strong winds and brought down by rain. The concentration of NaCl in the
soil is therefore, dependent upon the distance from the sea shore. Chlorine is present in
the soil in form of several minerals in combination with Na, K, Mg and Ca such as
chlorapatite, carnallite, sodalite, halite and sylvite. On weathering Cl is released from
these minerals goes in to solution and not absorbed on the clay complex due to its
negative charge.
Sodium is an important cation on the exchange complex of the soil. It is
also an important constituent of oligoclase and albite feldspars. Small amount of sodium
also occurs in micas, pyroxenes and amphiboles, primarily in fine sand and silt fractions.

Forms take up by the plants

It is taken up by the plants as chloride anoin Cl-. Plants can also absorb chlorine
gas from the atmosphere. The plants take up sodium in the form of Na+ cation.

Materials
No fruit crop is know to response to the addition of Na and Cl. So little importance is
given to Na and Cl fertilizers for fruit crop as these elements are present abundantly in
the almost all the soils. Other fertilizers such as sodium nitrate or muriate of potash
supply these elements. Some growth regulators and plant protection chemicals also
contain these elements.
Cl excess:
The deficiency of either Cl or Na in fruit crops is not met under field conditions.
On the other hand, these elements are important because they pose problems ie salinity
and alkality to fruit crops when present in excess amounts. Poor drainage of the soil,
especially in the flat lands situated in the arid zones also results in saline conditions
which are harmful for fruit plants. Irrigation water containing large amount of salts is
another source of soil salinity. Canal waters are usually quite safe for irrigation for
irrigation but subsoil water but sub soil water at several places is unfit for irrigation due
to high salt content.

Chloride toxicity:
In addition to the deleterious effect of increased osmotic pressure in saline media,
high levels of Cl result in depressed growth and specific toxicity symptoms. These
symptoms include depression in tree growth, chlorosis and burning of tips and margin of
leaves.
Chloride injury in citrus first affects the younger leaves and consists of tip burn
and yellowing of leaves with small white spots. The leaves turn bronze due to excessive
Cl accumulation. Smaller twigs die back each year and some defoliation takes place at
several different times. The leaves less severely affected retain their green colour but
have small, light-green dots about the size of pinheads scattered over them. Lemons are
more sensitive to salt injury as compared with other citrus species.
The peach leaves developed marked chlorosis, tip and marginal burning due to
high Cl injury. Many leaves start dying and there was considerable abscission. Some
dieback of small branches also took place.
In mango Chloride toxicity manifests as leaf scorch which starts from the leaf tip,
generally 8-10 months after emergence. As the gets older, the scorch becomes brick-red
and progresses along the leaf margins, slowly covering the major portion of the lamina.
Nearly all the affected leaves which emerge in March start abscising in April of the next
year. After a few years, the young twigs start dying, giving a sickly look to the tree.
According to Pandey and Sharma (1979) the Cl affected mango leaves had 0.02 to 0.09
percent Cl as compared with 0.01 per cent Cl in the healthy leaves on dry weight basis.
Na excess:
Harmful effects of Na on fruit trees are of greater magnitude. Smith (1962) found
that the decline of ‘Valencia’ orange trees in Florida was associated with accumulation of
excess of Na following the continuous use of high rate of sodium containing fertilizers.
The leaf tip becomes brown or brown spots develop on the leaf margins, immediately
before defoliation. There was abnormal curling of leaves, dying of shoot tips, multiple
bud formation and dying of the upper end of trunks.
In peach, typical leaf scorch due to Na toxicity usually occurring in low-lying
patches in the orchards. There was stunting of trees and the most common early symptom
was tip burning of the leaves. Rolling of leaves and lateral scorch of edges also occurred.
Sometimes, there was a leaf scald (burning caused b hot liquid) which consisted of rapid
scorching of the entire leaf.

Methods of Control:
The management and control of saline and alkaline soils is very difficult. The
general recommended measures for amelioration of saline or alkaline soils is use of
gypsum amendments. Sodium is replaced by Ca on the exchange complex by this
process.
The use of irrigation water containing high amounts of injurious salts should be
avoided.

Interaction of Cl and Na with other elements:

Increased nitrate had a depressive effect on Cl absorption. Increasing rate of Na
decreased Ca and increased K absorption from the soil in trifoliate orange seedlings. In
an experiment, Dilley et al (1958) found that increasing the Cl level in the nutrient
solution increased Mn and decreased K in cherry, apple and peach, decreased Ca in
cherry and peach, Mg in peach and grape and B in cherry.
 Calcium
Functions of ca:
 Ca is important nutrient for root development and functioning. Under Ca def.
the roots turn brown and die, while adequate supply of Ca stimulate the
development of root hairs and of entire root system.
 It is required for cell division as it a constituent of chromosome.
 It is constituent of middle lamella of cell wall as Ca-pectate.
 Like K it work as important solute and helps in cell hydration, permeability
and involve in many enzyme system.
 Helps in symbiotic N fixation.
 It helps n regulation of respiration process. Several metabolic disorders of
apple such as bitter pit, cork spot and internal breakdown are associated with
high rate of respiration and they are decreased in severity if Ca is present in
the fruit in adequate conc. Total respiration of fruits is inversely related to Ca
conc. in fruit flesh.

Natural source of Ca in soil:

Dolomite (Ca.Mg.(Co3)2
Calcite (CaCO3)
Apatite
Calcium feldspar
Anorthite (Ca Al2 Si2O8)
Hornblende

Ca is taken up by the plants in the form of Ca ++ ion either from soil soln. or
from the clay complex.

Fertilizes: Ca%
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 8.8
Calcium Nitrate 21
Calcium cyanide 37
Superphosphate 18-21
Double superphosphate 12-14

Def. symptoms:
Ca is immobile element, the def. symptoms appears on the younger leaves first.

In Citrus
Ca deficient trees had smaller, blunted and thickened leaves, with incompletely
developed tips and distorted short midrib.
The leaves usually develop chlorosis along their margin and between the main
veins. Under severe Ca def. trees remain stunted foliage is sparse and rounded
appearance of tops.
The veins become yellow and rotting of roots take place.
In Apples
The symptoms of Ca def. appear in early june and consisted of the upward
cupping of the margin of the younger leaves.
Leaves develop a uniform interveinal chlorosis and later turns necrotic and
shattered.
On Fruits, the def. first appear on the exposed side which becomes diffused
golden-amber skin coloured similar to sunburn but without the halo of bleached
skin.
The Ca def. results in many disorders of the fruits viz bitter pit, cork spot, internal
breakdown, scald, fungal rotting and water core in apples, cork spots of pear,
cracking of cherries, soft nose of mango and leaf tip burn in strawberries.
Correction of Ca def.
Ca def usually occurs in the acidic soil conditions due to leaching of Ca. The
addition of lime or single super phosphate will correct the def. On the other hand
Ca def due to alkalinity caused by high Na content, application of gypsum at 2.2 to
11.2 tonnes/ha correct the def. of Ca. Spraying of 2 to 5% of CaCl2 before the
harvest increase the Ca content of fruits. Soft nose of mango can be reduced by
heavy application of gypsum and limestone to the tree.
Ca Excess:
The level of Ca in soil increased due to certain soil management practices like use
of high Ca containing irrigation water, excessive use of gypsum, calcium nitrate or
sulphur and over liming.
Ca excess reduces the availability of some other elements such as P, K, Mn, Fe
and Zn. There is strong antagonism between K and Ca. When both Ca and K were
present in the medium in equal conc. K was absorbed by the roots more readily
than Ca.

Magnesium
Magnesium: is found in leaves and seed. Generally about .1% of total Mg in plants
and about 10% of the leaf Mg is constituent of chlorophyll.
Fn. Of Mg:
Part of chlorophyll and involved in photosynthesis process.
It acts as a activator of many enzyme system in CHO metabolism.
Involved in enzymes which catalize the synthesis of nucleic acids.
Mg is essential for formation of oils and fats and is associated with the
transportation of P within the plants.
Mg is involved in movement of CHO from the leaves to the stem of the plants.

Natural sources of Mg in soil:

Silicate minerals: Biotite, Olivine(8.48% Mg), Serpentine(20% Mg)
Clay minerals: Muscovite, Montmorillonite
In arid zone: Dolomite, Limestone, Magnesite, Epsomite
Form utilized by plants: Mg is absorbed by the plants as a divalent cation, Mg++
Mg fertilizers: Mg is applied to the plants in the form of…
Dolomite (CaCO3+Mg CO3) 7.23% Mg
Magnesium Sulphate (Mg SO4) 15.98% Mg
Sulphate of potash magnesia (50%K2SO4, 30%MgSO4) 10.25% Mg
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 36.19% Mg
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 18.95% Mg
Natural sources of Mg: FYM, Poultry manure, Rain, Dust particle and marine
salts.
Def. symptoms: Mg is mobile in the plants, so def. appear on the older leaves. Mg
affects the seedy fruit varieties more than the seedless varieties.
In Citrus, appearance of yellowish green blotch near the base of the leaf and the
midrib and the outer edge. This yellow area enlarges until the only green parts
remaining are the tip and the base of the leaf and inverted V-shaped area on the
midrib. In severe def. the whole leaf turn yellow and defoliation take place.
In Apples, Mg def appears as brown necrotic or scortched areas between the veins
of the affected leaves which cause curling and finally dropping of leaves. Under
severe def. 80-90% leaves drop, and the fruit remain undersized and immature.
Interaction with other elements: Mg affects the uptake of K and Ca. Soil
application of heavy doses of K may cause Mg def. Nitrogen has beneficial effect
on the uptake of Mg. It has a synergetic effect on Zn and Mn content in citrus
leaves. On the other hand when Mg is present in deficient range, Cu content is
reduced as Mg uptake is increased up to the point where Mg def. disappears.