CHAPTER 1:

HIGHWAY MATERIALS
by
Dr Haryati Yaacob

1
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. MALAYSIAN’S ROAD SYSTEM
3. PAVEMENT LAYERS
4. PAVING MATERIALS

2
 INTRODUCTION
The needs for roads stems from the invention of wheels in Samaria –
3000SM
Among early roads:
■ Silk Route – 2600BC ,silk , China- India
■ Persian Empire- silk, porcelain and wood crafts, China- Europe
■ Britain/Europe – 2500BC, log-raft type
■ India – bricks, piped surface drainage systems
■ Mesopotamia & Egypt – paved in asphalt and bricks, Pyramid
■ Roman roads – greatest road building era, 3 structured layers
(levelled earth, gravelled surface, paved)

3
 Tresaguet (1716)

cambered formation, differential settlement problem

 John Metcalf (1717)

Gravel

Excavated
road material
Large stone
Foundation

Blind Jack (musician & horse trade), built 290 km in Yorkshire, proper drainage & large stone foundation
 Thomas Telford (1757)

civil eng in Britain, built 1600 km ++, flat formation, other layers even thickness
John Macadam (1756)

true highway engineering specialist, surveyor,

cambered formation, other layers even thickness,
use small angular aggregats, cheaper and easier
 INTRODUCTION
Types of road surface:
Earth road
Gravelled surface
Flexible pavement – asphaltic concrete
porous pavement/porous asphalt
stone mastic asphalt
surface dressing
Rigid pavement- Concrete road
Interlocking block pavement

8
 Malaysia Road System

Road network system

•State road- 73 850 km
•Federal roads – 18 015 km
•Toll roads- 1490 km
•TOTAL- 93,355 km
98.5% are paved (asphalt or concrete)

9
Road categories based on funds for construction and
maintenance for administration purpose:

Toll Road

Other Federal
Roads Road
Road
categories

Municipal
State
/City
Council
Road
 Federal Road - connects entry points and major cities
- federal gov

11
 Toll Highway- concession company (MHA) design, built &
operates , alternative

12
 State Road- providing intra-state travel, state fund

13
 Local Council Road- township council including built
by developer

14
 Small Road- jalan kampung by district office
from state funds

15
 Malaysian Road System
Two classification for geometric design purpose:
Urban – U Rural – R

16 Mooc 2832
 Pavement layers

17 Mooc, 2832
Sub - Grade

Mooc, 2832
 Sub –Grade: Unsuitable Materials

1.Silt, peat, logs, stumps, toxic material and mud

2.Any material
• Consists of highly organic clay and silt;
• Having LL > 80% and/or PI > 55%;
• Susceptible to spontaneous combustion;
• Containing large amounts of roots, grass and other vegetable matter.

1.COMPACTION TEST (determine MDD
Purpose – determine bearing capacity of and OMC)
material against standard crushed
mold 2.3L, hammer 4.5 kg, 62 blows/layer,
aggregate
5 layers, 5 different mc, obtain Bulk
Density >>> Dry density >>> plot DD vs. MC
2. CBR TEST (determine CBR at 95%
compaction)
3 mold at OMC, vary no. of blows to obtain
95% compaction, calculate DD, soak, drain,
CBR test, plot Load vs. Penetration graph,
calculate CBR at 2.5 and 5.0mm, CBR vs
DD>>CBR at 95% MDD
 Compaction

21
 Compaction

DD vs. MC

MDD
Compaction
Curve

Dry Density

OMC

Moisture Content

22
 Exercise 1.7.1
Compaction Data

23
 CBR

24
 CBR

25
 CBR Testing

26
1 3

2
 CBR 1

12

10

CBR (2.5mm) = (h/13.24) x 100

y
CBR (5mm) = (y/19.96) x 100 8

h
Load, kN
6

0
0 2 4 6 8
Penetration, mm

28
 CBR 2

12

10
CBR (2.5mm) = (h/13.24) x 100
CBR (5mm) = (y/19.96) x 100
8
Load, kN
6

y
4

h
2

0
0 2 4 6 8
Penetration, mm
29
 CBR 3
12

y
10

CBR (2.5mm) = (h/13.24) x 100

CBR (5mm) = (y/19.96) x 100
Load, kN 8

h
6

0
0 2 4 6 8
Penetration, mm

30
 Exercise 1.7.2 & 1.7.3
CBR Data

31
 CBR vs. DD Data

32
 CBR vs. DD

33
 Exercise 1.7.4

34
• CBR value :
• SG: 3- 15%
• SB: 15- 40%
• RB: 60- 100%

35
 Assist in
load
spreading

Provide
Separator platform for
construction
Sub
base:
Function

Protection
to the Drainage
exposed layer
sub-grade
Sub -base

Mooc 2832
 Road base : Main spreading layer

Dry Bound Macadam Wet mix macadam Cement Stabilised Bituminous Macadam
(natural interlock) • Agreggate + 2-5% base Roadbase
• Aggregate water (plant) • Agg+ filler+ bitumen
-Aggregate + cement (3- Composite
interlocking • Less segreagation , 6%) (site/plant) (4-5%) (plant)
• 1st layer –course agg : easy to compact. • Costly -1st layer- unbound
-Cure before laying material
75-100mm • 200-300 mm
surface
• 2nd layer- fine agg : -2nd layer- bound
25-50mm material bituminous
macadam/cement
bound
Surface layer

Mooc 2832
ROAD PAVING MATERIALS
Aggregate – carry
traffic load, main
interlocking
structure

Road
Paving
Materials
Bitumen – bind Filler – fill small voids,
aggregates durable mixture,
producing strong, increase viscosity of
durable & stable binder, reduces
mixture binder run-off
 Natural Aggregate

41
 Artificial aggregate – steel slag waste from ore to produce iron, steel,
nickel, etc.

42
Types of Aggregate
For road construction, aggregate classified according to size:

Course Fine Aggregates

Filler
aggregates (2.36 – 75
(< 75 micron)
( > 2.36mm) micron)
 Types of Aggregate

1. Coarse – ( > 2.36mm) crushed aggregate

44
 2. Fine – (2.36 – 75 micron) fine crushed aggregate, sand (river,
mining)

45
 3. Filler – (< 75 micron) fine materials such as cement, lime,
crushed aggregate dust

46
 Aggregate Size Definitions
100 100
100 99
• Nominal Maximum Aggregate
90 89
Size
72 72
 Largest sieve size that retains
65 some of the agg, but not more than 65
48 10% 48
36 • Maximum Aggregate Size 36
22  Smallest sieve size which 100% of 22
15 the agg pass 15
9 9
4 4

47
Aggregate properties
STRENGHTH
crushing, impact,
during construction
& traffic load (ACV,
TFV,AIV, LAAV)
DURABILITY
RELATIVE DENSITY
AND ABSORPRION resistance to
disintegration
stripping, drying time, under
mix design (SG, WA) weathering
(Soundness)

Aggregate
SHAPE AND
RESISTANCE TO Properties SURFACE
WEAR
TEXTURE
(HARDNESS)
interlocking,
rounded under
resistance to
traffic, skid
sliding, affect
resistance (PSV)
strength (FI, EI)

GRADATION AFFINITY
quality & properly
pavement coated by
strength binder
(Sieving) (Coating and
stripping)
ACV (Aggregate crushing value : Strength ) Resistance to crushing under gradually
applied compressive load

•Passing 14, retained

10, 3000gm

49
 ACV - Process

3 layers, compact
each layer 25 times

Compression machine, 10 min

Load 0-400kn ACV = (weight pass 2.36mm) x100%
50 (weight original)
• TFV
• Similar to ACV test
• TFV= 14f/ (4 +y)
f= load
y= percent crushed over 2.36 mm ( 7.5%- 12.5%)

51
 AIV (Aggregate Impact value - Strength) : Resistance to
sudden shock or impact

Pass, 10, retained 14

25 times rodding
15 times impact loading.
AIV = (weight pass 2.36mm) x 100%
52 (weight original)
 LAAV (Los Angeles Abrasion Value: Strength) Degradation under combination
of abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding

-5000g, rotate 500

revolutions with
33 rpm
- Passing 1.7 mm

LAAV = (weight pass 1.7mm) x100%

(weight original)
53
 Soundness : Durability- resistance to disintegration due to cycle of wetting and drying, heating and
cooling (weathering)
(AASHTO T 104)

-Soak in
magnesium
/sodium sulfate
for 16/18 hrs
-Dry, 105˚C, 16-18
hrs
-5 cycles

54
 Soundness

Before After

55
 Flakiness & Elongation

56
 Flakiness & Elongation
Apparatus
-Flaky- thickness is
less than 0.6 times
its average
dimension.
-6.3-63mm
-pass the slot
FI = (weight pass slot) x 100%
(weight original)

- Long- thickness is
more than 1.8 times
its average dimension
- Retained the slot
EI = (weight retained slot) x 100%
(weight original)

57
 Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity and Water Absorption - Relative density, pores, and
absorption

-Soaked in distilled
water 24 hours
-Weight in water –
C

58
 Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity

Dry with damp towel -

B

Dry oven 24 hours and

weight - A

59
 • A = in water
• B = dry towel
• C= dry oven

• WA= (B-A/A ) x 100%

• SG bulk = A/(B-C)

60
Coating and stripping test- properly coated by binder

• Hidrophilic (bad) and hydrophobic (good)

• Mix and heat bitumen and agg
• Soak 16-18 hrs with distill water
• Determine the coated surface area whether more or less than 95%.

61
 Coating & Stripping

62
 PSV (Polished Stone Value) – resistance to polishing effect by traffic. Sample
Preparation

63
 PSV Sample

64
 PSV Polishing

-406 mm diameter wheel

-200 mm diameter rubber
tyre (390kN)
-water + corn emery flour (3
hours, abrasion )  water +
emery flour (3 hours,
polishing)

65
 PSV Skid Tester

66
 Sieve Set

67
 Analisis Ayakan

100 Sieve Analysis

90

80

70
Percent Passing, %

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Sieve Size, mm

68
 Bitumen
US UK

Bitumen Bitumen & tar

Asphaltic cement Bitumen

Ashaltic concrete Asphalt= Bitumen + Aggregate

** Asphalt binder

69
 Bitumen
Two types of binder -
(interchangeably due to
misconception, diff. origin,
chem. composition, physical
characteristics.)

Bitumen – viscous liquid/solid, black or

brown in color, having adhesive qualities,
consisting essentially of hydrocarbons,
derived from petroleum or occuring
naturally and soluble in carbon disulphate
(80-85% C, 10% H)
Tar – black-brown, adhesive quality, a
product of coal (insoluble in petroleum, high
temperature susceptibility, heavier, health
hazards, distinct odor)
Refining of Crude Petroleum
Petroleum Distillation

Gasoline
Kerosene

Lt. Gas Oil

Diesel
Motor Oils

Asphalt
 Penetration
Grading

Grading
System
Viscosity Superpave
Grading Performance
Grading (PG)
 Penetration Grading
• Penetration test at 25˚C, 1 Pen= 0.1mm
• 80-100 PEN, new spec 60-70 PEN
• Range- 40-300 PEN
• uses the penetration of the original AC. Tests involved: penetration, softening point, flash
point, ductility, solubility, TFOT (penetration & ductility)

80-100 200-300
Properties
min max min max
Penetration 80 100 200 300
Softening Point 45 52 33 43
Solubility 99.0 - 99.0 -
Ductility 100 - 100 -
Flash Point 225 - 200 -
Retained Pen 47 - 37 -
Loss on Heating - 0.5 - 1.0
Drop in Pen - 20 - 25
74
Problem with PEN system??
Temperature susceptibility

Medium

Low

High

25C (77F) Temperature

 Viscosity Grading

•Measure pen and viscosity at 60˚C and

135˚C
•Tested on Asphalt Cement (AC) and
Asphalt Residue (AR)
•Unit poises
•AC-10,AC-20, AR- 4000
•Tests involved: viscosities, penetration,
flash point, solubility, TFOT (viscosity,
ductility)
•Does not test on low temperature
76
 Superpave Performance Grading ( PG System)

■ Historically graded according to penetration and viscosity

■ These tests measure asphalt sample at only one temp, do not give
indication of performance at wide range temp
■ Asphalt from diff crude meet PEN and VISC spec of given grade
but perform differently during constr. and service (at high & low
temp)
■ Performance Grade (PG) asphalt binder (original & modified)
measure physical properties throughout its temp range
■ PG binders are graded according to climatic condition they will
endure
■ Binder specification based on extreme hot and cold pavement
temperature. Tests involved: RV, DSR, BBR, DTT, RTFO, PAV
■ Changes in asphalt properties due to temperature, rate of loading
and the effect of aging are considered

77
 Superpave Asphalt Binder
Specification
The grading system is based on hot and cold
pavement temperature

PG 64 - 22

Min pavement
Performance temperature
Grade
Average 7-day max
pavement temperature

78
 Penetration –
consistency test
(describe the degree
of fluidity of AC at
any particular
temperature). AC is
thermoplastic
(consistency varies Viscosity –
Loss on with temperature) ), consistency
heating- hardness
test,
volatility resistance to
flow

Softening
Point –
TFOT– short Bitumen consistency,
term aging Test temp at
which phase
change occurs

Solubility – Ductility –
purity elongation
(trichloroethy before
lene) breaking
Flash Point –
safety, max
safe
operating
temp
 Penetration

80
 Bitumen Sample

81
 Penetration Apparatus

82
 Softening Point

84
 Softening Point Apparatus

85
 Penetration Index
IP = (1951.4 – 500 log P – 20 SP) / (50 log P – SP – 120.14)

87
 Ductility Apparatus

-5cm/min, 25˚C
-distance where it
breaks
Potential it cracks

88
 Ductility

89
 Flash Point /Cleveland Open Cup
test (Safety)

Thermometer

Cup filled with

asphalt

Wand attached
to gas line

91
 Flash Point

92
 Solubility (Purity)

Dissolved in
trichloroethylene
filtered through a
glass fiber pad

93
 Tests used in PG grading

• Tests are conducted to reflect pavement performance

under various environmental conditions and construction
workability
• Rutting & Fatigue Crack – Dynamic Shear Rheometer
• Short and Long Term Aging – Rolling Thin Film Oven Test,
Pressure Aging Vessel
• Low Temp Crack – Bending Beam Rheometer, Direct
Tension Test
• Construction Workability – Rotational Viscometer

94
 DSR Equipment
DSR Equipment
Computer Control and
Data Acquisition

95
96
25 mm Plate with Sample

97
Motor

Parallel Plates with

Sample

Area for Liquid

Bath

98
 Original Properties, Rutting, and Fatigue

RV DSR BBR

99
 Rutting
run at warm test temps to indicate the ability of binder
to resist rutting – 25 mm plate

RV BBR
DSR
100
 Fatigue
1. after RTFO aging (simulate during mixing and constr)
2. after PAV aging (simulate aging after 7-10 yrs service) – 8 mm plate

RV BBR
DSR
101
Rolling Thin Film Oven ( short term aging)

102
 Inside of RTFO

Fan

Rotating
Bottle
Carriage

Air Line

103
Bottles Before and After Testing

104
 Pressure Aging Vessel
(Long Term Aging)
 Simulates aging of an asphalt binder for 7
to 10 years
 50 gram sample is aged for 20 hours
 Pressure of 2,070 kPa (300 psi)
 At 90, 100 or 110 C
 Sample from PAV tested for fatigue (DSR)
or low temp prop (BBR)

105
 Pressure Aging Vessel

Rack of individual pans

(50g of asphalt / pan)

Bottom of -20 hrs,

pressure aging 2070 kPa
vessel

Vessel Lid Components 106

Pressure Aging Vessel

Courtesy of FHWA 107

 Thermal Cracking
low temperature binder properties
apply static load to simply supported binder beam

RV BBR
DSR

108
 Bending Beam Rheometer
Deflection Transducer
Computer
Air Bearing

Load Cell Fluid Bath

109
Bending Beam Rheometer Sample

110
Bending Beam Rheometer Equipment

Fluid Bath
Loading
Ram

Cooling
System

111
 Is Stiffness Enough?

• No. If binder fail BBR stiffness requirement (max 300

MPa), need to assess strain needed to break specimen.
• Thermal cracking occurs when strain is too great
• Direct tension test
• Stretches small beam of binder until breaks (min strain 1%)
• Measures the susceptibility of binder to low temp failure

112
 Direct Tension Test
Load

Stress = s = P / A

DL sf

D Le

ef
Strain

113
Direct Tension Test

FHWA

Courtesy of FHWA
114
Direct Tension Test

Courtesy of FHWA
115
 Workability
Construction

RV DSR BBR

116
 Rotational Viscometer
• Viscosity of original binder measured to insure material
can be pumped and handled by HMA plants and
construction equipment
• RV capable of measuring viscosity at varying temps and
can handle highly viscous modified asphalts
• Viscosity determined from amount of torque needed to
rotate a spindle
• Viscosity = ratio of shear stress to strain rate

117
 Rotational Viscometer
(Brookfield)
Torque Motor

Inner Cylinder

Thermosel
Environmental
Chamber

Digital Temperature Controller

118
119
 Cutback Asphalts

Liquid asphalt manufactured by adding (cutting back) petroleum

solvent to asphalt cement (50-80%)
This will reduce the viscosity for lower application temperatures
Application to aggregate or pavement causes solvent to evaporate,
leaving residue on the surface
Divided into three types according to rate of curing:
RC – white spirit
MC - kerosene
SC - diesel

120
 Cutback Bitumen

121
 Emulsified Asphalt (Emulsion)

Mixture of bitumen (55 - 65%), water and emulsifying agent passed under pressure tru a
colloid mill
Emulsions are made to reduce the viscosity for lower application temperatures
Two most commonly used emulsions:
i. Anionic – electro negatively charges asphalt droplets. Compatible with positive charge
aggregate such as limestone.
ii. Cationic – electro positively charges asphalt droplets. Compatible with negative charge
aggregates (most siliceous aggregates) such as sandstone, quartz, gravel

122
 Emulsion

123
 Emulsion

When mixed or sprayed, it sets or breaks because asphalt droplets reacts with the surface
of aggregate and squeezing out the water between them
Evaporation of water – primary mechanism for anionic breakup
Electrochemical process - primary mechanism for cationic
Further graded according to setting rate – RS, MS, SS
Setting rate is controlled by the type and amount of the emulsifying agent
Emulsion are increasingly being used in lieu of cutback due to:
1. Environmental regulations
2. Waste of high energy products
3. Safety
4. Lower application temperature

124
 Foamed Asphalt

• Hot asphalt binder + cold water = steam and trapped tiny asphalt binder bubbles
(high volume asphalt foam)
• Used as binder in soil stabilization , stabilizing agent in CIPR

125
 THANK YOU
for
your attention

126
 Corduroy & Plank Road

127
 Paved Roman Road

128
 Earth Road

129
 Gravel Road

130
 Flexible Pavements
• Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete

• Distribute loads through layers to subgrade

• Highest quality materials near surface

• Guiding Principle
• Enough total thickness to protect subgrade
• Enough surface thickness to prevent fatigue
cracking
 Asphaltic Concrete

- Dense graded, 3
5% air void

132
 Porous Asphalt

Open graded, 20-25% air void

133
Porous Asphalt
 Binder

Chippings

What is surface
dressing?
135
Surface Dressing
 Rigid Pavements
• Portland Cement Concrete Pavements

• Highly rigid, high E

• Distribute loads through bending

action over large area of soil

• Must consider strength of concrete

 Concrete Pavement

138
Pavement types
Type of Pavement & their
Load Distribution
Pavement Types & How They
Effect the Subgrade
 Interlocking Block

142
 Interlocking Block

143
 Interlocking Block

144
 Quiz
1) CBR value reported for material with force of 9.2 and 14.5 kN
at penetration of 2.5 and 5 mm respectively is 0.73
2) The cost to build asphaltic concrete road is about 3 times
higher than concrete road
3) Non-porous pavement has better noise absorbance due to
less air voids compared to porous pavement.
4) CBR values can be more than 100%
5) Degree of compaction was based on soil characteristics only.
6) Interlocking block pavement is suitable for high volume, low
speed road.

145